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10757_MusselSloughTragedy | tragedy tragedy dispute land titles settlers took place farm located miles northwest california central leaving seven people dead novel octopus story california inspired incident novel blood money novel blade includes fictionalized account conflict exact history incident source disagreement largely popular anti railroad sentiment 1880s incident clear example corrupt cold corporate greed journalists anti railroad activists settlers events evidence justification anti corporate site episode registered historical marker east 14th avenue yards north elder avenue site background region known late 19th century country california small portion later entire area formed country took went area remained unsettled broad dry plain suitable cattle congress authorized railroad companies build line area created numbered lots square mile acres km2 received odd numbered sections land totaling acres km2 worth numbered sections given government subject events followed given history encouraging settlement development lines land prices expected appreciate considerably settlers spent great deal money time building houses farms begun file area railroad lands starting anticipation completion line completed work north construct southern portion generally known public time railroad systems owned operated people technically separate corporations stated price land acre upwards leading people mistakenly believe acre set price furthermore indicated improvements settlers land counted prices fixed settlers attempted acquire land asking price significantly greater attributed rising property values laying railroad settlers believed improvements irrigation housing fences settlers protested railroads avail bill united_states congress fixed price acre failed pass filed won lawsuit settlers amidst allegations court bias california governor president issue pending court decided change course route claiming despite having granted homestead rights building homes previous course distraught settlers argued court building line federal government land title hand convinced legal ownership land felt freedom set prices deemed fit property took opportunity parcels anticipating courts rule company allowing land free supreme_court finally ruled owned lands justified reclaim land compensation settlers willing pay asking price acre league formed opposition actions attempted appeal directly president visit san_francisco presenting petition read supreme_court ruling critical moment came december judge ruled federal government controlled railroad land grants importantly state control ultra acts corporations given legal system position began forcibly remove settlers agents attempt serve notices find home knew coming cases agents tried removing furniture homes league furniture agents departure finally escalated point agents houses volunteers settlers brand justice people purchased land forced sell harassed locals case farmer aligned house burned supporting railroads tended league set anxious settlers received benefit section public opinion politically legally decision going way railroad march stanford attempted reconciliation appearing meeting league attempt find sort compromise picnic held feature speech pro justice actually unable appear word reached railroad men marshal land locals actively settlers railroad lands group people left confront historical marker indicates local men deputy fact case rumors partially true addition serving notices group purchasing land improvements settlers refused pay asking price act seen betrayal stanford visit mere months earlier list involved persons marshal group marshal railroad land killed killed settlers group leader group killed died pneumonia soon considered victim fight killed killed killed killed sequence events parties met homestead henry miles north near marshal group having house later testimony parties indicated party settlers lightly armed intention railroad party delay actions pending court case resolved bad blood crow harris previously threatened kill term equivalent modern day argument broke harris simultaneously opened fire crow skilled armed shotgun killed wounded settlers party initial exchange gunfire ended crow fled scene shot away unknown reach safety clark participate battle left immediately incident possibly tensions avoid aftermath seventeen people indicted federal grand jury found guilty interfering marshal performance duties leader league convicted federal court judge presiding sentenced months prison fined time spent imprisonment hardly difficult men wives allowed live daughter fell love later married release september greeted crowd anti railroad sentiment looked heroes california killed considered given lives cause affair brought shock people legal battle lost railroad won public support changing policy granting public lands railroads concession reduce land price slightly end people simply stayed purchased land myth affair seized newspaper editors number popular writers soon tragic shootout example corporate greed abuses market capitalism start 20th century novels driven sea sea fault railroad events according ideal attempted crow calling americans later novels depicting affair philosopher feud creek novelist octopus slightly portrayals fairly sided anti railroad view affair history sunset limited includes chapter outlining common affair suggests significance myth history california evident quote president focused considerable time energy abuses corporate reading roosevelt stated inclined think conditions worse california narratives helped bolster public anti railroad sentiments encouraged continued rebellion railroad land agents came accept ordinary land business despite nationwide attention incident received remembered today later argues duty retreat shootout fit mold hero myth usually ignores factors ideology social economic conflict lore american old west tragedy oak victims shooting carried porch shaded tall oak tree tree famously known tragedy oak blew storm early 1990s piece tree saved memorial display nearby | Mussel Slough Tragedy | History | World history | North American history |
11353_McCarthyism | practice making accusations treason proper regard evidence means practice making unfair allegations unfair investigative techniques especially order restrict dissent political criticism term origins period united_states known lasting roughly characterized heightened political repression supposed communists campaign spreading fear influence american institutions espionage soviet agents originally coined criticize anti communist pursuits republican senator wisconsin soon took broader meaning describing similar efforts term generally describe reckless accusations attacks character patriotism political adversaries mccarthy era thousands americans accused communists communist subject aggressive investigations questioning government private industry panels committees agencies primary targets suspicions government employees entertainment industry union activists suspicions given despite inconclusive questionable evidence level threat posed person real supposed leftist associations beliefs greatly exaggerated people suffered loss employment destruction careers suffered imprisonment came trial later overturned laws later declared unconstitutional reasons later declared illegal extra legal procedures come general notable examples include speeches investigations hearings senator mccarthy hollywood associated hearings conducted house american activities committee anti communist activities fbi director widespread social cultural phenomenon affected levels society source great deal debate conflict united_states origins historical period came known mccarthy era began involvement factors contributed extending years inspired communism emergence recognized political force thanks success organizing labor unions early opposition communist_party united_states increased membership 1930s reaching peak members united_states engaged world war allied soviet_union issue anti communism largely muted end world war cold war began immediately soviet_union installed communist puppet united_states backed anti communist forces greece china affairs raised issue soviet espionage far events sharply increased sense threat communism united_states soviet_union tested atomic bomb earlier analysts expected year communist army gained control mainland china despite heavy american financial support opposing korean war began pitting south korean forces communists north_korea china following year saw significant developments soviet cold war espionage activities january high level official convicted effect found guilty espionage statute limitations run crime convicted having denied charge earlier testimony house american activities committee great_britain confessed committing espionage behalf soviet_union working manhattan_project war arrested charges stealing atomic bomb secrets soviets executed subtle forces encouraging rise long practice conservative politicians refer progressive reforms child labor laws women suffrage communist red plots tendency increased 1930s reaction new deal policies president conservatives new deal socialism communism saw policies evidence government heavily influenced communist policy makers roosevelt administration general defined danger communist influence common theme rhetoric anti communist politicians espionage specific activity involvement ongoing cultural phenomenon bear began speech february west_virginia produced piece paper claimed contained list known communists working mccarthy usually quoted saying hand list list names known secretary state members communist_party working shaping policy speech resulted flood press attention mccarthy established path recognized politicians united_states recorded use term political cartoon washington_post editorial cartoonist aka published march cartoon depicted leading republicans trying push elephant traditional symbol republican_party stand stack tar labeled block later wrote particularly ingenious term simply represent national hardly described way prior claim welcome word junior senator wisconsin throw set free dishes case soap institutions number anti communist committees panels loyalty review boards federal state local governments private agencies carried investigations small large companies concerned possible communists work force congress primary bodies investigated communist activities american activities total investigations carried committees congress december united_states senate voted condemn conduct tends bring senate executive branch loyalty security reviews federal government president executive order initiated program loyalty reviews federal employees called dismissal reasonable grounds belief person involved government united_states democrat probably reacting republican sweep congressional election felt need counter growing criticism conservatives anti communists president took office strengthened extended loyalty review program decreasing avenues appeal available dismissed employees chairman referred new rules obliged enforce american way things following year scientific director manhattan_project built atomic bomb working consultant stripped security clearance week hearing received secret clearance denied clearance climate similar loyalty reviews established state local government offices private industries nation estimated roughly employees united_states required pass sort loyalty review person lost job unfavorable loyalty review difficult find employment man ruined forever words chairman president responsible employer likely chance giving job started keeping list organizations deemed subversive beginning list public included items longest comprised organizations identified communist context loyalty review membership listed organization meant raise question considered proof common causes suspicion membership left leaning organization offered lectures literature classical music concerts books fbi fbi director designed president loyalty security program background investigations employees carried fbi agents major assignment led number agents bureau increased sense communist threat standards evidence applied bureau resulted thousands government workers losing jobs insistence keeping identity secret subjects loyalty security reviews allowed cross examine know identities accused cases told accused influence extended federal government employees loyalty security programs records loyalty review hearings investigations supposed confidential routinely gave evidence congressional committees fbi operated secret responsibilities program distributed anonymous documents evidence fbi files communist teachers lawyers people accused blind fired process fbi engaged number illegal practices pursuit information communists including opening mail illegal members left wing attorneys willing defend clients communist related cases particular target office organization fbi fourteen times purposes fbi illegally obtained information alert attorneys planned legal strategies defense lawyers fbi illegal undercover operations disrupt communist political groups increasingly frustrated supreme_court decisions limited ability prosecute communists time covert dirty tricks program actions included planting forged documents create suspicion key person fbi informer spreading rumors anonymous letters leaking information press calling like program remained operation calls fbi single important component anti communist crusade writes observers known 1950s learned 1970s freedom information act opened bureau files probably called congress american activities american activities commonly referred house american activities committee prominent active government committee involved anti communist investigations formed known chaired investigated variety activities including german american nazis world war committee soon focused communism beginning investigation communists significant step investigation charges espionage brought investigation ultimately resulted trial conviction convinced congressional committees communist achieved greatest fame notoriety investigation hollywood film industry october committee began directors movie industry professionals testify known suspected membership communist_party association members support beliefs known question asked member communist_party united_states film industry witnesses committee decided cooperate men known cited amendment guarantee free speech free assembly believed legally protected required answer committee questions tactic failed sentenced prison contempt congress sentenced months rest year future witnesses entertainment industries determined cooperate committee claim fifth amendment protection self usually protected contempt congress citation considered grounds dismissal government private industry employers legal requirements protection person testify association communist_party refuse names colleagues communist faced choice crawl ing mud informer actor known fifth amendment communist epithet senator mccarthy senate committees senate primary committee investigating communists formed charged ensuring enforcement laws relating espionage sabotage protection internal security united_states headed democrat gained reputation careful extensive investigations committee spent year investigating members numerous times collection scholars diplomats associated called accused losing china evidence pro communist attitudes found support accusation conscious articulate instrument soviet conspiracy charged charges rejected federal judge witnesses confessed case dropped headed time number communist hunting investigations mccarthy examined allegations communist influence turned overseas library program card libraries searched works authors mccarthy deemed inappropriate mccarthy recited list supposedly pro communist authors press yielding pressure ordered overseas remove shelves material controversial persons communists fellow travelers etc libraries actually burned newly forbidden books mccarthy committee began investigation united_states_army began laboratory fort mccarthy garnered headlines stories dangerous spy ring army researchers ultimately came investigation mccarthy turned attention case promoted rank major despite having refused answer questions army loyalty review form mccarthy handling investigation including series insults directed brigadier general led hearings army mccarthy trading charges counter charges days nationwide television audience official outcome hearings inconclusive exposure mccarthy american public resulted sharp decline popularity year mccarthy senate position prominent force anti communism essentially ended november day house_of_representatives approved contempt hollywood president issued press release behalf heads major studios came referred statement announced firing hollywood stated employ communist member party group advocates overthrow government united_states marked beginning hollywood spite fact hundreds denied employment studios producers employers publicly admit existed time private loyalty review boards anti communist investigators began appear fill growing demand certain industries employees companies concerned sensitivity business like entertainment industry felt particularly vulnerable public opinion use private services fee teams investigate employees question politics hearings subject usually right presence attorney asked defend accusations allowed cross examine agencies cross referenced lists leftist organizations publications rallies charities like lists individuals known suspected communists books published track communist leftist organizations individuals actual physical lists created maintained private organizations laws arrests efforts protect united_states perceived threat communist particularly enabled federal laws alien registration act criminal offense advocate advise teach government united_states state force violence organize association teaches advises encourages overthrow member affiliate association hundreds communists prosecuted law leaders communist_party convicted smith act square trial defendants given sentences years eleventh sentenced years defense attorneys cited contempt court given prison sentences leaders party indicted including founding member convicted basis testimony later admitted false leaders members communist_party charged law convicted law described scholar mccarthy era important piece legislation smith act technically act real effect legal harassment required registration communist organizations attorney general established investigate possible communist action communist organizations required register numerous hearings delays appeals act enforced regard communist_party united_states major provisions act found unconstitutional act passed law allowed government immigrants citizens engaged subversive activities bar suspected entering country passed overwhelming support houses congress little debate jointly drafted republican democrat law extension sought outlaw communist_party declaring party communist organizations entitled rights privileges attendant legal bodies significant effect notable odd mix liberals conservatives supporters successfully applied twice prevent communist_party members appearing new_jersey state ballot cited deny recognition employer unemployment compensation system new_york_post called act democratic principles nation accused democratic liberals election year anxiety escape charge soft communism expense sacrificing constitutional rights popular support supported variety groups including anti communist organizations core element support variety anti communist women groups minute women organized tens thousands study groups letter writing networks patriotic clubs coordinated efforts identify saw far right bedrock support broad coalition found attractive politically useful common themes uniting coalition opposition particularly united_nations opposition social welfare provisions particularly programs established new deal opposition efforts reduce social structure united_states focus popular concerned provision public health services particularly mental health care services deemed communist plots poison american people times anti aspect literature took anti jewish tone right american hebrew march american jews come contemporary anti fill insane anti semitic viewpoints led major collisions supporters public health programs notably case controversy founder influential conservative political magazine wrote defense mccarthy mccarthy enemies asserted movement men good stern morality close ranks addition points ordinary americans convinced smoke fire lent support january poll found american public supported mccarthy unfavorable opinion senator chief justice united_states commented united states bill rights vote probably defeated portrayals communists sought justify largely characterization communism american communists particular proponents claimed completely moscow control american communist puppet soviet russian intelligence services view supported recent documentation archives post war wartime soviet radio traffic showing moscow provided financial support significant influence policies commented speech communist members body soul property party attitude confined arch conservatives ejected founding member saying membership communist_party civil government communist_party members smith act prosecution case based specific actions statements defendants premise commitment violent overthrow government inherent doctrines passages constitution specifically rejected revolutionary violence dismissed deliberate deception addition claimed party allow member resign person member short time decades previously considered suspect current member hearings trials featured testimony communist_party members speaking expert witnesses historians discussed alleged soviet directed government possible collaboration high government officials victims mccarthy difficult estimate number victims mccarthy number imprisoned hundreds thousand lost jobs cases simply committees sufficient cause fired imprisoned lost jobs questioned committees fact past present connection kind communist_party vast majority potential harm nation nature communist affiliation extremely damaging cambridge spy scandal blunt suspected homosexuality common cause targeted hunt sexual presumed subversive nature resulted thousands harassed denied employment termed aspect scare homosexuality classified psychiatric disorder 1950s context highly cold war environment homosexuality framed dangerous social disease posed potential threat state security family believed cornerstone american strength integrity description sexual meant unable function family unit presented potential poison social body era witnessed establishment widely spread fbi surveillance intended identify homosexual government employees mccarthy hearings according sexual investigations seen driven desire identify individuals ability function loyal citizens compromised began campaign drawing ways embodied traditional american values order self appointed vanguard social morality accusations alleged homosexual behaviour marked end mccarthy political career film industry actors authors directors denied work unofficial hollywood work entertainment industry universities schools levels legal profession fields port security program initiated shortly start korean war required review maritime worker loaded worked aboard american ship regardless cargo destination loyalty security reviews identities nature accusations typically kept secret accused nearly seamen lost jobs program notable people suffered persecution listed young professor history served intelligence officer world war publication decided circumstances wasn wise bring book learned investigators questioning colleagues relatives press published volume critical reactions nation means united policies activities come associated critics aspects including figures generally noted example veto president wrote free country punish men crimes commit opinions unsuccessfully vetoed act provisions denied trade unions protection union leaders signed swearing communists left office criticized current administration evident present administration fully embraced political advantage referring senator wisconsin important taken dictionary meaning word corruption truth abandonment process law use big lie accusation citizen security rise power lives spreading fear destruction faith level society june senator maine republican delivered speech senate called declaration conscience clear attack called end character named basic principles right criticize right hold unpopular beliefs right protest right independent thought said freedom speech america know suspect attitudes republican senators joined smith condemning tactics highly respected news reporters commentators 1940s 1950s spoke saw occasion warned local anti communist movements constituted general attack schools colleges libraries teachers textbooks people think write short freedom mind supreme_court upheld lower court decision new_york approving law allowed state loyalty review boards fire teachers deemed subversive opinion justice wrote present law proceeds principle society guilt association happens law typical happens police state teachers constant surveillance signs watched clues dangerous thoughts influential opponents famed cbs analyst october aired episode dismissal reserve air_force lieutenant accused communists strongly critical air_force methods included presenting evidence sealed envelope attorney allowed open march aired episode issue attacking titled report senator footage mccarthy speeches portray reckless abusive witnesses prominent americans concluding comment said confuse dissent remember accusation proof conviction depends evidence process law walk fear driven fear age dig deep history doctrine remember descended fearful men broadcast cited key episode bringing end april senator mccarthy attack army mccarthy hearings hearings televised live new network allowing public view hand mccarthy interrogation individuals controversial tactics exchange mccarthy reminded attorney army employee law firm belonged organization accused communist sympathies exchange reflected increasingly negative public opinion mccarthy senator sense sir long left sense decline mid- late 1950s attitudes institutions slowly weakened changing public sentiments heavily contributed decline decline charted series court decisions key figure end host afternoon comedy radio leftist active union radio artists aware inc private firms examined individuals signs communist marked aware unfit fired uniquely victims decided sue aware finally won case court decision private notice legally liable professional financial damage caused informal continued private loyalty checking agencies soon thing past verdict hollywood decided time break best known members hollywood publicly credited writing films exodus came hands supreme_court wrote biography took judicial notice mccarthy making fabric liberty wrote series decisions fabric stronger court chief justice proved liberal anticipated later refer appointment warren biggest mistake supreme_court heard case professor fired new_york_city fifth amendment mccarthy committee questioned past membership communist_party court prohibited actions ruling condemn practice sinister meaning exercise person constitutional right fifth amendment privilege self reduced hollow exercise taken equivalent confession guilt conclusive key decision case united_states convictions fourteen communists reversed opinion wrote original smith act trials testimony witnesses comparatively insignificant guilt innocence turn wrote advocated years ago unfamiliar view government reality crucial issue prejudice makes conviction inevitable circumstances supreme_court ruled case united_states power punish witnesses finding contempt congress justice warren wrote decision mere witness compelling testify beliefs expressions associations measure governmental interference forced revelations concern matters unorthodox unpopular general public reaction life witness disastrous decision kent supreme_court halted authority regulations refuse based communist beliefs associations repercussions political divisions created united_states continue manifest politics history anti communism united_states contentious portions massive security apparatus established mccarthy era exist loyalty required officials employees government california highly problematic witnesses beliefs absolute loyalty state federal level portions effect number observers compared oppression liberals mccarthy period recent actions suspected terrorists muslims age anxiety terrorism author compares abuses suffered aliens thrown high security prisons wake mccarthy era similarly written patriot act effect philosophy simply terrorist communist opposite pole conservative writer book treason drawing parallels past opposition mccarthy policies beliefs modern day liberals arguing hindered anti communist cause hinder war terrorism authors drawn comparison current anti terrorism policies include attracts controversy purely historical issue documents soviet archives project coded soviet messages known soviet_union engaged substantial espionage activities united_states 1940s known substantially funded policies controlled soviet_union accusations members recruited spies view contemporary commentators revelations stand partial feel genuinely dangerous subversive element united_states danger justified extreme measures acknowledging argue contemporary historians depth soviet espionage america nature concern shared felt general persecuted opposing view holds recent revelations notwithstanding time began late 1940s fringe group damage interests soviet spies world war minimal criticised pro written country damage constitution later use term time mccarthy word entered american speech general term variety practices aggressively questioning person patriotism making poorly supported accusations accusations pressure person adhere politics discredit opponent civil political rights national security use referred synonymous term witch hunt referring mass moral panic popular culture play salem witch trials metaphor suggesting process style persecution occur time place play focused fact accused person little chance given circular reasoning courts public miller later wrote read salem panic touched corresponding images common experiences fifties film dealt mccarthy era hollywood film | McCarthyism | History | World history | North American history |
11847_Calakmul | frequent variants maya archaeological site mexican state deep greater region kilometres border largest powerful ancient cities uncovered maya major maya power northern region yucatán_peninsula southern mexico administered large domain marked extensive distribution emblem snake head sign read seat dubbed snake kingdom reigned classic period estimated population people governance times places far away kilometers ancient structures identified largest great pyramid site structure metres high making tallest maya tombs located pyramid like temples pyramid increased size building existing temple reach current size size central monumental architecture approximately square kilometres site covered dense residential structures square kilometres classic period maintained intense rivalry major city south political cities likened struggle maya rediscovered air biologist december find reported march etymology modern according named site maya means means adjacent signifies artificial mound pyramid city adjacent ancient times city core known meaning stones associated site larger area lords identified snake connection title actual site ambiguous location located state southeastern mexico kilometres north border guatemala kilometres north ruins ruins kilometres southwest linked causeway kilometres south contemporary city approximately kilometres southwest city located rise metres large seasonal swamp lying west known spanish word region denote low lying area seasonal swamp measures approximately kilometres important source water rainy season linked sophisticated water control system including natural artificial features canals encircled square kilometre area site core area considered location edge provided additional advantages fertile soils edge swamp access abundant flint city situated formed natural metre high limestone dome rising surrounding dome artificially maya classic periods settlement concentrated edge classic period structures built high ground small islands swamp flint worked beginning 21st century area remained covered dense forest 1st millennium area received moderate regular rainfall surface water available south guatemala located acre km2 population extent height late classic period city estimated population inhabitants covered area square kilometres city capital large regional state area square kilometres city population declined dramatically rural population level late classic population density calculated square mile site core square mile periphery area square kilometres true urban city elite centre surrounded residences site core known ancient times stones pyramid structure kingdom included secondary centres large cities total population secondary centres estimated kingdom included large number sites fairly small consisting number groups arranged larger rural sites situated ridges edges include temples palaces total rural population kingdom calculated million people entire population kingdom including city rural population square kilometres area regional state calculated million people late classic period greater distribution emblem maya city found texts including administered large domain marked extensive distribution emblem snake head sign read seat dubbed snake kingdom times city governance places far away kilometers known rulers kings known divine lords snake kingdom list continuous archaeological record incomplete dates peak 7th century known interesting know title place regional powerhouse political state title idea collapse state refugees migrated north founded new studies monuments prior 7th century emblem snake bat different ruled emblem associated found site east late 6th early 7th century moved order establish strategically placed capital power 8th century rule appears bat emblem resurgence remain new studies fill gaps history long history excavations revealed evidence right causeway network linked cities suggest strong political links cities begun important cities continued classic period powerful city region largest powerful ancient cities uncovered maya history maya classic period dominated rivalry likened struggle maya earlier times tended dominated single larger city early classic moving position dominance late middle rival city equivalent resources challenged supremacy engaged strategy surrounding network allies second half 6th century late 7th century gained upper hand failed power completely able turn tables great rival decisive battle took place half century later able gain major victories important allies eventually cities succumbed spreading classic maya collapse great rivalry cities based competition resources histories reveal different origins intense competition powers ideological grounding dynasty ultimately derived great city dynasty profoundly affected intervention distant central mexican metropolis exceptions monuments allies place great emphasis single male rulers monuments allies gave greater prominence female line joint rule king queen large city period early history obscure list extends ancestral past dynasty reconstructed late classic region great cities mean ultimately inherited political authority cities dynasty originating late relocating classic period collapse cities early classic cities survived classic period early texts found structure record probable king records non royal site ruler gap records lasts century dynasty experienced major expansion power time lack inscriptions recording events period fact dynasty located time monuments later destroyed earliest texts referring kings dynasty come excavations large city far north depicts bound captives names dates captured king exact context king unclear captives captured enemy rulers captured king dates uncertain fall 5th century nearby site text including date indicates city control dynasty middle 6th century assembling far reaching political alliance activity brought city conflict great city influence extended deep king oversaw vassal taken captive banks king known sky witness installed ruler site played major political events maya region overlord city south previously vassal according damaged text sky witness defeated sacrificed king ending branch royal dynasty catastrophic defeat began year hiatus reflecting extended period dominance event marker divide early classic late classic mentioned site north reference sky witness occurs dated text damaged probably records death powerful king late classic war quickly succeeded mentioned text celebrating ending ruled years king engaged aggressive campaign western maya region attacked april ally lord small city kilometres east defeating queen city defeat recorded series steps event initiated long lasting survived battle ruled years paid tribute maintained alliances cities east depicted supervising event involving king city occurred sacked april personal direction ruled king gained sort independence provoking new invasion immediate aftermath second victory involved deaths important nobles city high ranking member royal family possibly ruler died march months later deaths soon city suggests demise directly linked triumph suffered lengthy decline fortunes date able recover disastrous war wars undertaken order seize control wealthy trade routes passed western maya region rebellion king supervised event records accession throne erected texts badly damaged reveal names royal couple involved approximately time vassal broke away king died relatively soon death independent twice defeated attempting bring control attempts brought end death new king finally regained control texts relate king captive day city overrun punishment day described word meaning tortured eaten conquered city march exact site unknown dynasty originally established located 7th century city experienced highest achievements reign king called great scholars years old came throne significant increase production city began reign commissioned king probably responsible construction palace complexes form major site core founded region kilometres southwest military outpost order control trade course installed throne new outpost age years served loyal vassal fighting brother king attacked gained overwhelming victory included death lord captured instead sacrificed throne vassal king went attack forcing king temporarily abandon city rulers continued use emblem probably felt legitimate claim throne reason installed new ruler instead stayed driving exile lasted years tried area dominated allies driving throne probably aided gained important victory description battle describing pools blood piles heads troubles continued east renewed conflict completely defeated dynasty disappeared years daughter founded new dynasty indicating probably intervened decisively place loyal vassal throne patronage overlord recorded range important cities including oversaw installation king strengthened tie marriage princess king power extended far north shore lake recorded vassal 7th century traditionally aligned commanded loyalty generations kings kilometres south supervised king involved directly indirectly king moral west nobles supervised ritual bank died probably beginning died powerful city central maya succeeded april recorded monuments born likely son predecessor held high office named king responsible major successes reign retained loyalty gained installed throne age texts sculpted monuments reveal complexity diplomatic activity revealed painted depicts ambassador king kneeling king delivering tribute years later august states war led warriors catastrophic battle saw defeat capture image deity named unknown happened sculpture shows captive king mentioned accompanying certain captive king person event marked end diplomatic activity dropping away fewer cities recognising king overlord remain standing site core recording broken buried structure later kings ruler mentioned pair carved bones tomb king ruling november known legitimate member dynasty placed throne known king number variants referred different segments outside partial reading erected seven celebrate event named year presumably demonstrating vassal continued vassal installed new king unknown date received queen remained loyal commissioned seven mark ending new defeat hands evidenced sculpted altar city probably dating depicting bound lord possibly names historical record vague poor state heavily eroded monuments city reduced political presence wider maya stage named southern periphery traditionally vassal southern neighbour king installed throne vassal shown longer subordinate started refer holy lord instead lesser term subordinate lord time began use emblem local act rebellion appears larger political struggle years later received visit oldest allies timing visit king highly significant falling accession throne vassal outright rebellion follow strongly suggests sponsored rebellion order weaken gain access rich trade route likely contact initiated soon throne captured powerful elderly king inscription difficult interpret suggests capture took place april seized burned wooden images patron deities captured lord taken public ritual late classic alliance frequently associated promise military support fact powerful city failed vassal implies feared military intervention far away afraid falling directly power vassal state likely sent warriors help defeat alliance instead mutual advantage managed weaken powerful ally gained independence collapse large raised king responsible labelled presence wider maya area continued city major allies suffering defeats hands defeated year later resulted final collapse powerful alliance network underwent resurgence power erected finished paired portrait queen mentions called time king raised mentioned sites north showed reduction influence time new architectural styles influenced sites north yucatán_peninsula monument raised ruler responsible preserved raised monument erected commemorate important ending probable political authority collapsed time important cities time erected monuments raised continued producing new monuments late process paralleled events strong evidence elite presence city continuing possibly later mentioned ruler named attended ending ceremony recorded broken unlikely existed state meaningful way late date final activity took place end 9th century beginning 10th new erected date records day date recorded day fall date likely monuments appear later style crude representing efforts remnant population maintain classic maya tradition inscriptions late monuments meaningless writing dating period uncommon outside site core suggesting population city concentrated city centre final phase occupation majority surviving population probably consisted occupied elite architecture site core continued erection early 10th century presence high status imported goods metal jade shell indicate continued occupation royalty final abandonment city speaking lived region time spanish contact early 16th century descendants inhabitants modern history reported year later informed site existence presence visited ruins behalf 1930s surveys mapped site core recorded investigations stopped archaeologists return site directed project behalf working subject large scale project history direction site description site core covers area approximately square kilometres area contains remains roughly structures periphery occupied smaller residential structures site core covers area square kilometres archaeologists mapped approximately structures matches great city size estimated population density city appears greater city stone construction site soft limestone resulted severe erosion site sculpture city built strongly concentric fashion divided zones moves centre site zone covers area approximately square kilometres contains monumental architecture mapped structures built vaulted stone masonry structures built large laid city core bordered north metre high wall controlled access north defensive function residences built edge swamp west site core high status residences public buildings interspersed area residences water control site surrounded extensive network canals major including largest example measuring metres reservoir filled small seasonal river rainy season continues hold water archaeologists modern times thirteen identified combined capacity estimated litres imp gal quantity water supported people evidence crops largest surface area hectares located mapped identified visually ground identified remote sensing numbered causeway network linked local satellite sites distant allies rivals great cities cross land elevated surrounding wetland tend support vegetation surrounding forest metres long lined filled stone located mapped urban area site core mapped 1930s metres long mapped urban area site core built packed earth discovered archaeological excavation nearby quarry causeway built transport stone quarry order build structures extends kilometres northeast site core visible summit structure discovered runs kilometres southeast site core visible summit structure discovered runs westwards main hole seasonal swamp carries total distance kilometres runs southwest links kilometres southwest additional kilometres located south kilometres long runs swamp west swamp appear cross site core structures structure structure metre high pyramid east site core number erected base built low hill structure appears higher structure case structure structure massive north facing pyramid temple largest base measures metres square stands metres high common temple cultural region pyramid increased size building pre existing temple order increase bulk core building structure pyramid dating late period ancient building forming highest point structure early classic massive extension added pyramid covering earlier covered building north new built extension structures access structure central shrine east west facade possessed large masks set arranged vertically central structure similar date size design pyramid associated similar later time buildings erected base facade contained 8th century structure large pyramid stepped facade covered giant masks later facade built 8th century stepped frontage finished late classic room palace built pyramid supporting roof painted relief decoration rooms arranged groups room positioned entire late classic palace measured metres rows rooms rooms food preparation found room southwest room structure structure iii known palace southeast structure east building multiple rooms structure structure group temples east divided sections labelled structures central structure built dating period structure opposite plaza buildings form group determine structure structure large building located plaza north structure surrounded dated 7th century building erected period structure structure west structures forms astronomical complex observations verified march sun rose structure seen structure structure structure vii temple pyramid north faces south stands metres high plain erected south pyramid underwent construction phases late pyramid topped room temple possessed tall covered roof game board carved floor room temple structure structure viii small building located north east structure associated altar murals structure rich sites maya region site contains largest total region paired sets representing rulers wives carved produced soft limestone eroded interpretation elaborate murals discovered murals represent activities elite class depict elaborate market scenes people preparing consuming products tobacco items sold murals describing actions occurring prominent figure murals identified appears scenes brings world maya marketplace vibrant life archaeologists highly beneficial resource maya archaeological understanding remains composition materials identifies region specifically produced snake emblem found sites evidence identify ties control site associated altar located structure records celebration event erected death thin slate monument dated text describes birth king gives royal title erected earliest monuments survive late classic depict royal couple texts poorly preserved reveal names erected records event reign father event celebrated stands base structure located base structure dates set vaulted chamber near base structure text damaged carries early spelling non royal noble title monuments erected final decline city bears crude executed portrait best preserved monument depicts dates dates depicts wife tall erected paired stands east structure second pair erected erected east structure late monument bearing took badly eroded portrait shortened date form equivalent date probably unfinished carved mark ending ceremony bears damaged pair monuments dated badly eroded date reign king monuments erected bears inscription imitation writing probably dates early 10th century paired monument image queen unknown appears mentioned dates stands structure late monument probably dating early 10th century like bears inscription meaningless imitation writing dates early classic moved antiquity reset base structure long text resisted translation probably commemorates royal date reign broken buried structure associated royal burial tomb royal burial tomb set floor structure 8th century richest burial known tomb contained male skeleton wrapped jaguar partially preserved tomb contained rich offerings included jade ear ornaments handed early classic jade mosaic mask shell bone shells eccentric blades fine remains wooden objects plate text specifically named king owner remains offering placed arched wooden carved elaborate decoration painted variety colours completely decayed left impression mud packed plate possible association burial tomb believed late 7th century king | Calakmul | History | World history | North American history |
11856_CraigflowerManorandSchoolhouse | manor national historic sites canada located view royal british_columbia manor near victoria centerpiece historic site 19th century building manor commissioned provide education lodging employees built agricultural community buildings served focal point community modern era remain open public today museums devoted colonial history victoria sites unique archaeological merit encompassing distinct periods types human span thousands years addition existing structures great historical cultural value remaining best examples kind canada factors combine sites important national historic sites given government protection public trust site history land area formed ice age north_america approximately years ago glaciers carved deep earth number small lakes streams time lakes rejoined ocean salt water inlet known today gorge indigenous people coast tribe ancestors modern nations settled area calling region legend girl believed turned stone archaeologists working identified distinct periods cultural activity known culture types region site exhibits culture types known gulf georgia historic historic culture type refers colonial settlement area european colonization majority artifacts recovered site dated period periods human mainly presence large shell site abundant game area earliest periods type different types stone tools including shaped objects culture type dating years ago known type characterized increased use bone tools different kinds wood culture type presence site ends arrival europeans colonization altogether indigenous artifacts recovered site separate archaeological manor settlement known farming communities established subsidiary farm supply fresh produce nearby fort victoria aid settlement lower farm named england owned governor land farm purchased recorded treaty relocated nearby originally called commissioned farm director provide education children farm employees school constructed colony following governor proper moral religious training children settlers growing ignorance utter neglect duties god society need judged severe children protestant roman catholics received able instruction priest construction commenced timber farm august continued late february students took classes march year charged fee shillings pound story building built style boasted single floor rooms teacher family student parts large brick fireplace provided heating building bell salvaged wrecked steamship major hung yard students class initially school accessible main farm boat completion bridge linked parts farm focal point social religious events farm saw continuous use town council neglected provide funding victoria schools education act amendments returned school operation soon education mandatory students aged seven school continued operate replaced second school built road current school called built replace aging building converted museum run local service club provincial board acquired restored structure briefly run museum british_columbia public trust oldest surviving erroneously referred school built british_columbia home oldest heritage preservation organization open public special presentations summer site heritage workshops beginning fall manor house built shortly completion serve home office management farm family house constructed version scottish manor house request wife foundation laid prior arrival completed grand story structure manor square feet size second government house building boasted dining room sitting room office music room kitchen large family heat provided serviced large brick chimneys manor lodging converted community centre eventually hotel sold government building earliest remaining examples type extensively restored province run museum currently leased | Craigflower Manor and Schoolhouse | History | World history | North American history |
11868_BattleofRoatán | battle spelled american war independence battle fought march british spanish forces control island caribbean coast present day honduras spanish expeditionary force captain general spanish guatemala gained control british held island bombarding main defences british garrison surrendered day spanish evacuated captured soldiers civilians slaves destroyed settlement claimed base piracy assault larger plan eliminate british influence central_america met temporary successes british able maintain colonial presence area background following entry spain american war independence spain great_britain contested territories central_america territory spanish general guatemala british established logging rights southern coast present day belize established informal settlements lacking formal colonial authority present day honduras nicaragua governor moved quickly declaration war arrived seizing principal british island settlements coast british fled occupation island british controlled island miles coast british commander base style operations extend maintain british influence operations spanish shipping sources indicate present time spanish attack probably captured continued active area suggests jamaica time ordered english hidden settlements began planning offensive operations british mainland settlements early british abandoned failed expedition nicaragua raised militia received financial logistical support parts spanish colonial empire americas logistical diplomatic reasons operations launched american victory october british loss opened possibility british able deploy troops central_america better defend area plans called assaults british presence principally followed sweep coast eliminate british mainland troops central guatemala staged early assault additional forces moved overland nicaragua honduras principal british settlement arrived march organise assault leaving force harass british partisan allies embarked troops transports sailed march escorted frigates number smaller armed naval vessels command commodore british residents aware ongoing spanish military activities main settlement new port royal defended mounted guns island white non slave population small appealed british commander support able send additional weapons add significantly island defenses battle spanish fleet arrived early march defenders fired cannon shots anchored range sent party request surrender island defenders defenders asked hours consider options granted time defenders indicated prepared stand ground refused surrender immediate attack possible high winds rough seas held council plan attack formulated march spanish guns opened guarded mouth new port royal harbour british guns began landing troops forts secured spanish warships entered harbour began town cannon fire british artillery fired positions hills town exchange continued sunset point british defenders spanish killed wounded battle slaves wounded aftermath terms surrender agreed day men remained island days collecting weapons rounding slaves run away destroying buildings agriculture island burning ships harbour assumed smuggling illicit trade spanish left island march carrying prisoners war british soldiers slaves british civilians prisoners sent havana slaves auctioned held exchanged able temporarily partially eliminate british influences area followed success capture early april attempt advance commander successfully recaptured able hold end war | Battle of Roatán | History | World history | North American history |
12225_WhiteNightriots | riots white night riots series violent events sparked announcement sentencing san_francisco mayor member city openly gay elected officials united_states events took place night night milk 49th birthday san_francisco earlier day white convicted voluntary possible conviction actions white convicted degree murder originally charged outraged city gay community set violent reaction gay americans riots new_york_city credited beginning modern gay rights movement united_states gay community san_francisco longstanding conflict white status police officer intensified community anger initial demonstrations took place peaceful march district san_francisco crowd arrived san francisco city hall violence began events caused hundreds thousands dollars worth property damage city hall surrounding area injuries police officers hours riot broken police raid gay bar san_francisco patrons beaten police riot gear dozen arrests course raid people later sued following days gay leaders refused apologize events night led increased political power gay community culminated election mayor term following november response campaign promise appointed pro gay chief police increased recruitment gay people police force eased tensions background gay history san_francisco american settlers moved west california 18th 19th centuries largely male miners events created broadly male society region romantic friendships common tolerated san_francisco settled ratio men women remained high resulting growth culture open minded homosexuality city notorious district named coast earned city reputation society leading san_francisco known sea end prohibition prompted opening gay bars notable female shows main draw lesbian bar known world war san_francisco major point servicemen stationed military concerned male homosexuality policy dismissing servicemen caught known gay establishments blue men faced communities families chose remain city number men remained significant factor creation homosexual community san_francisco gay activism san_francisco affirmed reilly right assemble peacefully assist legal problems labor activist started living room los_angeles years later started women san_francisco initially place fear harassment arrest years organizations learned grew similar goals helping general society working legal reform repeal laws assisting arrested groups headquartered san_francisco police continued arrest large numbers routinely bringing wagons gay bars arresting patrons charges usually dismissed arrested lost newspapers printed names addresses places employment officers notified employer family accused causing damage new year eve benefit event held police stood outside large effort took photographs entering building later officers demanded allowed inside lawyers explained california law event private party enter bought tickets lawyers arrested ministers attendance held press conference morning catholic archbishop strongly condemned actions police attempt reduce harassment officers tasked improving police department relationship gay community promoted non education hoping prove respectable normal living white middle class scope groups active community cross street queens worked primarily district city denied service activists restaurant days later early morning police arrived arrest patrons drag riot ensued drag queen threw contents cup coffee face police officer response officer grabbing arm cafe plate glass windows shattered days later replaced years later riots significant impact riots american history newly forming community fought authorities political san_francisco continued grow haven street quiet neighborhoods large homosexual population 1960s growth thousands gay men migrated san_francisco turning quiet irish working class neighborhood street center activity street opened camera following year dissatisfied level bureaucratic indifference gay community milk decided run city supervisor multiple campaigns culminating election political voice gay community promoting mayor street percent population san_francisco reported gay labor day tensions gay community came head man beaten arrested walking street police reinforcements suddenly appeared street badge numbers hidden beat dozens gay men arrested charged harvey milk dubbed million lawsuit filed police elected mayor appointed chief police gain position african americans branded liberal law enforcement officers country soon earned police force gain implemented policies proved unpopular staff painting police cars powder blue barring officers drinking job policies angered police force asked gay police officer came gain replied certainly think gay policeman gay policeman came support percent statement sent police department national headlines week gain tenure remark mayor extremely unpopular police intensely disliked police rumors circulated plan right wing police officers assassinate gain year later similar plans formed targeting mayor informed threat hired bodyguard dissatisfied city politics financial difficulty failing restaurant business low annual salary police officer supervisor resigned november meeting association white announced wanted seat liberal saw opportunity end split board blocked progressive initiatives wanted introduce intense lobbying milk silver state announced november seat vacated morning white went city hall armed police revolver extra coat pocket avoid metal entered building basement window proceeded office mayor following brief argument white shot mayor shoulder chest twice head white walked office gun asked milk join white shot milk wrist shoulder chest twice head execution style supervisor heard called police found milk stomach blood pouring head wounds riots verdict white found guilty voluntary mayor supervisor milk prosecutor asked finding degree murder special circumstances permitted death penalty terms recently adopted capital punishment law california proposition special circumstances alleged case mayor killed order block appointment fill city supervisor seat resigned multiple people killed white sentence reduced called defense judgment provoked outrage community defense presented psychiatrist jury stating white diminished capacity depression amounts food white consumed cited mental state stated refined present white diet preceding killings fueled depression jury composed persons predominantly roman catholic working class white essentially demographic city felt sympathy white jury heard tape recording white confession consisted highly emotional pressure members jury sympathy defendant white represented old guard san_francisco wary influx minority groups city represented conservative traditional view liberal forces city like milk perceived conjunction fire department raised defend white earned anger gay community received conviction offense voluntary sentenced seven years months prison good behavior chance released serving thirds sentence years hearing verdict district attorney said wrong decision jury overwhelmed emotions sufficiently analyze evidence deliberate calculated murder defense client white attorney stated white filled remorse think bad condition white later confirm killings told police inspector planned kill milk plans kill supervisor silver believed politicians attempting block supervisor quoted white having said mission wanted biggest snake thing march told verdict milk friend activist addressed audience people gathered street telling verdict shouts bars streets jones led crowd street numbers bolstered people emerging bar crowd marched numbering people interview jones gave voice feeling crowd began group street news verdict spread stating rage people face saw people known years furious thing people know neighborhood boys corner people ridden bus screaming blood violence city hall time crowd reached numbers increased protesters shouted kill dan white dump reference mayor handful police officers duty scene uncertain deal situation angry gay crowd similarly uncertain proceed protesters convinced police prosecution avoid severe sentence white prosecutor denied repeatedly death members crowd tore ornamental work building wrought iron doors break floor windows friends monitored attempted hold crowd including lover formation police appeared north attempting hold mob sat grateful reinforcements officers holding crowd instead attacked night sticks young man kicked smashed window police car lit pack matches set fire burning short time fuel tank exploded dozen police cars automobiles destroyed similar fashion photo cover album shows police cars fire taken night crowd members threw tear gas stolen police vehicles riots began break mob disrupting traffic electric disabled overhead wires pulled violence broke police officers outnumbered police chief standing inside city hall ordered officers attack simply stand ground mayor supervisor silver addressed attempt situation mayor said received news verdict disbelief stated gotten away murder simple silver injured struck flying object protesters injured police retaliation nearly hours shouts angry crowd officers moved quell riot police reportedly covered black tape preventing identification attacked dozens police officers swept crowd tear gas force protesters away building police surprised resistance faced protesters attempted push tree branches torn city buses asphalt ripped street weapons man ignited police car shouted reporter sure paper ate officers injured dozen arrests second stage violence police raid riot hours later predominantly gay neighborhood elephant walk bar injured occupants order restored city hall cars carrying dozens officers headed officers entered gay bar called elephant walk despite orders shouted dirty sick shattered large plate glass windows bar attacked patrons minutes police withdrew bar joined officers attacking street incident lasted nearly hours police chief heard unauthorized elephant walk raid immediately went location ordered men leave later night freelance reporter saw group police officers celebrating downtown bar city hall day killings happened smiling officer explained tonight smiling police officers estimated members public hospitalized course riot civil grand jury convened find ordered attack ended settlement covering personal injury claims damages aftermath morning gay leaders convened committee room supervisor replaced milk militant clear apologize riots informed press conference harvey milk people apologize society going deal nice little people capable violence going anymore reporters surprised public official violent acts previous night expecting apology subsequent attempts find gay leader statement proved unsuccessful evening 49th birthday city officials considered permit rally planned night decided fear sparking violence officials stated rally channel community anger positive police san_francisco neighboring towns placed alert mayor coordinated plans police trained monitors eye crowd approximately people gathered market streets mood angry subdued officers monitored crowd distance crowd engaged peaceful celebration milk life attendees danced popular disco songs drank beer sang tribute milk night hours people held demonstration square manhattan protest verdict officers observed protest began arrests planned days ahead sponsored october people marched washington gay rights carried portraits milk honoring legacy rally milk intended organize instead tribute life released prison january serving years seven year month sentence evening following release people marched street burned state authorities reportedly feared assassination attempt response urged people violence stated harvey death penalty person white committed suicide carbon poisoning october connected rubber car exhaust system routed interior vehicle let fill carbon mayor said latest tragedy close sad chapter city history according lawyer white expressed remorse killings february white reportedly stated cause inner turmoil inspector said contrary commenting time white express remorse form deaths milk analysis causes community long history conflict following world war gay bars subject frequent raids attempts alcohol licenses accused serving alcohol criminal act time growing political economic power city gay community conflicted established numbers conservative institutions police fire departments police arresting average men year public sex charges contrast arrests new_york_city quarter san_francisco reported gay time charges dismissed men given harsh sentences found guilty successful diminished capacity defense enraged gay community police fire departments raised money defense gave anger focus turning city government especially effects san_francisco politics municipal elections occurring months riot prominent gay leaders feared backlash polls elections continued incident gay community fared better expected wielding unprecedented influence virtually unknown gay mayoral candidate finished election showing strong force mayor runoff election conservative city supervisor promises appoint gay people public office heavy campaigning ensured won support gay community term mayor mayor actions elected announce appointment new chief police murphy declared police cars longer colored powder blue instead black whites pleased rank file restored confidence police leadership murphy vowed maintain progressive policy predecessor implemented seven new police recruits gay lesbian public appearances outgoing police chief stated fully expected day san_francisco gay mayor chief police october organization gay law enforcement personnel california golden state peace officers association incorporated non profit organization founded oakland police officer present night riots thirty years announcement guilty verdict prepared decision case attempt proposition added statement marriage man woman valid recognized california article section ballot initiative approved eliminated right sex couples marry state late court preparing announcement rumors surfaced internet san_francisco mayor asked court announce decision suggested request announcement coincide 30th anniversary white night riots court upheld validity proposition ruled marriages performed remain valid effects aids movement played major role investigation riots prominent activist dropped school work legislative consultant speakers spent time organizing political campaigns working consultant aware gay men san_francisco contracting unusual diseases gay community eventually seriously affected aids epidemic jones key aids activist jones founded november anniversary milk jones learned people died aids proposed creation remembrance died jones hiv positive launched consists individual panels interview jones said thought perfect symbol warm middle class middle american traditional family values symbol attach disease killing drug users immigrants maybe maybe apply traditional family values family | White Night riots | History | World history | North American history |
12328_NewYorkCitydraftriots | new_york_city draft riots new_york_city draft riots july known time draft week violent disturbances new_york_city culmination working class discontent new laws passed congress year draft men fight ongoing american civil war riots remain largest civil racial insurrection american history aside civil war president abraham_lincoln diverted regiments militia volunteer troops following control city overwhelmingly working class men primarily ethnic irish particularly men afford pay equivalent fee hire substitute spared draft initially intended express anger draft protests turned race riot white mainly exclusively irish immigrants attacking blacks find official death toll listed conditions city major general commander said july martial law ought proclaimed sufficient force enforce military reach city day rioting destroyed numerous public buildings protestant churches homes black homes colored orphan asylum 44th street fifth avenue burned ground demographics city changed result riot blacks left manhattan permanently moving brooklyn population fell number background new_york economy tied south nearly half exports cotton shipments addition upstate textile mills processed cotton manufacturing new_york strong business connections south january mayor democrat called city declare city independence albany washington said united support union entered war new_york_city south city continuing destination immigrants 1840s ireland germany nearly percent new_york_city population german born speak english 1840s 1850s journalists published sensational accounts directed working class relationships marriages joined effort newspapers carried portrayals blacks ridiculed black aspirations equal rights voting education employment pseudo scientific lectures popular countered doctors time areas city mixed populations residents political machine working immigrants citizens vote local elections strongly recruited irish spoke english march war continuing congress passed enrollment act establish draft time troops needed new_york_city locations new citizens learned expected register draft fight new country black men excluded draft largely considered citizens white men pay free blacks immigrants competed low wage jobs city new_york political offices including mayor held democrats election abraham_lincoln president demonstrated rise republican political power nationally january alarmed working class new_york feared freed slaves migrate city add competition labor market tensions black white workers 1850s particularly docks march white refused work blacks attacking black men area city variety venues bars neighborhoods mixed terms residents men competed carriage drivers jobs riots monday reports rioting buffalo new_york certain cities drawing draft numbers july occurred new_york_city second drawing held monday july days union victory southern pennsylvania furious crowd led volunteer known black joke attacked assistant marshal office avenue 47th street draft taking place crowd threw large paving stones windows burst doors set building fire department responded broke vehicles killed horses pulling smashed cars prevent parts city notified riot cut telegraph lines irish laborers feared having compete slaves jobs sent assist union troops pennsylvania force try suppress riots police superintendent arrived site monday check situation uniform people mob recognized attacked kennedy left nearly unconscious face bruised cut eye injured lips swollen hand cut knife beaten mass blood body police drew clubs charged crowd police forces badly outnumbered unable quell riots kept rioting immigrants bloody sixth ward points area involvement rioting bull head hotel 44th street refused provide alcohol mob burned mayor residence fifth avenue eighth fifth district police stations buildings attacked set fire targets included office new_york_times mob turned times office staff manning guns including times founder fire engine companies responded firefighters sympathetic drafted saturday later afternoon authorities shot killed man crowd attacked second avenue 21st street mob broke windows paving stones ripped street turned black people primary target anger immigrants poor people viewed free black men competition scarce jobs worried slaves coming new_york work mob beat tortured killed numerous black people including man attacked crowd clubs paving stones hanged tree set 44th street fifth avenue symbol white charity blacks black upward mobility provided shelter children attacked mob mob thousand including women children looted building food supplies police able secure time allow escape building burned areas rioting attacked killed black people destroyed known homes businesses smith believed owned black man united_states near docks tensions boiled recently march white employers hired blacks irish men refused work irish mob attacked blacks working docks went streets search negro laborers attempt remove evidence black social life area near docks white attacked destroyed dance halls boarding houses blacks stripped clothing white owners businesses tuesday heavy rain fell monday night helping fires sending home crowd returned day burned home prison reformer daughter abolitionist attacked white white women married black men white prostitute black men women escaped personal physical harm governor arrived tuesday spoke city hall attempted crowd proclaiming conscription act unconstitutional commander brought approximately soldiers marines forts west_point ordered militias return new_york wednesday thursday order restored situation improved wednesday assistant marshal general received word superior officer colonel postpone draft news appeared newspapers stayed home militias began return harsh measures remaining order began restored thursday federal troops returned new_york including new york volunteers 26th michigan volunteers 27th 7th frederick maryland forced march addition governor sent regiments federal service section 20th new_york units arrive july thousand federal troops city final confrontation occurred thursday evening near according analysis people died day riots skirmishes police army including african american soldiers women new_york_times reported thursday gang members baltimore rangers sic philadelphia come new_york unrest participate riots alongside dead rabbits times afford miss golden opportunity brutal time serving colleagues aftermath exact death toll new_york draft riots unknown according historian people killed black men days riots forced hundreds blacks flee city violence black men especially fierce docks area reliable estimates indicate people injured author book film based puts figure higher killed wounded figure widely accepted total property damage million million million adjusted inflation city treasury later quarter historian wrote riots equivalent confederate victory buildings including protestant churches colored orphan asylum burned ground riots fearing mob destroy buildings driven blacks residences result violence blacks hundreds left new_york including moving brooklyn separate city new_jersey white elite new_york organized provide relief black riot victims helping find new work homes relief colored people provided nearly victims riots black population dropped lowest white working class riots changed demographics city whites exerted control workplace divided blacks august government resumed draft new_york completed days incident fewer men drafted feared working class selected nationwide conscription went service rioting mainly involved working class middle upper class new split sentiments draft use federal power martial law enforce wealthy democratic businessmen sought draft declared unconstitutional democrats seek draft declared unconstitutional helped pay fees drafted december recruited black soldiers outfitted trained honoring sending men parade city hudson_river docks march crowd watched procession led police members new_york_city support union cause continued gradually southern sympathies declined city new_york banks eventually financed civil war state industries productive entire confederacy end war soldiers sailors militia enlisted populous state time total military men died war disease wounds order battle command superintendent commissioners took command kennedy seriously injured mob early stages riots 1st division major general union_army general headquartered new_york_city brigadier general brown overall command military fortresses new_york city time volunteered services wool instructed brown serve command militia general brown initially refused eventually offered serve capacity needed brig general artillery captain 12th tasked overseeing initial enforcement draft marshal general colonel marshal general new_york_city colonel day rioting july command secretary war authorized regiments state militia volunteer units army reinforce end riots soldiers garrisoned new_york_city fiction novel civil war new york new york novel alternate history novel theatre film short lived broadway musical starring set black children modeled colored orphan asylum film directed includes fictionalized portrayal | New York City draft riots | History | World history | North American history |
12542_Maritimefurtrade | maritime fur trade maritime fur trade ship based fur trade system focused acquiring sea animals indigenous peoples natives alaska sold china exchange tea chinese goods sold europe united_states maritime fur trade pioneered russians working east southern coast alaska british americans entered focusing coast british_columbia trade beginning 19th century long period decline began sea population depleted maritime fur trade transformed tapping new markets continuing focus china lasted middle late 19th century russians controlled coast alaska entire era coast south alaska endured fierce competition british american trading vessels british operate southern sector unable compete americans dominated 1830s entered coast trade 1820s intention driving americans away accomplished late period maritime fur trade largely conducted term maritime fur trade coined historians distinguish coastal ship based fur trade continental land based fur trade example historically maritime fur trade known usually called trade north west trade term rarely spelled single word northwest common today maritime fur trade brought pacific_northwest coast vast new international trade network centered north pacific_ocean global scope based capitalism triangular trade network emerged linking pacific_northwest coast china recently discovered western world britain united_states especially new_england trade major effect indigenous people pacific_northwest coast especially peoples rapid increase wealth occurred natives increased warfare epidemic disease indigenous culture overwhelmed rapid change actually flourished instance importance traditional nobility increased remains distinctive aspect pacific_northwest culture developed era native hawaiian society similarly affected sudden influx western wealth technology epidemic diseases trade effect china europe minimal new_england maritime fur trade significant profits helped region contributing transformation industrial society wealth generated maritime fur trade invested industrial development especially textile manufacturing new_england textile industry turn large effect slavery united_states increasing demand cotton helping possible rapid expansion cotton plantation system profitable sea especially northern sea inhabited coastal waters south north sea hunted 17th 18th centuries sea possess thicker fur sea habit coat prevents reason exploitation dark thick silver tipped fur demand fashion sea china reasons hunted point disappearance mammals pacific currently listed threatened sea distribution extends north japan way vicinity mexico species stayed approximately arc pressure maritime trade forced north start decline russian expeditions region hunters providers skins russians main prime skins russian traders american exploitation mammals population ranged sea slow breeders pups born time help population pursued chinese sought fur great commercial value prime coat year long wealthy chinese clothing decoration russians ornamental piece sent europe america changed coat hats great demand worth sea annual expenses year year fur southern sea highly prized profitable northern sea hunted local extinction maritime fur traders shifted california southern sea likewise nearly extinct british american maritime fur traders took chinese port worked established system sold china trading town opened russian trade treaty origins pacific_northwest significant regions world explored europeans centuries reconnaissance conquest brought rest north_america claims imperial powers late 18th early 19th centuries number commercial systems sea land continent russian spanish extended region simultaneously opposite directions russian fur companies expanded north_america reaching early discovered expedition carried ships sailed purpose assessing existing russian activity possibilities future development reports voyage meant kept secret spread europe caused alarm spain spanish government concerned russian activity alaska decided sent alaska assess threat strengthen spanish claims sovereignty coast north mexico province established expedition concluding separate expeditions dispatched established san_diego san_francisco linked series mission stations coast spanish exploration far north launched center russian activity shifted east hunting operations extended cook inlet destined clash direct russian spanish contact new powers appeared britain united_states clash came sound spain russia spain britain british reached region sea voyage land reached pacific british maritime fur trader arrived american traders arrived sea lewis arrived overland early maritime fur traders explorers traders complex labyrinth waters according thousands islands numerous straits mountainous rocky steep shoreline navigational hazards included persistent rain high winds thick strong currents tides hidden rocks wind patterns contrary variable especially coastal straits makes sailing dangerous early maritime fur trade era produced rough surveys coast general features detailed surveys undertaken relatively small areas russian exploration produced mainly rough surveys largely restricted mainland alaska west british american maritime fur traders began visiting time exploration continued especially maritime fur traders number significant discoveries notable examples include sound found queen harbor explored realize queen charlotte islands mainland russia russian maritime fur trading northern pacific began exploration demonstrated asia north_america connected sea feasible region rich private fur traders launched fur trading expeditions focusing nearby islands commander islands unlike fur trading ventures siberia maritime expeditions required capital obtain merchants cities european russia principal investors early trader traded collecting large number sea fur seal blue arctic fox trips nearby fortune inspiring traders founding russian american company private fur trading hunting sailed north_america total garnered million silver early era ships typically stop commander islands slaughter preserve meat sea cows sea range limited islands hunted food skins boats fat oil lamps sea cow extinct depleted nearby islands russian traders sailed farther east chain regularly sailing notable russian traders early years trade include financed participated traders sailed farther east longer smaller enterprises merged larger ones began stand important traders founded permanent russian settlement north_america saints bay envisioned continual extension russian maritime fur trade trading posts set farther farther coast way california sought exclusive control trade empress catherine decided grant company monopoly area occupied traders free compete catherine decision issued imperial proclamation september time catherine nations entering maritime fur trade russians spent years establishing expanding maritime operations north_america number colonies established large region stretching cook inlet ships sailed alaska year russians early start controlled habitats valuable sea sea fur thicker california grades fur based color texture thickness prized sea second grade grade sea russia controlled sources valuable fur bearing land russian system differed british american systems relationship indigenous peoples method siberia russians employed people people people expert sea hunters noted use russian ships mainly transporting assisting native hunting parties differed british american system natives hunted sea prepared essentially independent agents fur trade russians trade freely native imposed fur tribute known system widely siberia essentially enslaved natives banned replaced compulsory labor britain british entry maritime fur trade dates voyage captain sailing north search cook discovered spent month sound crew traded village ended sea thought great value later cook killed hawaii expedition visited surprised money chinese willing pay profit commanders cook death wrote advantages derived voyage american coast undertaken commercial views appear degree importance sufficient attention public crews ships eager return acquire far short mutiny sailed england arriving october accounts cook voyage sea trade published triggering rush british interest maritime fur trade peaked declined french revolutionary wars diminished britain available manpower investment capital country concentrated foreign trade activities india british maritime fur traders hindered late 18th century granted exclusive right british trade entire western coast americas leagues pacific_ocean coupled monopoly british trade china meant sea skins preserve monopoly operate legally british maritime fur traders obtain licenses companies difficult expensive traders obtained license unable enforce monopoly obtained license took england trans shipped china traders tried evade licenses sailing ships foreign flags primary focus china tea trade interest company maritime fur trade usually allowed british vessels import required sold agents company took percentage returns worse allow british fur traders export chinese goods great_britain profitable leg maritime fur trade system carrying chinese goods europe america denied british traders trading vessel dispatched solely purpose fur trade commanded brief visit coast obtained profit promise profits encouraged traders members cook crew partners formed purpose developing maritime fur trade sailed england king george spent exploring trading spent winters hawaii visitors cook early british trader sailed england hawaii accompanied wife european woman visit woman sail world deception women known sailed world disguised man wife chose sail flag austria evade paying stop hawaii hired native hawaiian named native hawaiian visit pacific_northwest explored coast south discovering process trader visit bay settlement later important port maritime fur traders served cook sailed spent winter ship trapped ice men dying rescued timely arrival organized second expedition ships captain captain decided license ships instead trying conceal illegal activity flag portugal arrived sound later claimed chief sold land building erected claims later point dispute crisis spain sought control rejected claims true facts matter fully established doubt sloop built sound vessel built pacific_northwest organized expedition following year number vessels sailed including princess royal intended establish permanent fur trading post sound spain decided permanently occupy assert sovereignty decision russian activity alaska russia threat occupy spanish naval officer arrived built fort san arrived dispute arose leading seizure british ships arrest crews incident led crisis international crisis britain spain war convention united_states american traders largely influenced unauthorized report published connecticut american traders british soon came dominate maritime fur trade south opening trade came good time new_england merchants provided way escape depression followed american revolutionary war presented new trading opportunities closure british home colonial ports imports nations coast referred american traders boston boston men main port new_england notable american maritime fur traders gray trading second voyage conducted vessels fur trading season gray sailed columbia china hawaii boston arrival columbia boston celebrated american world venture commercial success ship owners financed second attempt gray sailed columbia boston weeks arriving gray second voyage notable ways spending summer trading gray coast gray crew built house dubbed sloop adventure built american vessel built launched march command trading season gray concentrated southern including mouth river spotted spanish explorer explorer fur trader able find gray named river ship event later united_states support claims pacific_northwest notable american maritime fur traders include successful american firms involved company boom years american maritime fur trade dominated american traders 1820s american merchant ships united_states china returns lucrative late return investment ranged higher profits common decade 19th century returns higher common taking account cost buying vessels return closer trade boom years ended long decline marked increasing economic supply sea fallen american trade declined war americans able resume expand maritime fur trade continued dominate russian expansion russian entry slow shortage ships sailors reached settlement originally intended colonial capital built reconnaissance coast far queen charlotte islands carried british employee company sailed claiming russia hunting parties arrived following years quarters sea skins came area amounting thousand year competition russians british americans arose july returned brig established settlement known fort june warriors attacked settlement killed captured russians living led armed expedition retake force june russian warship joined new russian fort established prepared defend armed fort tension rapidly escalated skirmishes negotiations broke early october russians attacked fort cannon land party responded powerful gun cannon fire battle continued days abandoned fort left area accounts battle refuse admit defeat russians credit taking fort russians destroyed abandoned fort named new russian fort new known fort michael fort saint michael confrontations played significant role subsequent russian relations generations soon primary settlement colonial capital alaska purchase renamed capital russian american company incorporated putting end period beginning era centralized monopoly charter laid new granted company control trade north_america mainland south north latitude present border coast british_columbia alaska modeled britain russian officials intended company operate business enterprise state organization extending imperial influence similar hoped company able conduct maritime trade china japan goal realized russian government took control merchants held charter explorer naval officer president company government period alaska purchase transferred control alaska united_states commercial interests sold san_francisco merged groups form russian population america surpassed peak employed fed thousands natives according official census counts russians population peaked additional people known local residents included colonial register estimated local residents present unknown russians total population approximately transformation known today built california north southernmost outpost operated established agricultural base supplying northern settlements food conducting trade ross colony included number settlements spread area stretching point arena administrative center port harbor hunting camp located established near mouth ranch valley mile north present day near present day employed native hunt seals sea california coast california sea population severely depleted russian emperor alexander issued announced russian north latitude onwards northern direction russian attempt enforce seizure brig pearl russian sloop pearl maritime fur trading vessel sailing boston protest government vessel released compensation paid britain united_states protested negotiations ultimately resulted russo american treaty treaties established southern boundary exclusively russian territory anglo russian treaty boundary fully border began coast ran north mountains near coast reached west boundary ran north line aside boundary adjustments stemming alaska boundary dispute late 19th century current boundary state alaska agreement signed giving hudson lease southeastern sector far north north latitude american methods strategies american traders developed golden round trade route world ships sailed boston pacific arriving spring early summer spend summer early autumn fur trading coast mainly late autumn sailed typically spent winter hawaii arriving autumn trading begin november tea shipments ready americans hire pilots ships foreign ships allowed trading took weeks months ships loaded chinese goods sugar left winter northeasterly monsoon winds reach southeasterly trade winds cross indian_ocean ships sailed boston traditionally docked india wharf described golden round writing americans perfect golden round profits profit original cargo trading goods exchanged second profit chinese goods profit goods reached america later years pattern complex additional markets incorporated trade developed depend solely acquiring sea trade indigenous people coast began decade 19th century earlier increased time maritime fur trading longer solely taking sea markets pacific added system mainly hawaii important item china trade sea trade trade peaking declined hawaiian depleted fiji principal sources cut fiji source china american traders began acquiring fiji leading export led decline end trade hawaii trades included chilean copper whale teeth shells meat sugar manila java nuts called nuts coffee beans sealing fur seal rapidly exploited near extinction northern fur seal controlled russia americans acquired northern fur seal skins trade sealing trade smuggling pacific_coast foreign trade prohibited spanish law trade peaked faded 1820s traders concentrated produced surplus grain beef hides short manufactured goods american ships brought goods missions exchange grain beef sea skins grain beef provisions taken short foods supplies mexico gained independence american trade continued slightly modified form american traders brought clothing lace alcohol sugar traded hides profit generally major industry right 1830s missions mexican authorities deserted indian labourers trade slid decline american trade left significant alternative sea trade settlements lasted americans abandoned altogether early 1840s decade 19th century american ships visited regularly trading provisions liquor fur seal skins timber fish trade usually highly profitable americans russian settlements depended issued banning foreign trade north 51st parallel russian colonies america forced ignore ban engage smuggling fur trade supplemented slave trading pre existing indigenous slave trade enlarged expanded fur traders especially american traders working coast traders purchase slaves mouth sell trade northern coast traders admitted wrote detail information comes sources reports officers hudson bay company wrote american traders coast slaves purchasing cheap rate tribe high profit concluded american traders money selling slaves gunpowder fur trading decline large scale economic issues played role decline maritime fur trade china trade general 19th century chinese demand western raw materials manufactured goods small known accepted resulting general drain precious metals west china situation reversed early 19th century variety reasons western demand chinese goods declined relative new options example coffee west_indies began replace tea united_states chinese demand western items increased english american cotton goods outlawed smuggled china large increasing scale long china drained saturated western goods time intense speculation china trade american british merchant companies began 1820s firms competing market resulting consolidation inevitable commercial crisis struck tea prices china trade volume collapsed time old maritime fur trade dying final blow came depression following time maritime fur traders concentrated different parts west coast especially frequently visited shifted queen charlotte islands 1820s farther north areas near shifted south area early years ships tended cruise coast seeking trading opportunities arose later ships spent time specific fur resources prices rose ship captains increasingly concentrated key ports stayed longer eventually acquiring china trade single year longer possible traders hawaii returning coast spring usually key trading included today called port south north cape northern today called harbor said popular place american ships 1830s significant trading sites queen charlotte islands including known harbor chief marine depleted early 19th century american ship captains began accept increasing numbers land beaver brought interior coast indigenous trade networks today districts british_columbia 1820s considered interior fur trade domain began experience significant losses result diversion coast protect interests entered coast trade drive away american traders goal achieved 1830s american traders abandoned time trade controlled following resolution controversy united_states england american purchase alaska american hunters returned hunting sea region land sea hunting american commercial outfits contributed near extinction species late 1800s british fur trading companies montreal based london based competed control fur trade later struggle eventually reached point armed battles battle seven oaks control east continental divide turn 19th century expanded operations westward rocky_mountains pacific_northwest established new fur trading operations west starting challenged pacific_northwest war risk captured sold entire operation build fort mouth renamed fort george pacific sought establish profitable beaver fur trade china control british trading turned american shipping companies starting beaver shipped china american firms acquisition fort george began supply sea boston based firm arriving fort george american ship took cargo beaver exchanged china goods conveyed boston sale company took proceeds arrangement profitable british ships selling bills london returning china cargo tensions erupted violence forced merge result acquired trade china system shipping continued united states customs service imposed heavy duty proceeds stopped american instead tried selling sold beaver land skins china arrangement prove firm wake forced merger reorganized operations efforts keen fiscal sense combined resurgence american traders coast russo american treaty resulted decision enter coast maritime fur trade drive americans early 1820s american traders taking beaver skins year early 1830s number reached annually acquiring half total output entire addition americans paying higher prices forced effort gain control coastal fur trade began late 1820s took time acquire necessary ships skilled seamen trade goods intelligence coast trade simpson decided london ships brought goods returned england arrive early voyage departing london ship schooner voyage georgia sea land beaver skins acquired decided deploy ships coast trade setbacks caused delays william ann lost isabella shipping inadequate coast trade middle 1830s ships added coast fleet beaver steamship proved extremely useful variable winds strong currents long narrow strengthen coast trade hudson built series fortified trading posts established river mouth fort simpson founded mouth moved miles present port simpson fort established island sound fort built southern end sound overland trail linked fort vessels trading northern coast trade goods having navigate hazardous bar later coastal posts included fort durham american disadvantage easy drive americans away americans decades experience knew coast complex physical human geography took gain level experience americans advantages number reasons willing able pay high prices higher match taking large financial losses american ventures global scope tapped multiple markets 1820s american ships routinely spent years pacific making places california hawaii philippines american ships usually stocked surplus trade goods intended trade best rid extra trade goods dumping price leaving use space faced major challenge experienced coast geography indigenous peoples american system raised price lowered value trade goods furthermore indigenous people knew increased competition served interests gave power desire americans abandon coast trade match exceed prices paid americans hoped drive americans away beaver fur prices coast times paying interior hope making profit order compete coast large long term financial losses main advantage americans losses vast corporation large capital company able americans taking loss years end middle late 1830s policy coast pay price necessary ensure fell hands americans american traders soon found coast fur trade captured trade americans traded russians coast seek long continued continued pay high prices losses eventually trade financially risky american russian agreement allowed americans trade expired renewed agreement supply provisions exchange year lease portions alaska panhandle proved final blow american traders finally driven maritime fur trade altogether drastically reduced price paid cases time fur trade decline coast continent general fur bearing animals reduction demand beaver financial panic resulted general slump fur china trade bringing end half century boom 1840s closed coastal trading posts leaving coast trade fort simpson beaver new depot fort victoria southern coast significance half century maritime fur trade trade enriched boston creating capital helped new_england transformation industrial society trade stimulated culture natives hawaii famous nearly overwhelmed native foreign influences played role increased commercial pressure china fur bearing animals devastated especially sea sea virtually extinct found california maritime fur trade brought natives material prosperity wealth technology enlarged transformed relations trade war including inland natives inland natives adopted coastal descent systems trade caused rise power key chiefs followed chiefs general widespread wealth giving individual hunters means challenge traditional chiefs increase frequency challenging traditional chiefs response hereditary clan chiefs defended traditional powers increased use noble ancestry names increase trade new items significant impact nations material cultures seeing rise traditions fabric engraved silver jewelry originated time native learned jewelry coins contributed cultural advent improved iron tools saw creative larger carvings aka poles new available included china rapidly replaced earlier red seen artifacts era negative effects coast trade native peoples northwest included waves epidemic disease smallpox worst health problems included spread alcoholism tuberculosis diseases including coast trade promoted enhanced pre existing system native slavery native slave trading overall number slaves increased distribution exploitation despite negative effects natives largely spared additional effects come permanent posts political administration colonization early traders seasonal visitors later posts small direct colonial rule coastal natives begin earnest late 19th century early 19th century native culture survived flourished maritime trade brought changes natives traditional seasonal migration patterns settlement locations coastal people incorporated global market economy main export later supplemented replaced salmon lumber artwork late 19th century famous arts crafts especially large works like poles causing indigenous art natives imported western goods soon dependent firearms metal tools vital trade item early maritime fur trade era value caused shift native dress reinforced general fur animals firearms positive negative effects hunting efficient warfare deadly russians unlike british americans convert natives christianity joined russian missionaries founded number churches natives notable russian missionary alaska work missionary bishop later archbishop alaska russian far east earliest christian north_america important russian missionaries include alaska hawaii effect maritime fur trade native similar natives generally receptive western settlement rise king unification islands rule possible effects maritime fur trade larger pacific scope influx wealth technology helped new kingdom hawaii relatively strong political economic terms non native introduced early trading era including plants beans cash crops like tobacco cotton sugar animals introduced included cattle horses sheep goats high fertility important islands 1820s population honolulu native hawaiian population suffered waves epidemic disease including cholera availability alcohol especially led widespread increased use traditional health issues plus warfare related unification islands taking precedence farming contributed increase general population decline native population dropped effect maritime fur trade probably great trade limited effect china limited tea silk producers merchants ruling kept foreign trade ship bay restricted allowed outside city walls china generally self sufficient main effect increased import related outflow resulted china incorporated capitalist world system maritime fur trade played minor role process new_england maritime fur trade united_states branch asian trade based salem boston providence new_york_city philadelphia baltimore trade focused asian ports calcutta madras manila islands mauritius sumatra goods exported included ammunition lumber ice salt spanish silver dollars iron tobacco tar goods brought asia included tea sugar drugs maritime fur trade overall system asian trade significant effect early united_states especially new_england accumulation large amounts capital short time contributed american industrial manufacturing development compounded rapid population growth technological new_england textile industry rose dominance early middle 19th century light decline fur trade post napoleonic depression commerce capital shifted wharf shipping ventures textile mills originally located water power available textile industry turn large effect slavery united_states increasing demand cotton helping possible rapid expansion cotton plantation system books cited history alaska isbn far north contest native foreign nations isbn opening maritime fur trade americans russians meet transactions isbn alaska saga bold land isbn documentary record isbn dodge islands western impact pacific isbn anne north promoted prolonged slavery isbn frost voyage captain cook discovery pacific allen isbn isbn gibson changing geography supply gibson isbn alaska american colony isbn california isbn pacific_northwest maps exploration discovery isbn published columbia northwest coast cooperation isbn memory eternal culture russian orthodox christianity centuries isbn encyclopedia isbn pioneers pacific_coast chronicle sea volume trading mountains pacific vancouver press isbn mary american maritime fur trade isbn jim forgotten explorer washington isbn let isbn geographical perspective years history volume isbn michael orthodox alaska theology mission isbn approaches vancouver isbn connection europe vancouver isbn native americans isbn isbn north_america isbn | Maritime fur trade | History | World history | North American history |
12823_PresidencyofUlyssesS.Grant | presidency presidency began turbulent reconstruction period following american civil war grant elected 18th president united_states elected office serving march march grant republican main supporters radical factions united_states peace world era prosperous severe national depression dominated grant second term grant bolstered enforcement powers signing law implemented protect civil rights african americans grant expanded federal authority protected african american civil rights domestic terrorism south grant presidency represented civil war values included union freedom equality grant reconstruction policy challenged impose democracy legal equality regardless resistance democrats south grant worked hard ensure passage fifteenth amendment gave black men right vote grant notable efforts president included civil rights civil service reform indian policy grant foreign policy successful improved anglo american relations grant opposed liberal faction republican_party founding fathers denounced grant violating party emphasis fighting corruption liberals insisted reconstruction successful slavery dead liberals demanded army troops withdrawn south normal political life resume liberals nominated long time republican spokesman grant intellectual base republican_party quietly supported democrats decisively defeated grant develop political advisers grant choosing cabinet relied heavily army associates thin understanding politics weak sense civilian ethics presidential reputation severely damaged repeated scandals having struggled self man grant extremely loyal family close military associates turn caused believed plotting overthrow presidency grant dismissed cabinet members notice explanation cabinet war navy personal secretary high officials named treasury department joined federal tax corruption charges rampant grant appointed reformer grant defended integrity government service attacked middle class public opinion key element republican_party base turned hostile grant scholars maintain corruption charges exaggerated grant administration grant implemented civil service reform ended system grant played role gold ring prosecution whiskey ring attorney general edwards general sweeping reforms respected departments initiated civil service departments false start weak selections grant named cabinet leading including fish secretary state negotiated treaty washington successful keeping united_states trouble britain spain secretary treasury ended corruption whiskey ring corrupt officials millions tax brilliant attorney general successfully negotiated panel peacefully settle controversial election grant attorney general enforced civil rights legislation protected african americans destroyed grant encouraged peaceful congressional negotiations controversial election signed compromise ended reconstruction economically grant conservative favored hard money gold based anti policy entailed paying large national debt gold reduced governmental spending decreased federal work force reduced national debt tax revenues increased second term office caused rampant railroad speculation shook nation financial institutions banks failed prices fell unemployment panic years tremendous industrial growth civil war fueled lavish money making schemes personal greed national corruption president grant money supply worsened panic ensuing major depression followed lasted years causing massive economic damage country panic wiped fortunes business corruption continued included escalated violence status fractured state party alliances elections completion west wide open challenged hostile native americans grant implemented innovative peace policy successful native americans hostilities took place war great war culminated famous lieutenant colonel killed millions buffalo slaughtered room settlers grant favored land use domestic cattle rejected legislation limited slaughter fatal peace commission grant native american policy incorporated military strategies favored grant gave legislative support early movement corruption rampant secretary grant secretary success establishment america national park corruption cleaned grant secretary grant presidential legacy suffered heavy handed use prop political allies southern states mid-1990s presidential reputation improved historians emphasize enforcement african american civil rights south peace policy indians presidency grant presidency traditionally viewed historians incompetent corruption examination presidency reveals grant successes failures terms office recent years historians elevated presidential rating support african american civil rights heavily radical camp sided reconstruction policies signing law prosecute foreign policy grant won praise treaty washington settling alabama claims issue britain arbitration economically sided eastern signed public credit act paid debts gold blamed severe economic depression lasted grant wary powerful congressional leaders president ask line item veto century left office historians denounced reconstruction policies followed grant recently grant support enforcement african americans civil rights earned praise scholars corruption existed southern state governments supported army civil rights advances african americans vigorous enforcement 14th 15th amendments prosecuted thousands persons violated african american civil rights military force political louisiana mississippi south_carolina depression increasingly unpopular reconstruction program weakened reputation party allowing democrats gain majority house_of_representatives presidency inundated scandals caused low standards political personal associates practiced grant family members relatives financially benefited government appointments employment grant odds matters foreign policy political patronage followed foreign policy grant practice making political appointments historian described extraordinary array departures normal course military rule close connection select group unsuccessful effort annex island country santo domingo grant bypassed sending military associate produce treaty grant disregarded opinion attorney general mining claim patents grant foreign policy heavily influenced able secretary state grant depended fish advice domestic issues money policy reconstruction secretary treasury given charge national economic policies grant began series appointments included qualified administration starting prosecuted departure white_house grant administration took civilian military style election main divisive issues continued democrats advocated allowing confederate soldiers hold offices republicans endorsed fifteenth amendment constitution allowed african americans vote controversial issue concerned redemption war bonds gold paper money known democrats wanted bonds rest gold known cheap money republicans wanted pay redemption war bonds gold position attractive investors finding popular hero endorsed reconstruction policies republicans nominated grant speaker democrats ignoring politically damaged president political independent nominated governor new_york missouri wealthy conservative came attack weakness war favoring anti war campaigning nasty republicans bloody shirt treason democrats grant campaigned slogan let peace apology jewish voters general order banned jewish merchants zone civil war alleged grant won popular vote won landslide votes votes grant helped fact southern states controlled radical republicans kept voting cabinet grant took unorthodox approach cabinet choices declining consult senate keeping choices secret submitted confirmation grant purposely avoided choosing republican_party leaders effort create national harmony personal loyalty grant appointed friends secretary war served days resigning claims ill health plan designed greater diplomatic grant appointed minister france grant appointed conservative new_york statesman secretary state fish grant successful appointment relationship fish grew strong friendship men wives later died tuberculosis replaced grant selected non politicians cabinet including limited success served briefly secretary navy replaced stewart prevented secretary treasury statute senator senator opposition amend law place stewart grant appointed known integrity secretary treasury grant cabinet appointments interior general attorney general received grant cabinet members know names offered senate confirmation grant independent times problematic manner choosing cabinet started rift republican party veterans denied consultation modified tenure office act march president grant known desired repealed stating stride revolution free system passed congress sponsored radical republicans curb power president making government office appointments controversial law invoked trial johnson march bill brought congress repeal act senator opposed unwilling grant free hand making appointments grant bolster repeal effort declined new appointments law overturned political office pressure congress repeal law national pressure governmental reform compromise reached new bill passed allowed president complete control removing cabinet government needed approval congress thirty day period grant desire party split matter signed bill received criticism getting repeal law unpopular measure completely repealed grant criticized appointing family members considered highly sought government posts practice known political initially president grant popular political newspaper elite political began early spring fall critical discouraged grant presidency aftermath black friday scandal lost enthusiasm administration attorney general ambassador britain prominent journalists concerned alleged incompetence lack national direction grant personal animosity remained grant senate rejection common citizen revered grant service civil war reconstruction civil rights freed slaves given vote congress active state politics fourteen elected congress state government governor lieutenant governors state formed voting base republican_party local whites called new arrivals north called southern whites opposed republicans called conservatives grant repeatedly took role state affairs example december established federal military rule georgia restored black legislators expelled state legislature historians 21st century consider reconstruction failure historian argued reconstruction purpose making sure main goals war filled union held forever able work slavery rivalries confined permanent fear appeals state sovereignty backed armed force reconstruction looks like respect lasting success fifteenth amendment according biographer grant north believed american_civil_war extended democracy african american grant political pressure ensure states ratified fifteenth amendment citizen denied right vote based race color previous condition passed hailed measure importance act kind foundation free government present day south determined african american males right vote june grant signed bill law passed congress created aid attorney general grant appointed attorney general america solicitor general vigorously prosecute members early 1870s years grant term office members convictions convictions serving brief sentences imprisoned years federal albany new_york result dramatic decrease violence south gave credit grant told friend better stronger grant came terrorists successor december continued prosecute spring grant second term office william having inundated outrage cases effective man power continue act july grant signed law act allowed persons african descent citizens united_states revised earlier law act allowed white persons good moral character citizens law prosecuted persons fictitious names identities deceased individuals applying citizenship force acts add enforcement 15th amendment congress passed act guaranteed protection voting rights african americans grant signed bill known force act law law designed attacking threatening african americans act placed severe penalties persons intimidation physical assault prevent citizens voting placed elections federal jurisdiction january president grant submitted congress report violent acts committed south march president grant told reluctant congress situation south dire federal legislation needed secure life liberty property enforcement law parts united_states president grant stated mail collection revenue jeopardy congress investigated activities eventually passed force act allow prosecution act known act written representative passed congress specifically local units sensitive charges establishing military dictatorship grant signed bill law april convinced secretary treasury federal protection having cited documented atrocities law allowed president suspend corpus armed combinations act empowered president arrest break disguised night actions defined high crimes acts rebellion united_states consisted local secret organizations formed violently oppose republican rule reconstruction organization local level wearing white hide identity attack threaten republicans strong south_carolina south_carolina governor corruption charges allowed rise power grant fed violent tactics ordered disperse south_carolina lay arms authority october response october grant issued suspension corpus counties south_carolina grant ordered federal troops state captured vigorously prosecuted destroyed white groups emerge including texas union march mississippi february virginia january georgia confederate state union july members house_of_representatives senate seated confederate states technically united_states united country ease tensions grant signed amnesty act gave amnesty act allowed war taken oath uphold constitution united states hold elected public office remained forbidden hold elected public office indian affairs human rights peace policy indians grant campaign slogan let peace defined policy south opening new era relations western indian tribes major address grant stated building rail roads access given agricultural mineral regions country rapidly bringing settlements contact tribes indians matter ought relations settlements fact way end system looks extinction race nation wrath citizen disregard human life rights dangerous society remedy placing indians large reservations giving absolute protection goal peace policy minimize military conflict indians looking forward course tends civilization ultimate citizenship indians stay reservations receive government subsidies training supervised religious denominations indians longer allowed engage raids send war parties reservations army job force goal indians american society indian leave reservation time join larger society citizenship indians reservations citizens sharp reversal federal policy native americans wars wicked told congress second inaugural address president lobbied successfully preserve native american lands westward advance pioneers economic forces western led conflicts native americans settlers military native americans increasingly forced live reservations statistical data number indian wars year revealed battles decreased grant terms office battles lowest rate battles grant appointed aide general indian native american commissioner parker year office number indian wars year dropped chief wanted meet president grant learning parker appointed indian commissioner chief came washington train met parker president grant grant held personal animosity native americans personally treated dignity met grant white house given dinner entertainment equal shown young prince arthur white_house visit britain second meeting red cloud informed grant whites native american lands people needed food clothing concern native americans grant ordered generals west military force necessary prevent native american hostilities wars grant lobbied signed indians act act ended governmental policy treating tribes independent sovereign nations native americans treated individuals state indian policies congressional statues historians debated issues significance inconsistencies political competition involved substantive federal policy according scholar examined peace policy emphasizing implementation grant administration focused meaning limited goals placing good men positions influence convincing native peoples fundamental government attempts create new departure federal native relations characterized conflict disagreement according creation known peace policy tells varied attitudes americans consolidation empire west following civil war innovation grant native american peace policy appointing indian agents posts nation destroyed power patronage congress reluctant church appointments april congress created grant appointed volunteer members eminent intelligence philanthropy previous commission set given extensive power supervise native americans massacre january major killed tribal members women children grant determined divide native american post appointments religious churches indian agencies divided religious denominations protestant clergy predominantly controlled central southern plains indian territories surrounding territories control appointed military officers congressional reaction losses suffered col unit battle little big horn shock dismay failure peace policy grant blamed wholly defeat stating sacrifice troops unnecessary indian measure august marked end given choice selling lands cash receiving government gifts food supplies historian contended grant saw inconsistencies dividing native american posts religious leaders military officers added grant policy despite having good intentions failed solve real dilemma motivations purposes ways thinking white native american cultures inconsistencies evident breakdown peace negotiations military tribal leaders war president grant indian peace policy enforced coordinated brig arizona required reservations receive supplies agriculture education slipped occasionally raided white settlers raid believed conducted warriors settlers mail runners murdered near arizona townspeople traced raid reservation camp grant lived camp grant near angered murders townspeople hired whites revenge war party reached camp grant april murdered women children known seven captured children sold mexican slavery attempt small federal military party capture leader chase killed grant immediately removed command arizona detrimental rampant corruption secretary sec tenor federal money intended supply native american tribes food clothing corrupt indian agents allied traders addition persons posing indian attorneys charged indian tribes money representation washington newspapers exposed grant defended investigate matter sec supported defined grant indian peace policy instrumental creation reformer administration previous grant appointment secretary run department efficiency merit cox considered best interior nation history cox resigned patronage considerations party bosses sec finally resigned replacement sec reformed banned indian fired corrupt working grant secretary war charge indian trading posts received illicit profit payments fort indian sec resigned replaced reformer house trial senate summer acquitted west_point reduced president grant advocated african americans enter initially failed protect african american cadet racist cadets lack protection influenced grant son west_point cadet participated smith appointed superintendent west point reformed academy having reduced cadets strong efforts practice african americans eventually followed smith entrance west_point admitted academy graduate academy smith forced academy having failed unconventional private test defiance traditional west_point practice smith finally commissioned officer west_point years later utah territory american civil war president lincoln signed law bill outlawed territories practiced utah resisted law territorial governor election grant mentioned enforce law tensions began early utah began arm practice military drilling fourth july militia salt_lake_city utah verge fighting territorial troops heads prevailed violence president grant believed utah state rebellion determined arrest practiced outlawed act october hundreds rounded prison camp arrested trial convicted received fine years prison hard labor november leader ill health charged young attorney stated young intention flee court persons shut charged murder intent kill act proved hard enforce proof marriage required conviction december president grant stated utah remnant civilization laws united_states march anti led easily secured passage federal crime mail articles immoral use grant signed bill assured personally enforce went special agent appointed secretary prosecuted imprisoned banned nude art stopped information tried ban considered bad books early suffrage movement grant presidency early women suffrage movement led gained national attention anthony lobbied female suffrage equal gender pay protection property women resided washington april grant signed law protection married women property husbands debts ability women sue court washington march representative introduced bill women federal workers equal pay equal work years later grant signed modified senate version bill law law required federal female paid fully compensated salary lower female law increased women clerk salaries 1870s culture patronage continued republicans needed women campaign grant presidential election added platform open discussion women rights actually endorsing women rights economy treasury reform taking office grant signing act strengthen passed ensured public debts particularly war bonds paid gold price gold new_york exchange fell lowest point suspension payment grant protected wages working law passed reduced government working day hours law later repealed allowed day wages reduced protect workers grant signed executive order reduction shall wages regardless reduction hours government day workers treasury secretary reorganized reformed united_states treasury unnecessary employees started sweeping changes protect currency tax collections collection revenue changes soon led treasury monthly surplus reduced national debt million september national debt reduced million achieved selling growing gold surplus weekly buying wartime bonds currency wanted government buy bonds new_york_times praised grant administration debt policy years grant administration treasury helm expenditures reduced million million cost collecting taxes fell grant reduced number employees working government persons march december increased tax revenues million administration national debt fell billion billion rare case reform major general dismissed hold position commissioner grant appointment approved unauthorized tax associated alleged connecticut firm treasury secretary promptly stopped personally informed grant incompetent hold office refusing resign request protested openly congress president grant removed potential scandal broke buffalo conservation organized exploration upper began fall cook expedition month long journey basins somewhat official expedition explored regions upper basins naming old faithful park features official reports monthly accounts brought increased public awareness natural wonders region influenced public speeches east_coast sought funding congress expedition auspices march grant signed law congressional legislation finance given instructions grant secretary interior columbus expedition party composed civilians scientists military escorts survey party artist photographer published reports magazine articles paintings photographs jackson convinced congress preserve natural wonders upper december bill introduced simultaneously senate senator kansas house_of_representatives congressman establishment park influence congress readily apparent examining detailed information contained report bill congress objective withdrawal settlement occupancy sale laws united_states tract land miles sources sets apart great national park pleasure ground benefit enjoyment people bill presented congress bill chief supporters prepared convinced colleagues region real value park area preserved natural state bill approved comfortable margin senate january house february march grant played role signing act dedication law established region nation national park possible years exploration thousand white buffalo hunters working kansas arkansas killing buffalo hides thousands acres land dedicated solely drying hides slaughtered buffalo native americans protested destruction food supply destroyed western southern plains united_states concern destruction buffalo mounted bill congress passed buffalo hunting illegal whites taking advice secretary grant chose pocket veto bill believing demise buffalo reduce indian wars force tribes stay respected reservations adapt agricultural lifestyle plains hunting buffalo favored buffalo slaughter open pasture land cattle buffalo food supply lowered native americans forced stay reservations act prohibited fish game including buffalo destruction confines park congress appropriate funds legislation enforcement result secretary hire people aid tourists protect 1880s buffalo majority found national park indian wars ended congress appropriated money enforcement legislation signed law president protected preserved buffalo wildlife grant signed legislation protected northern fur seals alaska law history specifically protected wildlife federally owned land foreign policies foreign policy administration generally successful attempt annex santo domingo annexation santo domingo president grant unrealistic effort relieve plight blacks south reconstruction step end slavery cuba brazil dangers confrontation britain alabama question resolved peacefully monetary advantage united_states issues canadian boundary easily settled achievements work secretary spokesman caution stability poll historians stated secretary fish greatest united_states history fish appointed secretary state grant march served grant cabinet end grant second term march secretary fish briefly served president march dominican_republic annexation treaty grant proposed annex independent largely black nation dominican_republic known santo domingo previously president attempted annex dominican_republic santo domingo house_of_representatives defeated resolutions protection dominican_republic santo domingo annexation dominican_republic july grant sent negotiated draft treaty dominican_republic president annexation santo domingo united_states sale million island nation secure power grant ordered naval ships unauthorized congress secure island invasion internal insurrection signed annexation treaty november offered federal state department authorization secretary fish drew final draft proposal offered million dominican national debt annexation santo domingo american state acquisition rights bay years annual rental guaranteed protection foreign intervention january santo domingo treaty submitted senate ratification despite support annexation grant mistakes informing congress treaty encouraging national acceptance enthusiasm grant believe island use navy particularly sought use chip providing safe haven believed exodus black labor force southern whites realize necessity significant workforce accept civil rights grant believed island country increase exports lower trade deficit hoped ownership island urge cuba puerto_rico brazil abandon slavery march headed recommended treaty passage leading spokesman african american civil rights believed annexation enormously expensive involve ongoing civil war threaten independence haiti west_indies blocking black political progress grant went congress urged passage dominican annexation treaty strongly opposed ratification successfully led opposition senate june santo domingo annexation treaty failed pass senate votes favor treaty votes grant cabinet divided santo domingo annexation attempt assistant sec secretly giving information state department negotiations grant determined dominican_republic treaty public debate mentioning dominican_republic annexation december state union address grant able congress january create special commission investigate island senator continued vigorously oppose speak annexation grant appointed african american civil rights activist commissioners dominican_republic returning united_states months commission april issued report stated dominican people desired annexation island beneficial united_states celebrate commissions return grant invited commissioners white_house african american leaders upset issue invited white_house dinner brought presidential election douglas personally disappointed invited white_house remained loyal grant republican_party commission supported grant annexation attempt enthusiasm congress vote second annexation treaty unable directly grant immediately removed close respected friend ambassador grant senate finally deposed grant coalition known new working enemies massachusetts new_york indiana giving fish demands cuba rebels rejected moving southern patronage radical blacks allied moderate republicans set stage liberal republican revolt allies publicly denounced grant supported congressional investigation june led senator revealed land interests increase value santo domingo treaty ratified ships president grant authorization sent protect invasion dominican rebel treaty negotiations taking place investigation initially called settle dispute american businessman united_states government imprisoned hatch trial opposition government hatch claimed united_states failed protect imprisonment majority congressional report dismissed hatch claim hatch incident kept certain senators enthusiastic treaty cuban insurrection grant urged popular opinion support rebels cuba military assistance diplomatic recognition grant fish instead attempted use arbitration spain minister negotiating grant fish wanted cuban independence end slavery military intervention occupation fish popular pressure able grant officially recognizing cuban independence endangered negotiations britain peace negotiations failed madrid grant fish popular pressure military involvement cuban rebellion grant fish sent message congress written fish signed grant message urged strict neutrality officially recognize cuban revolt national fears treaty washington historians credited treaty washington implementing allow outside experts settle disputes grant able secretary state orchestrated events leading treaty previously secretary state johnson administration proposed initial treaty concerning damages american merchants confederate warships florida alabama built britain damages collectively known ships inflicted tremendous damage merchant ships civil war washington wanted british pay heavy damages including turning canada april overwhelmingly rejected proposed treaty paid little contained admission british guilt war senator spoke congress publicly denounced queen_victoria demanded huge opened possibility canada ceded united_states payment speech angered british government talks matters cooled negotiations new treaty began january britain sent sir meet fish joint high commission created february washington consisting representatives britain united_states commission created treaty international tribunal settle damage amounts british admitted regret fault destructive actions confederate war cruisers grant approved signed treaty senate ratified treaty washington tribunal met geneva switzerland represented international august tribunal awarded united_states million gold million awarded great_britain noted treaty washington arbitration bequeathed world legacy addition million arbitration award treaty resolved disputes borders fishing rights october william emperor germany settled boundary dispute favor united_states korean incident primary role united_states_navy 19th century protect american commercial interests open trade eastern markets including japan china korea excluded foreign trade sought treaty dealing sailors crew stranded american commercial ship killed long term goal open korea western markets way commodore opened japan naval display military force rear admiral fleet ships arrived mouth seoul fleet included colorado largest ships navy guns officers man crew waiting senior korean officials negotiate rogers sent ships navigational purposes american fleet fired korean fort little damage rogers gave korean government days apologize begin talks kept silent days passed june rogers began series amphibious assaults destroyed korean forts military engagements known korean soldiers americans killed korea refused negotiate american fleet sailed away refer military action president grant defended rogers annual message congress december change regimes seoul negotiated treaty treaty korea western nation corruption reform main scandals included black friday whiskey ring grant scandal origins having carried actual scandal exposed result political congressman congressman stocks owned ambassador britain fraudulent considered embarrassment scandal successes term president economy civil rights foreign policy scandals associated administration beginning emerge publicly grant directly responsible profit corruption subordinates reluctant believe friends commit criminal activities result failed direct action rarely reacted strongly guilt established grant protected close friends presidential power pardoned persons convicted whiskey ring scandal serving months prison second term ended grant wrote congress failures errors judgment intent rampant family relatives financially prospered grant president thwarted september financial set elaborate corner gold market buying gold time drive price plan government selling gold driving price president grant secretary treasury found gold market speculation ordered sale million gold black friday september thwarted price gold dropped effects releasing gold disastrous stock prices food prices dropped devastating farmers years civil service commission grant president recommend professional civil service pushed initial legislation congress appointed members united states civil service commission temporary commission recommended competitive exams issuing regulations hiring promotion government employees grant ordered recommendations effect having lasted years december port took hundreds millions dollars year revenue persons applied entry position pass civil service examination appointed stated examinations excluded unfit persons getting employment positions congress mood reform denied long term reform refusing enact necessary legislation changes permanent historians traditionally divided patronage meaning appointments merit system labelled corruption movement reform reflected distinct objectives eliminate corruption non professional bureaucracy check power president johnson election looked grant ram legislation congress refused saying civil service reform rests entirely congress members claiming patronage step gained immense human nature members congress human nature seek power use help friends corruption condition representative form government grant patronage build party help friends protected thought victims injustice attacks enemies guilty grant believed loyalty friends writer called friendship early 1870s lucrative postal route contracts given local contractors pacific_coast southern regions united_states known star routes given official documents remote routes hundreds miles long went rural parts united_states horse obtaining highly prized postal contracts intricate ring straw bidding set office ring consisted contractors postal straw bidding highest practice grant appointment federal investigation matter minority house report bribe 42nd congress postal contractor results investigation congressional investigation democratic house shut postal ring years ring prior congressional investigations took place corruption grant collector appointments private warehouses taking imported goods docks charging storage fees grant friend allegedly involved storing goods splitting profits grant collector appointment implemented secretary treasury reform goods protected docks private storage salary grab march president grant signed law authorized president salary increased year year salaries increased representatives received pay bonus previous years service secret attached general bill reforming newspapers quickly exposed law bonus repealed january grant missed opportunity veto bill strong statement good government congress sustained grant year salary election grant remained popular nation despite scandals evident term office grant supported patronage system allowed republicans infiltrate control state governments response president grant federal patronage senator missouri german immigrant civil war hero started second party known liberal republicans advocated civil service reform low amnesty confederate soldiers liberal republicans successfully ran governorship missouri won democrat support party completely split republican_party nominated editor candidate presidency democrats time strong candidate choice reluctantly adopted candidate governor running mate supported grant reminded black voters grant destroyed violent republicans content reconstruction program south senator wilson practical reformer intended ticket potentially political rift grew grant grant remained popular civil war hero republicans continued wave bloody shirt patriotic symbol representing north republicans favored high continuation policies supported military districts southern states grant favored amnesty confederate soldiers like liberal republicans political liberal republicans democrats physically ailing match hero lost popular vote grant swept votes minor candidates received votes grant won percent popular vote minor candidates hard fought political campaign died weeks election able receive electoral votes respect grant attended funeral second term reconstruction conservative resistance republican state governments grew elections destruction new secret paramilitary organizations arose mississippi north_carolina south_carolina louisiana operated openly better organized goals republicans return conservative whites power use illegal methods needed achieve loyal veterans grant remained determined african americans receive protection massacre november election louisiana split state controversial election candidates claiming victory governor violence black republicans party liberal republicans democrats claimed victor republicans claimed senator months later candidate sworn governor january federal judge ruled rightful winner election ordered republican based majority seated supported prepared use military force remove office grant ordered troops enforce court order protect march federal troops flag truce state militia defeated party insurrection dispute arose installed judge sheriff courthouse grant parish seized control march aid protection black state militia troops april forces attacked courthouse black captured total blacks killed trying defend courthouse governor april grant sent 19th infantry regiment restore order grant issued new proclamation restore order louisiana finally told followers obey orders president orders brought brief peace new_orleans louisiana ironically brooks war arkansas fall republican_party split arkansas ran candidates governor massive fraud characterized election declared winner took office brooks gave finally local judge ruled brooks entitled office swore sides mobilized militia units rioting fighting streets anticipation president grant brooks grant delayed requesting joint session arkansas government figure peacefully governor refused participate president grant issued proclamation legitimate governor arkansas hostilities ceased fall people arkansas voted republicans came power months later early grant nation reversing announcing brooks legitimately elected grant send troops brooks regained office instead grant gave high paying patronage job brooks died episode brought discredit grant riots august city government elected white reform party consisting republicans democrats initially lower city spending taxes despite early intentions reform movement turned racist new white city officials went county government majority african americans legal means threatened life expelled black county sheriff tax collector went governor seek help regain position sheriff governor told african americans use force retain position sheriff time population half african american december african american militia approached city declared whites political series battles occurred resulted african americans whites killed white militia retained control jail december grant gave presidential proclamation people stop fighting louisiana dispatched troops reinstated sheriff restored peace questioned matter governor denied told use african american militia june shot death white deputy drinking bar origins shooting remained mystery louisiana revolt september democratic militia took control state house new_orleans republican governor forced flee confederate general african american militia metropolitan police counterattack troops consisting confederate soldiers experienced troops routed army september grant sent federal troops restored government following controversial election november rose high violence mixed fraud rampant state affairs new_orleans control results republicans democrats elected remaining seats decided legislature grant careful watch elections secretly sent law order state arrived new_orleans days january legislature opening meeting convention democrats military force took control state building republican hands initially democrats protected federal troops colonel escaped republicans removed state building governor requested republicans returned state house force democrats building republicans organized house speakers protected annexed command claimed federal troops neutral protected democrats earlier south_carolina election year south_carolina state rebellion republican governor conservatives determined win election confederate wade violence intimidation republicans went nominate chamberlain second term supporters red shirts disrupted republican meetings gun tensions violent july african americans murdered hamburg rifle clubs wearing red shirts better armed blacks south_carolina ruled chamberlain government black militia fought charleston september known king street riot white militia assumed defensive positions concern possible intervention federal troops september took offensive action openly killing african americans outside massacre state representative killed october governor chamberlain declared martial law told rifle club members weapons meantime wade ceased remind chamberlain rule south_carolina desperation chamberlain wrote president grant asked federal intervention riot took place october republicans held rally brick church outside blacks whites opened fire whites black killed grant upset riots finally declared presidential proclamation october ordered persons days cease activities disperse homes total federal sent south_carolina violence stopped election day quiet chamberlain claimed victory acted governor took office president withdrew federal troops chamberlain left state indian affairs grant peace policy wars settlers federal army american indians decreasing year low year discovery gold completion threatened grant peace policy white settlers native land gold indian wars year jumped remained highest casualty indian battles took place american history battle little indian war casualties montana went war january grant native american peace policy challenged weeks grant elected second term fighting broke settlers near california oregon border led captain jack killed white settlers found strong defensive position grant ordered general attack indians settle matters peacefully commission sent major general captain jack killed reverend methodist minister killed indian agent severely wounded murders shocked nation wired grant overruled captain jack executed remaining relocated episode great war undermined public confidence grant peace policy according historian war erupted southern plains leader led tribal warriors attacked buffalo hunter supply base texas army general launched military campaign casualties forced indians reservations destroying horses winter food supplies grant agreed army plan advocated generals imprisoned insurgents florida corruption massive fraud prevailed secretary proved grant indian peace policy agents worked department fortunes retired money pay allow secretary allowed indian attorneys paid native american tribes day plus food traveling expenses representation washington corruption charges brought secretary forced resign grant appointed secretary interior vigorously uncovered cleaned fraud department firing banned indian attorneys access washington grant church appointments partially lack food staples housing government great war gold discovered white settlers rushed seeking mining gold land reserved tribe treaty fort avoid conflict president grant met chief washington offered government purchase land offer declined november white_house meeting claimed president army defend tribe settlers grant ordered round reservation strategy convergence army columns force reservation june columns led colonel met battle little big horn slaughtered approximately federal soldiers civilians killed compared american indians death shocked nation northern plains defeated reservation august president grant signed giving nation rations relinquished rights mile land tract west august seven man committee appointed grant gave additional harsh order receive government assistance men banished reservation receive government rations indians work land reluctantly september indian leaders people agreed committee demands signed agreement great war grant came conflict col testified corruption secretary grant arrested breach military protocol chicago barred leading upcoming campaign grant finally relented let fight brig killed subsequent battle little big horn defeat federal army months later grant press saying regard massacre sacrifice troops brought wholly unnecessary wholly unnecessary nation shocked death grant peace policy congress appropriated funds troops forts constructed army took indian agencies indians barred purchasing rifles ammunition grant president visit late april having traveled special presidential car president grant stayed residence governor grant appointed earlier april grant presidential party included wife daughter private secretary reception held governor guard hall grant met white people aggressively sought grant met indians desired great father shook hands colorado territory governors met grant visited president grant impressed colorado scenery expressed desire territory civil rights civil rights act presidency grant continually concerned civil rights americans color religion grant signed civil rights act allowed citizens access public eating establishments hotels places entertainment particularly protect african americans united_states bill passed honor senator previously attempted pass civil rights bill chinese prostitution october grant traveled utah surprised treated told utah territorial governor concerning december return washington grant wrote congress seventh annual state union address institution banished land grant believed negatively affected children women grant advocated second law stronger act passed punish crime morality grant denounced immigration chinese women united_states purposes prostitution saying evil secular education grant believed strongly separation church state championed complete public schools september speech grant advocated security free thought free speech free press pure morals religious sentiments equal rights privileges men color religion regard public education grant endorsed child receive opportunity good common school education pagan leave matter religion family altar church private schools church state forever separate support jews grant regretted wartime order jewish traders jewish community angry grant feared status america president lincoln forced grant order immediately grant publicly apologized president set argues eager prove prejudice grant appointed jews public office predecessors human rights extended unprecedented support persecuted jews russia romania time partly result enlarged vision meant american partly order live general orders grant consciously worked assist jews secure equality appointments policies grant rejected calls christian nation embraced jews america people administration jews achieved heightened status national scene anti jewish prejudice declined jews look forward liberal characterized sensitivity human rights cooperation panic panic worldwide depression started stock market vienna austria crashed june year unsettling markets soon spread berlin europe panic eventually reached new_york banks went broke september major railroad september ensuing depression lasted years ruined thousands businesses depressed daily wages brought unemployment rate causes panic united_states included destruction credit speculation stock markets railroad industry years unprecedented growth civil war brought thousands miles railroad construction thousands industrial factories strong stock market south experienced boom agriculture growth borrowed money banks united_states speculated railroad industry million stringent monetary policy secretary treasury height railroad contributed unsettled markets created monetary selling gold bought bonds act gold facto currency metal silver september finally responded grant secretary treasury replacement bought million bonds gold monday september richardson bought million bonds legal tender notes purchased million legal tender certificates september september treasury department bought million bonds certificates september secretary interest million bonds bought security banks october january richardson kept bonds million reserves issued lost revenue treasury actions help curb effects general panic allowing currency commercial banks allowing money lent spent historians blamed grant administration responding crisis promptly taking adequate measures reduce negative effects general panic monetary policies secretary richardson inconsistent government ultimate failure confidence businesses source distrust eventually ran course despite limited efforts government grant smith calls apparent overruled army experts help wartime friend engineer building major railroad bridge mississippi authorized congress nearing completion chief engineers agreeing steam boat interests ordered build canal bridge bridge obstacle navigation talking white house grant reversed order feet long steel arched bridge went completion canal economy inflation bill rapidly accelerated industrial growth post civil war america world crashed banks loans went bankrupt result causing general panic nation attempt capital stringent monetary economy secretary treasury released million argued richardson monetary policies argued illegal congress debated policy stimulate economy passed inflation bill release additional million original eastern vigorously lobbied grant veto bill reliance bonds foreign investors business gold grant cabinet divided issue conservative secretary state threatened resign grant signed bill april evaluating reasons wanting sign bill grant unexpectedly vetoed bill popular election strategy republican_party believed destroy nation credit resumption act january grant signed resumption act wrote note congress members passage act legislation drafted ohio republican senator act provided paper money circulation exchanged gold silver coins effective january act implemented gradual steps taken reduce circulation time paper coin currency worth exchanged silver coins effect stabilize currency consumers money good gold age system control inflation act stabilized economy grant considered administration foreign policy affair october steamer flying american flag carrying war materials men aid cuban insurrection violation american spanish law intercepted taken cuba hasty trial local spanish officials executed insurgents united_states citizens orders madrid delay executions arrived late war erupted spain heightened dispatches american minister madrid retired general secretary state fish kept cool demeanor crisis investigation discovered question ship right bear united_states flag president expressed profound regret tragedy willing arbitration fish negotiated spanish minister grant approval spain surrender pay surviving families americans executed salute american flag episode ended quietly hawaiian free trade treaty december grant held state dinner white house seeking hawaiian sugar duty free united_states grant fish able produce successful free trade treaty incorporating pacific islands sugar industry economy sphere war settled war native people uss alaska african american ambassador united_states requested warship sent protect american property american colony alaska arrived turner negotiated incorporation people society foreign traders corruption reform scandals continued exposed president grant second term office democrats gained control house_of_representatives held committee meetings stop political main scandal whiskey ring investigation went grant emma silver minor embarrassment associated american ambassador britain promote worked silver scandal origins presidential abraham_lincoln political congressional exposed scandal scandal cabinet infamous grant cabinet presidential involved scandals criminal activity assistant secretary treasury black forced resign grant secretary treasury resigned appointed federal judge grant attorney general resigned secretary interior agents resigned private secretary black friday whiskey ring safe conspiracy acquitted ring trials jury grant defense testimony favor whiskey ring indicted convicted served prison time claimed grant involved whiskey ring supply evidence private secretary whiskey ring secretary war resigned convicted house acquitted senate court dropped judge request grant attorney general secretary navy grant defended state union address grant believed kept modern possible lengthy tenure contracts june treasury secretary gave private contracts turn collected illegally withheld taxes fees inflated commissions profits commissions allegedly split richardson senator claimed payments expenses senator butler written law allowed collect commissions reveal split profits april discovered attorney general allegedly received bribe gift wife merchant house company drop case fraudulent entries williams forced resign grant affair interior disrepair corruption incompetence secretary discovered taken bribes secure fraudulent land grants resigned office october given lucrative contracts son brother grant grant performed work qualified hold surveying positions controlled corrupt agents enormous profits exploitation native american tribes massive fraud found corrupt government payroll refused reforms resigned public pressure grant asking resignation missed opportunity grant support ethics government october grant reforming cabinet choice appointed secretary interior cleaned firing corrupt banned agents prosecuted secretary treasury discovered millions dollars taxes illegal ring whiskey manufacturers ensued prison grant private secretary indicted later acquitted trial whiskey ring organized united_states fully operating criminal association investigation closure whiskey ring resulted convictions tax revenues returned prosecution leaders grant testified behalf friend result acquitted deposition grant great embarrassment reputation trial turned trial president grant political opponents trading post ring march discovered house investigations secretary war taking money exchange allowing indian trading post agent remain position fort allowed resign president grant result acquitted senate trial profits expense native americans supposed receive food clothing government late april grant col testified congressional committee month grant brother sec rumors talked press concerning indian post personally went white_house clear matters president grant refused times left washington return removed overall command grant denied participation having replaced brig terry insistence grant relented allowed participate campaign condition march secretary navy charged democratic controlled house investigation committee giving lucrative contracts grain supplier return real estate loans payment debts house investigating committee discovered secretary allegedly million naval construction financial paper trails evidence conviction committee claimed set corrupt contracting system known safe conspiracy september superintendent public works buildings indicted safe conspiracy case trial april corrupt building contractors washington trial safe robbery occurred secret service agents broke safe attempted frame exposed corrupt contracting ring named conspiracy later acquitted trial evidence suggests involved corrupt wanted revenge avid reformer critic evidence safe jury reforming cabinet members grant cabinet fluctuated talented individuals involved political patronage party corruption notable reforming cabinet members persons outstanding abilities positive contributions administration resisted demands patronage select efficient civil servants grant successful appointment confirmation march went immediately work collected classified bound seven volumes correspondence established new system simplified information fish created rule applicants official written examination receive appointment previously applicants given positions patronage system solely recommendations senators raised tone efficiency service congressman senator objected fish pass written test according fish biographer historian fish known gentleman wide experience capacities organizer happily united balanced judgment broad culture reforming cabinet member united_states secretary treasury confirmed senate march actions dismiss chief set system securing plates paper money printed | Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant | History | World history | North American history |
12957_WessagussetColony | called colony short lived english trading colony new_england located present day massachusetts settled august colonists ill prepared colonial life colony settled adequate provisions dissolved late march relations local native americans surviving colonists joined plymouth colony returned england second settlement massachusetts years referred colony ill conceived ill executed ill fated best remembered battle massacre plymouth troops led indian force led battle relations plymouth colonists natives fictionalized centuries later poem courtship miles september second colony led governor general created abandoned site colony unsuccessful governor returned england following year despite settlers remained village absorbed massachusetts bay colony origins colony coordinated london merchant associated years earlier funded short lived modern maine period pilgrims netherlands helped arrange colonists passage help merchant writing 1870s called sixteenth century mold brain schemes sudden gain settlement new continent later years plymouth governor called bitter enemy unto plymouth occasions primary purpose new colony profit religious reasons plymouth settlers dictated colony assembled believed families run plantation selected able bodied men men experienced colonial life total advanced scouts colonists final complement included surgeon lawyer party outfitted supplies winter colony advance team settlers arrived plymouth colony new world board english fishing vessel sailing coast modern day maine arriving coast maine traveled final miles members crew colonists stayed briefly plymouth scouting coast find site colony finding negotiated land returned plymouth sending small crew awaited remainder colonists main body colonists set london april board ships charity swan brother law initial leader group group arrived plymouth late june moved settlement following month end september colony established swan moored charity returned england relationship groups men assisted plymouth harvest accused stealing elder colony shortly relocating angry indians complained plymouth colonists stealing corn response plymouth send new colony disorder colony subsequently reported plymouth governor consuming food quickly apparent run end winter addition plymouth low supplies spending additional time growing season building fortifications growing crops prevent hunger famine colonies plymouth colonists organized joint trading mission natives goods brought colonists trading mission somewhat successful colonies split proceeds november died governor colony january colonists continued trade natives food severe disadvantage drove price corn forced trade clothes needed supplies colonists entered form building performing natives exchange food colonists died incident caught stealing natives colonists hanged view good faith sources disagree man hanged culprit colonists hanged older possibly dying man instead legend colonists hanged innocent man later popularized satirical depiction event poem february petitioned plymouth joint attack natives rejected plymouth governor killings winter tensions continued build settlers plymouth natives response instance native caught stealing plymouth near end winter natives near moved swamp near colony colonists felt siege seeing signs indications hostility fled plymouth bring word imminent attack adding desperation perception imminent hostility pursued natives flight arriving plymouth march met governor town council unclear report point plymouth decided mount attack plymouth recently warned life saved english medicine conspiracy tribes plymouth threatening tribes told led included tribes far away martha case plymouth colony sent small force arrived march called colonists defense following day natives including local chief historical sources different accounts killings manner natives including local chief room men source 1880s suggests natives arranged allow attack sources state invited natives situation peaceful including local chief room village gave order strike quickly killing knife natives village attacked escaped raise alarm killed brief battle native head cut displayed plymouth warning included fictionalized depiction killings epic poem version indians depicted begging weapons use tribes responds offering target boasts indians attacks aftermath following brief conflict offered leave soldiers defend colony offer rejected instead colonists divided including returned england swan remained joined plymouth colony spring village colony dissolved arrived maine months later seeking join colony discover failed settlers apparently gone north maine living home built explorer granted land found english colony settlement failed fate men uncertain fighting plymouth trade indians devastated years local tribes previously favorable plymouth began forge bonds tribes defense english hostility eventually war later king philip war historians differ conflict avoided colony saved historians saw strike necessary saving lives hundreds sad misunderstanding speaking shortly anniversary colony historian summarized experience ill conceived ill executed ill fated second colony approximately time new colony new_england patent settlement covering square miles km2 north east given english captain son sir settlement intended spiritual civil capital council new_england colonies commissioned governor general authority plymouth presumably future colonies government consist leadership council plymouth governor member unlike brought working men brought families intending permanent settlement unlike brought church_of_england form oversee spiritual health region arrived massachusetts september months colony collapsed instead founding colony location described patent instead chose abandoned settlement site town expedition began following weeks visited plymouth ordered arrest arrived colony swan official act governor general charged neglect colony selling weapons supposed defense colony denied charge confessed second consideration released word eventually settled politician virginia maryland new colony spring financial difficulties settlers returned england remained colonists plymouth virginia remaining settlers supported plymouth massachusetts bay governor visited settlement time location original settlement lost history development location original fort rediscovered | Wessagusset Colony | History | World history | North American history |
13141_Gunfighter | literary words historically refer men american old west gained reputation dangerous gun participated common term individuals 19th century today term denote quick draw pistol refer shotgun popular characters western genre appeared associated films video games literature range different including outlaw cowboy commonly synonymous hired gun living weapons origin term term gun western film drag word soon adopted western writers common usage introduction author says modern terms authentic terms period bad man written correct term existed newspapers 1870s term existed 19th century term newspaper articles wrote known noted term preferred term discussing individuals notorious new_mexico texas originated term usage term applied men hire contract killings ranch embroiled range war earn fighting wages like notorious like outlaw murderer took advantage wilderness frontier hide society periodic raids agent state lone sheriff duty face outlaw bring justice personally administer historical actual outlaw cowboy gang participated bloody depiction culture frequently appear stock characters western movies novels hero western meets opposite double mirror evil destroy western heroes portrayed local enforcement officers army officers territorial nomadic skilled fast draw artists normally masculine persons integrity principle courageous moral tough solid self sufficient characters possessing independent honorable attitude characterized slow talking depicted similar knight wandering place place particular direction facing curious hostile enemies saving individuals communities enemies terms western hero usually stands faces danger commonly expert display physical skills gun play horse handling pioneering abilities etc films possesses nearly speed skill revolver pistols lightning draws trick shots standard fare gunmen big screen real world gunmen relied tricks died quickly took practical approach weapons real shoot impress kill classic bit cinema largely myth showdown high noon matched agree meet climactic formal duel occasionally happen case luke short duel typically spontaneous fight turned deadly reached weapon knew actually won fight minutes air finally cleared smoke won simple distraction pistols emptied gunmen fought cover injury square rarely usually gave wide berth uncommon known face reputation valuable skills possessed western films books young challenge experienced gunmen hopes building reputation rarely happened real life strong reputation civil spare conflict likely avoid unnecessary confrontation days tales tended grow repeated telling single fight grow career making reputation instance legends gang relatively minor figures conflict actively engaged self promotion built reputation taking killing unarmed civilians fact fiction portrayed films books having men square waiting rarely case spur moment drawing pistol reacting develop shootout men cover popular folklore men held noteworthy eager match reputation contrary cases men held similar reputation avoid confrontation possible rarely took risks usually weighed options confronting known respect famous rarely known gunmen matched notable lesser known opponent opponents fights usually close personal number shots pistols resulting innocent hit bullets gone wild time difficult tell won minutes black powder smoke pistols cleared air famous died varied man known feared public reputation killed died result ambush going blaze glory died deaths old age illness mythology folklore skills famous historical figures known capable trick shooting necessarily reputation precision frequently seen include shooting center coin stylistic pistol shots intentionally opponent bullet hat example shooting opponent belt dropping pants bullet cutting rope shooting guns opponents hands typically alternative killing bullets tend fragments hurt kill myth pistol shooting tight groups revolver western movies characters gun belts worn low hip outer thigh cut away pistol trigger grip smooth fast draw type hollywood fast draw artists distinguished movie guns tied thigh long steel lined soft comfortable day wear use tie downs pistol catching drawing time hide pistols pockets popularized butt forward type worked better horseback use gave faster easier draw popular weapon horsemen effectiveness horseback winchester rifle popular weapon dubbed gun won west widely settlement american frontier popular weapon express guards especially trains charge overseeing guarding valuable private shipment quick draw hip shooting important skill west handful historically known known fast shooting pistol hand normally associated standard era carry guns fire carried iconic carried half dozen king fisher died result ambush killed men feared reputation gunmen dallas killed raging gun battles portrayed films era usually opponent executed famed died wagon accident commodore died natural causes living lives reputation avoiding conflict retirement known pistol pete lived old age gained fame death age mascot rare like light died accidentally hand famous image wild west filled countless myth generated primarily novel authors late 19th century estimate men american west killed gunshot total casualties american indian wars notable known took place states territories arizona new_mexico kansas oklahoma texas actual rare far occur cause varied simply result heat moment longstanding feuds violence range wars like clashes indians cause famous faded history accounts surviving prevent happening cities american frontier dodge city local ordinance prohibit firearms area famous example real life western shootout gang lasted seconds contrary movie adaptations actually happen vacant lot outside shooting started pistols parties simultaneously drew guns added confusion fired known fired shot bullet hit tearing belly sending shot wild fired shot went hit morgan shot ran soon shots fired sight panicked ran pleading life fighting away watched desert brother billy run instantly killed tom shotgun frank running challenged killing brother dropped shotgun drew pistol shot frank right temple wounded dying fired gun smoke striking leg responded sending rounds billy april dallas participated texas dubbed dead seconds killed fatalities twin caliber killed innocent mexican year incidents kill men line duty documented resulted kills person single event shot single december unknown davis companions band lying wait canyon brush near trail typically diverse group americans captain davis companions foot gang charged brush pistols died instantly time draw revolver react way managed shooter fire twice dropped badly wounded captain davis later described fever excitement time stood ground pulling pistols firing barrage charging shot bullets tore davis clothing caused slight flesh wounds moments seven dead dying ground davis pistols remaining closed captain finish davis knife quickly stabbed death disarmed knocking knife grasp nose finger right hand attackers men wounded previous raid despite weakened condition approached davis drawn knives captain reacted instant heavy killed december town sheriff named came face face gunmen known shootout battle started arrested cowboy shot turn cowboy called associates murder took refuge house course hour siege gunmen bullet holes house accounts total shots touching turn killed wounded shooting attackers finally ran house unscathed went distinguished career lawyer legislator died bed age january commodore took office arizona sent deputies arrest instigated charged later ambush shooting searched found north continue cattle killing deputies killed arrested gang members killed gang sheriff turned attention family gang county june old man disappeared presumably killed faction sons searched father august killed aka cooper ambushed killed revenge returned heard killings sheriff inherited warrant cooper arrest horse theft rode september sheriff hunted buffalo railroad shoot winchester hip great accuracy winchester rifle arm knocked door answered pistol hand told come warrant arrest refused tried close door shot rifle hip door hitting stomach andy half brother pushed pistol door right fired sheriff missed shot arm putting fight saw window moving shoot shot wall striking andy right hip died night boarding family jumped window pistol sheriff shot chest killing year old ran door brother revolver mother ran shot sam fell backward dying mother arms shootout took minute legend months sheriff rid notorious gangs killers early western films literature native americans portrayed having conflicts battles white settlements according estimate white men women children killed indians killed numbered casualties american indian wars history fight native americans civilian longest recorded sniper kills shooting indian horse mile away rifle second battle walls general young second lieutenant chasing northern mexico enlisted men sent look villa recently raided city columbus new_mexico positioned men south gate making way north gate trio villa men came ranch horseback drew obsolete single action revolver shot men man fatally wounded exchange tried draw pistol killed single shot troops took remaining outlaw tied dead men hood touring car drove bodies commanding officer real life wild west image violent reputation street duel draws pistol tries kill hollywood invention wild west occur real life rarely entirely myth recorded south brought crude form code highly means solving disputes gentlemen swords guns origins european second half 19th century americans fought solve problems thing past united_states start 20th century writer book southern honor ethics behavior described american frontier custom primarily teenage disputes rise ranking status famous recorded duel occurred july springfield missouri cards decided arranged walk wild bill armed presence caused crowd immediately safety nearby buildings leaving northwestern corner square yards apart men drew guns fired time shot hit heart shot missed recorded example men taking quick draw duel following month acquitted pleading self defense story shootout detailed article staple legend famous gave account having participated duel south pass found outlaw named indian charlie account says party recognized chased ensued party manage capture confessed taken morgan murder identified morgan killers time allowed revolver chance fight like man confession told draw challenging duel counted duel occurred july gunmen duel saloon las_vegas new_mexico women worked boyfriend named discharged army gordon wanted stop working told leave angry went outside saloon started shooting windows pistol bullets went saloon revolver walked outside gordon started shooting missed drew pistol shot gordon long range shot went saloon gordon died day fled credited wounding shooting pistol saloon owner hand tried known duel american west happened texas known luke short jim duel running agency provided protection gambling return portion profits time friend running white elephant saloon jim trying short utilize services told hell necessary care business february short short street drew pistols close range short fired blowing thumb attempted border shift switches gun hand slow short shot chest killing saloon shootout involving buffalo hunter professional happened april richardson developed affection loving wife began argue saloon frank sat long table richardson turned took seat table heard speaking low voices conversation richardson drew pistol loving drew response saloon filled smoke saloon heard shots came running men standing richardson fired shots gun loving deputy threw richardson chair took gun richardson got started table fell floor fatal gunshot chest shot right arm slight scratch hand immediately taken jail days later ruled killing self defense loving immediately released march argued game cards saloon met alley following argument card game harrison shot missed levy aimed carefully hit harrison died week later known today famous time derby wearing train despite swell appearance deadly killer fastest guns wild wild west sought capture gang years noted outlaw pistol drawn revolver infamous assassin said participated duel second lieutenant dispute prostitute years old infamous participating quick draw living reputation old west men labeled kill nearly men given credit labeled particular instance developed rumors having involved events actually reputation self promotion case brothers morgan killed outlaw said involved lifetime cites incidents expressed dismay controversy followed entire life wrote letter notoriety life brother ambush morgan assassinated hidden men suspected involvement provided fellow released trial brother warren set ride locate kill felt responsible portrayed number film books fearless western hero viewed central character hero wounded killed fact brother deputy considerably experience weapons combat union soldier civil war law enforcement sheriff constable marshal city marshal decision requested assistance creative biography frontier marshal published years death famous subject movies television shows biographies works fiction records support reputation developed documented instances killed men unarmed evidence support participation single deserved reputation associated dallas killed men civilians deserved time gunmen like unknown actually led life reflective consider cases certain possibly confused time similar known wild bunch gang kid reality known shootout lifetime historians stated possible time confused wild bunch member doubt dangerous member gang having killed civilians lifetime killed kid better known outlaw difficult separate cases term applied despite portrayals television movies history books claim law enforcement role source employment unlike contemporary peace officers generally pursued earning money business owners case referred outlaw served deputy sheriff sheriff involving caused disputes arising alternative attempts enforce law historically cited assassin served deputy sheriff job shot people killer hire best known successful chief police austin texas king fisher great success county sheriff texas wore big served deputy marshal wyoming entire time committing murders forced theft land deeds town substantial violent crime rate turn known town marshal chief sheriff hopes stem violence bring order known gunmen generally effective time violence usually involved shooting incidents eventually leading substantial earned fear kept line times hired prominent figures serve cattle wars sanctioned law enforcement officials gunmen actually things official case point service evans gang outlaw agents murphy faction technically working little hired guns usually hired town town marshal received support townspeople order restored point town indicate time change dangerous relied respect fear enforce law good example decision texas town council dismiss dallas entered council hall try guns job point immediately changed mind saying job resigned couple days later legacy modern people wild west historically popular culture participating cowboy action shooting events adopts look representing character western life late 1800s character chooses alias sport originated southern_california usa early 1980s practiced places organizations including single action shooting society usa countries different categories shooters compete classic cowboy specifications alongside iconic cowboy cultural image american people abroad image violence frontier justice adventure outside western genre term modern times describe fast accurate pistols real life fictional action genre quick draw help important skill american military popular culture featured media outside western genre combined elements genres mainly science fiction contemporary setting abilities clothing attitude associated seen genres example han shot han solo like protagonist star wars kills opponent subtle table draw wore low tied thigh trigger fantasy series dark tower pitted fantasy themed monsters enemies inspired man western characters detached reacting angry signs self pity possesses strong sense heroism attempting help need morality seen ruthless bounty hunter bound personal code honor protect avenge innocent ign ranked greatest comic book hero time universe occasions transported contemporary setting unfamiliar territory time period managed enemies advanced weaponry gun kid comic book skilled aided super heroes future notably hulk japanese manga anime adopted western genre known creating space western story protagonist wandering dark past unlike violence themed carries shane like attitude avoids killing men dangerous enemies gun priest named carries heavy machine gun rocket shaped like cross nicholas violent argue killing opponents western genre themed manga anime include journey incorporate knight themes modern day western appeared recent television series justified shares ambiguous moral code sheriff fast draw dispatch enemies shares elements hunted outlaw additionally comic book character self proclaimed born 1940s featured video games traditional contemporary future settings protagonist best selling western video game gun known video game western protagonist nominated spike video game awards new_york_times stated creators convincing cohesive imagination real world sets new standard ambition electronic gaming main character video games blood chosen group video game medal honor appear mission named player act captain 1st aviation regiment professional american football quarterback nicknamed rural southern wild risky quick throwing play style led great success national_football_league | Gunfighter | History | World history | North American history |
13351_FortSenneville | fort fort outlying forts montreal quebec canada built near anne property ceded large stone doubled watch tower built hill late featuring castle like features fort burned mill left standing governor general ordered construction second imposing fort rebuilt protect nearby fur trading post extensive cannons wall guns substantial castle like fort near montreal eventually destroyed american military control ruins maintained classified historic site background thanks work french explorers colony new france covered largest area numerically inferior neighbouring new_england consequently number king engineers appointed colony best fortified north_america quebec served fortified city americas centred unusual feature montreal defence string outlying forts protect constant threat expansion french settlements majority simple artillery developed europe built like fortified manor houses france roughly substantial stone forts served defensive residences considered true castles imposing structures prevent incursions initially fort french fort built half mile anne property ceded subsequently relinquished payment debt significant figures new france history site fur trading post large stone built hill late doubling watch tower mouth des river like new france similar fortified later built quebec thick walls square muskets pouring hot rocks attackers october nearby fort anne mill attacked settlers killed attackers repulsed second attack successful fort burned mill left standing second fort attack come shortly enraged governor general ordered construction second imposing fort fort rebuilt thick stone walls corner tower extensive cannons swivel wall guns substantial castle like fort near montreal attacked rebuilt probably use constructed large stone house fort order improve protect fur trading operations local manor house built fall new france british military post fort destroyed american revolutionary war continental_army troops military manoeuvres associated battle property purchased summer residence prime minister canada mayor montreal sir purchased domain estate site today site remains private property acre area today important montreal cultural natural heritage reasons november quebec recognized historical significance classifying site commissioned studies historical ownership fort funded archaeological research repairs consolidate structure ruin recognising exceptional historic prehistoric archaeological potential ruin surroundings site value today includes ecological environmental significance shoreline semi natural state habitat rare map turtle situated described montreal considered wildlife corridor lake forest | Fort Senneville | History | World history | North American history |
13359_DonganCharter | charter document incorporating albany new_york city albany charter issued governor months governor issued similarly detailed charter city new_york city albany created years charter oldest existing city charter force united_states arguably according senior historian united states congress commemorated charter anniversary half dollar coin history city new_york received municipal charter governor governor came albany time village sent delegation prominent men request charter encouraged governor finally released claims albany strip land mile wide miles long albany albany time consisted residents living houses july delegation led traveled new_york receive charter albany charter signed july read aloud citizens albany days later england extension albany julian calendar time corrected date signing document calendar august demanded charters albany city new_york new_york yielded albany mayor refused went major leaders suppressing rebellion major threat charter government came american revolution stopped meeting local took daily functions began meeting charter parade held anniversary celebrations ceremonies united_states congress authorized albany charter half dollar coin celebrations held included enactment signing awarding charter governor playing governor mayor playing events fireworks music unveiling clock hot air balloon lift cake large feed thousands world visiting dignitaries invited ceremonies given tour city mayor provisions charter turned village albany city mayor city albany legally separated nearby colonial estate charter established albany boundaries municipal government specifically naming officers certain special rights charter exclusive right negotiate native americans established albany sole market town upper hudson region right purchase land mayor albany executive officer selected lieutenant governor designated clerk marketplace city assistant chosen ward sat mayor recorder mayor recorder justices assistants judicial powers sole right issue trading privileges rested mayor encompassed north west time state vermont residents new_york albany specifically banned trading nation native tribe west east north city albany native tribes amendments charter amended march remove mayor powers act city county sole regulate trade indians continued minor changes march saw major changes state legislature revision city changed mayor city albany city albany people albany adopted revised charter amendment charter commemorative coin united_states congress authorized june half dollar coins celebrating anniversary charter legal tender actually circulated established approve design chose albany native create design design commemorative coin coins extra commission destroyed commemorative coins period normally sold sale commemorative coin sweeping country spring summer seen close commemorative coins issued year time issuing coins returned philadelphia melted sold coins coin rated original packaging rare included page booklet containing illustration coin history albany slots coins booklet envelope came highly today today boxes designed hold single coins inscribed specifications albany charter coin millimetres diameter weighs grams edge silver copper beaver maple branch represents importance fur trade albany economy maple new_york state tree seeds maple tree separate words united_states_of_america half dollar arranged periphery god trust appear small letters beaver reverse governor mayor standing pine tree base inscribed year artist initials inscribed governor feet mayor holding new charter shaking hands governor men eagle legend liberty arranged periphery words settled chartered albany arcs pine separate inscriptions | Dongan Charter | History | World history | North American history |
14014_LahainaBanyanCourtPark | park court park public park located corner street town hawaii capital acres park known commonly called contains multiple heritage sites historic trail self guided walking tour historic districts park occupies site old originally built royal governor built fort protect town sailors anchorage fleet fort demolished courthouse built site portion old reconstructed old recognized contributing property historic district currently sheriff planted indian tree courtyard square 50th anniversary american protestant mission tree largest tree hawaii largest trees united_states extensive trunk aerial root system covers acres park managed geography park located port town west hawaiian island park square comprises acres site old directly street small boat harbor bounded hotel street north south wharf street west street east historic sites area include site beach construction harbor lighthouse north campus king iii elementary school archaeological site associated south background new_england ships hunting sperm pacific began arrive ships anchored honolulu impact fleets reign shaped entire hawaiian economy primary source income islands discovery oil pennsylvania onset american_civil_war ships generally seek repairs honolulu captains preferred easy access fresh provisions available town according business entire population supplies entertaining crews sailors hunting months time went drink meet women notes prohibiting women going ships purpose prostitution proclaimed ali hawaiian chiefs altering familiar traffic burgeoning pacific towns enraged hawaiian women violating sailors turned american missionaries blamed emergence new strict moral law opposed rules governing alcohol prostitution blamed missionaries influencing enforce rules riots broke times riots sailors fired cannons home missionary threatened safety community queen visited february months died support construction new fort protect town help royal governor built fort waterfront completed month fort constructed coral blocks walls approximately feet high topped cannons inventory lists large cannons small cannons breech work fort stored quantities gunpowder guns rifles swords prison sailors docked subject sunset return ship drums sounded imprisoned fort american naval officer visited commanding officer observed king palace fort conspicuous object little account defence serving chiefly subjects sailors area acre walls feet high industry declined gained prominence late 1840s hawaii population dropped infectious disease contributed loss local populations fort restored prison defending kingdom cannons fort personnel soldiers governor lived visited met governor living fort wise wrote oddly battery thirty pieces artillery sorts carriages calibre long short command usual anchorage doubt prevent acts violence merchant ships question second discharge shot pieces 1850s began steep decline forts poor condition damage neglect abandoned removed demolished coral blocks reused build new prison street placed reconstruction old fort wall southwest corner park february experienced violent hurricane destroyed approximately buildings including original courthouse initially intended palace courthouse rebuilt site stones new courthouse housed offices customs postal service tax collector governor court courtroom jury room kingdom overthrown flag hawaii courthouse lowered assistant august flag united_states raised place hawaiian flag placed display permanent exhibit courthouse september post office courthouse replaced hawaiian stamp stamp june courthouse restored architect added new roof redesigned balcony building tenants included tax office courtroom upstairs jail housed basement building listed contributing property historic district restored courthouse houses museum art galleries visitor center community meeting room public opened upstairs interactive exhibits including videos photographs historical objects offices courthouse tree 50th anniversary american protestant mission tree hawaiian planted april courthouse square sheriff received gift missionaries india native india types tree hawaiian islands approximately feet high planted grown height feet covered miles acres park currently largest tree hawaii largest trees united_states tree faces threats including soil foot vehicle traffic tourism special events park drought irrigation courthouse renovation new restrictions imposed health tree began decline common birds branches tree sunset causing bird cries evening approaches administration facilities events park administered recreation department maintained nonprofit limited public parking available limited parking wharf street generally reserved tour buses weekends park hosts artists musicians dancers festivals year including festival festivals art fair halloween events park area known pacific long divisive issue | Lahaina Banyan Court Park | History | World history | North American history |
14028_Texasannexation | texas annexation texas annexation incorporation united_states_of_america admitted union 28th state december declared independence march time vast majority population favored annexation republic united_states leadership major american political parties democrats opposed introduction texas vast slave holding region volatile political climate anti slavery controversies congress wished avoid war mexico government refused acknowledge sovereignty rebellious northern province texas economic fortunes declining early 1840s president arranged talks mexico explore possibility securing official recognition independence great_britain president political party decided independently pursue annexation texas bid gain base popular support years office official motivation suspected diplomatic efforts british government emancipation slaves texas undermine slavery united_states secret negotiations houston administration tyler secured treaty annexation april documents submitted senate ratification details terms annexation public question acquiring texas took center stage presidential election annexation southern democratic delegates denied anti annexation leader nomination party convention alliance pro expansion northern democratic colleagues secured nomination ran destiny platform june senate whig majority rejected tyler texas treaty pro annexation democrat narrowly defeated anti annexation whig november presidential election december lame duck president tyler called congress pass treaty simple house democratic dominated house_of_representatives complied request passing amended bill expanding pro slavery provisions tyler treaty senate narrowly passed compromise version house bill vote minority democrats southern designed provide incoming president elect options immediate annexation texas new talks revise annexation terms house amended bill march president tyler signed annexation bill march day office house version texas offering immediate annexation took office day encouraged texas accept tyler offer texas ratified agreement popular approval bill signed december accepting texas 28th state union texas formally relinquished sovereignty united_states february background expansion texas mapped spain texas spanish empire years louisiana territory acquired united_states france believed new territory included parts present day texas spain border northern frontier texas took shape negotiations secretary state spanish ambassador united_states boundaries texas determined larger struggle limits extensive western lands spain vast possessions north_america february emerged compromise excluded spain lower watershed established southern boundaries red rivers legally ing american claims texas nonetheless texas remained object interest american anticipated eventual acquisition fertile lands missouri crisis commitments country interests called thomas established parallel imposing free soil slave soil louisiana purchase lands majority southern exclusion slavery bulk significant minority objected editor predicted restrictions south ultimately require texas north elbow room west representative virginia accused secretary conceding texas spain interests northern anti slavery advocates south additional slave states representative virginia invoked territorial commercial growth national goal counter rise differences slavery theory declared missouri open slavery new state encourage transfer slaves westward eastern states making emancipation feasible old south doctrine revived texas annexation controversy mexico won independence spain united_states contest new republic claims texas presidents sought official unofficial channels portions provincial texas mexican government success texas settlement independence anglo american immigrants primarily began mexican texas early 1820s invitation mexican government sought sparsely inhabited lands northern frontier managed regional affairs american born population slaves terms generous government land grants mexican authorities initially content govern remote province neglect permitting slavery legal fiction permanent similar mexico system general prevailed vast texas frontier mexico civic laws went largely mexican authorities losing control texas alarmed unsuccessful abandoned policy rule new restrictions imposed slavery nation terminating american immigration texas military occupation followed sparking local uprisings civil war texas conventions submitted petitions grievances restrictions limited success army mexican president entered territory texas abolished self government responded declaring independence mexico march april rebel forces texas general defeated mexican army battle san june agreed texas independence mexican government refused honor pledge facto independent recognized security prosperity achieved mexico denied legitimacy revolution years following independence migration white settlers black slave labor vast republic texas unresolved international status threat renewed warfare mexico american citizens considered migrating new republic perceived life property safer united_states independent texas situation led labor shortages reduced tax revenue large national debts diminished texas militia jackson anglo american immigrants residing newly independent texas overwhelmingly desired immediate annexation united_states despite strong support texas independence mexico president delayed recognizing new republic day presidency avoid raising issue general election jackson political caution informed northern concerns texas potentially form new slave states undermine balance congress jackson successor president viewed texas annexation immense political liability anti slavery northern whig opposition especially annexation provoked war mexico presented formal annexation proposal texas minister august rejected annexation resolutions presented separately house congress defeated election new texas president withdrew republic offer annexation failures annexation entered white_house administration whig party presidential nominee defeated president general election harrison death shortly inauguration vice president assumed presidency president tyler expelled whig party repeatedly domestic finance legislation tyler isolated outside party mainstream turned foreign affairs salvage presidency southern states rights faction shared slavery views address congress special session june tyler set stage texas annexation announcing intention pursue agenda preserve balance state national authority protect american institutions including slavery avoid conflict tyler closest advisors obtaining texas assure second term white house deeply personal obsession president viewed acquisition texas primary objective administration tyler delayed direct action texas work closely secretary state pressing diplomatic initiatives treaty ratified tyler ready annexation texas priority representative virginia authorized administration case annexation american electorate widely circulated open letter understood announcement executive branch designs texas described texas conflict economic commercial interests slavery issue divisive left states decide constitution domestic national security tyler argued result annexed texas texas left outside american jurisdiction union tyler arranged resignation anti annexation secretary state june appointed virginia states rights champion ardent proponent texas annexation cabinet shift signaled tyler intent pursue texas annexation aggressively tyler campaign texas late september effort public support texas secretary dispatched letter minister great_britain conveying displeasure britain global anti slavery posture warning government texas affairs regarded direct interference established institutions breach diplomatic norms leaked press popular sentiments american citizens spring tyler administration sent executive agent europe gather intelligence arrange territorial treaty talks great_britain oregon worked american minister france efforts major european powers suppress maritime slave trade green reported secretary july discovered loan plot american league lord british foreign secretary provide funds texas exchange emancipation slaves minister charged determining substance confidential reports alleging texas plot investigations including personal interviews lord concluded british interest abolitionist weak secretary conviction great_britain manipulating texas green unofficial intelligence alarmed tyler requested minister mexico thompson south_carolina pro slavery secretary british designs american slavery real required immediate action takeover texas great_britain tyler confirmed september british foreign secretary encouraged mexico texas allegedly pressing mexico maneuver texas emancipation slaves tyler acted september consultation secretary ordered secret talks opened texas minister united_states negotiate annexation texas face face negotiations commenced october texas mexico great_britain negotiations summer texas administration returned negotiations mexican government consider permit texas self governance possibly state mexico great_britain acting texas officials felt compelled fact tyler administration appeared mount effective campaign texas annexation general election united_states approaching leadership democratic whig parties remained texas mexico treaty options consideration included autonomous texas mexico borders independent republic provision texas slaves recognition personally favored annexation united_states authorized entertain government subject texas officials moment deeply engaged exploring settlements mexican diplomats facilitated great_britain texas predominant concern british interference institution slavery english diplomats alluded issue avoidance resumption hostilities mexico secretary state vigorously courted texas diplomats begin annexation talks finally appeal president january assured houston contrast previous attempts political climate united_states including sections north texas thirds majority senate obtained texas treaty hesitant pursue texas treaty written commitment military defense america scale military attack mexico likely negotiations public ratification annexation measure stalled senate texas face war mexico congress declare war tyler administration lacked constitutional authority commit support texas secretary provided verbal assurance military defense president houston responding urgent calls annexation december authorized reopening annexation negotiations texas treaty negotiations secretary accelerated secret treaty discussions mexican diplomats learned texas talks taking place mexican minister juan confronted reports warning congress sanctioned treaty annexation mexico break diplomatic ties immediately declare war secretary evaded dismissed charges pressed forward negotiations tandem moving forward texas diplomats secretly lobbying senators support annexation providing arguments linking texas acquisition national security domestic peace early able assure texas officials members senate pledged tyler texas treaty thirds majority required passage tyler annual address congress december maintained silence secret treaty damage relations wary texas diplomats tyler negotiations secret making public reference administration single minded quest texas tyler texas treaty final stages chief architects secretary secretary navy died accident aboard february day achieving preliminary treaty draft agreement princeton disaster proved major setback texas annexation tyler expected secretary critical support whig democratic senators upcoming treaty ratification process tyler selected replace secretary state treaty texas choice highly regarded controversial american statesman introducing politically element texas debates tyler prized strong advocate annexation safety valve secret annexation negotiations texas near senator mississippi key tyler ally issued widely distributed highly influential letter reproduced pamphlet making case immediate annexation walker argued texas acquired congress number ways constitutional moral authority based territorial expansion established jefferson madison doctrine monroe senator walker offered analysis significance texas respect slavery race envisioned texas corridor free enslaved african americans southward gradual exodus ultimately supply labor central american tropics time united_states slave population safety valve theory appealed racial fears northern whites prospect absorbing slaves communities event institution slavery collapsed south scheme racial consistent pragmatic level proposals overseas colonization blacks pursued number american presidents jefferson lincoln walker bolstered position raising national security concerns warning event annexation failed great_britain maneuver slaves dangerous influence southwestern states pamphlet characterized british overthrow united_states variation tyler theory played economic fears period slave based staple crop markets recovered texas escape route conceived walker promised increase demand slaves fertile cotton growing regions texas monetary value slaves cash poor plantation owners older eastern south promised market surplus slaves profit texas annexation wrote walker eliminate dangers union walker pamphlet brought forth demands texas pro slavery south north allowed anti slavery embrace texas appearing aligned pro slavery assumptions analysis shaped framed debates annexation premises went largely press public tyler texas treaty election tyler texas treaty signed april framed texas union territory following constitutional wit texas public lands united_states federal government assume debt million boundaries texas territory left unspecified new states ultimately carved republic likely slave states allusion slavery omitted document anti slavery sentiments senate debates provided preservation texas property secured domestic institutions signing treaty tyler complied demand military naval protection deploying troops louisiana fleet warships gulf_of_mexico event senate failed pass treaty tyler promised texas diplomats officially houses congress establish texas state union provisions authorized constitution tyler cabinet split administration handling texas agreement secretary praised terms annexation publicly economic benefits relation great_britain secretary treasury alarmed constitutional implications tyler application military force congressional approval violation separation powers refusing transfer funds naval resigned tyler submitted treaty annexation senate delivered april thirds majority required ratification secretary state assuming post march sent letter british minister denouncing british anti slavery interference texas included letter tyler bill intending create sense crisis southern democrats characterized slavery social blessing acquisition texas emergency measure necessary safeguard peculiar institution united_states tyler sought unite south crusade present north ultimatum support texas annexation lose south tyler presidential nomination president tyler expected treaty debated secretly senate executive session week debates opened treaty associated internal correspondence letter leaked public nature tyler texas negotiations caused national outcry documents appeared verify sole objective texas annexation preservation slavery anti annexation forces north strengthened major parties hostility tyler agenda leading presidential parties democrat whig publicly denounced treaty texas annexation oregon territory emerged central issues general election response tyler ejected whig party quickly began organize party hopes inducing democrats embrace pro platform running party candidate tyler threatened pro annexation democratic voters democratic party mean election pro annexation delegates southern democrats assistance number northern delegates blocked anti expansion candidate convention instead nominated pro expansion champion tennessee unified party banner texas oregon acquisition august midst campaign tyler withdrew race democratic_party committed texas annexation tyler assured envoys president effect texas annexation urged supporters vote democratic narrowly defeated whig henry clay november election victorious democrats acquire texas president elect doctrine pro slavery agenda tyler congressional debate annexation defeat senate treaty document foreign nation tyler texas annexation treaty required support thirds majority senate passage fact senate voted measure june fully thirds voted treaty vote went largely party lines opposed unanimously democrats split voted overwhelmingly favor election campaign hardened partisan positions texas democrats tyler anticipated measure fail largely divisive effects secretary letter formally asked house_of_representatives consider constitutional means authorize passage treaty congress debating matter joint resolution senate rejected tyler treaty margin june december short lame duck session pro annexation democrats gains fall elections legislators 29th congress assume office march lame duck president tyler trying annex texas final months administration wished avoid overwhelming senate rejection treaty annual address congress december declared victory mandate texas annexation proposed congress adopt joint resolution procedure simple house secure ratification tyler treaty method avoid constitutional requirement thirds majority senate bringing house_of_representatives equation texas annexation pro annexation democratic_party possessed nearly majority chamber treaty house sponsored bill tyler administration hostilities texas admission northern democratic southern whig local political home states presidential campaigns northern democrats found vulnerable charges southern wing tyler slavery expansion provisions hand enthusiasm north placed politicians pressure admit texas immediately union constitutional objections raised house debates houses congress authorize admission territories states nation right admitted state territorial boundaries property relations including slave property debts public lands require senate ratified treaty democrats particularly uneasy united_states million texas debt bought texas bonds cheap lobbied congress bill house democrats relinquished legislative initiative southern brown foster house amendment legislators lost white_house general election southern states tennessee georgia whig strongholds general election voter support dropped pro annexation excitement clay lost state northern hostility slavery expansion increasingly characterized party southern members association suffered charges soft texas soft slavery southern democrats facing congressional gubernatorial races home states number sought impression respect tyler texas bill congress including representative senator tennessee representative georgia collaborated introduce house amendment january designed enhance gains texas offered democratic sponsored treaty bill legislation proposed recognize texas slave state retain vast public lands debt furthermore brown amendment delegate government responsibility negotiating disputed texas mexico boundary issue critical size texas immensely increased international border set rio river rocky_mountains traditionally recognized boundary miles north tyler treaty provided organization total states texas lands likely qualify slave states brown plan permit texas state total states western region south line pre authorized permit slavery texas designated politically brown amendment designed portray ardent champions slavery south southern democrats bill served distinguish northern whig colleagues cast controversy strictly versus anti slavery terms brown amendment democrats quickly opted legislation providing votes necessary attach tyler joint resolution vote southern democrats supported bill unanimously northern democrats split strongly favor eighteen cast votes favor unanimously rejected house proceeded approve amended texas treaty january vote house party affiliation prevailed allegiance bill day senate debate compromise early february senate began debate brown amended tyler treaty passage unlikely support partisan senate near slightly favor senate democrats require undivided support colleagues willing cross party lines pass house amended treaty fact senator foster drafted house amendment consideration improved prospects senate passage anti annexation senator missouri southern democrat vote tyler texas measure june original proposal annexed texas embodied national compromise texas divided half slave soil half free soil pro annexation sentiment grew home state retreated compromise offer february early debates brown amended house bill advanced alternative resolution unlike brown scenario reference whatsoever ultimate free slave annexed texas simply called commissioners resolve border disputes texas mexico set conditions acquisition united_states proposal intended calm northern anti slavery democrats wished eliminate tyler treaty altogether negotiated behalf slavery allow decision soon inaugurated democratic president elect president elect expressed ardent wish texas annexation accomplished entered washington advance inauguration march day congress end session arrival capital discovered brown factions senate paralyzed texas annexation legislation advice soon secretary treasury urged senate democrats unite dual resolution include brown versions annexation leaving enactment legislation discretion took office private separate talks supporters brown plans left impression administer respective policy meant said meant appear friendly van faction handling matter effect uniting senate northern democrats favor dual alternative treaty bill february week inauguration senate voted admit texas based tyler simple majority passage democrats voted measure joined southern allies assured act establish eastern portion texas slave state western section remain territory committed slavery understanding northern democrats conceded votes bill day strict party line vote measure passed democrat controlled house_of_representatives president tyler signed bill following day march joint resolution texas united_states enacted march annexation senate house legislators favored version texas annexation bill assured president tyler sign joint house measure leave implementation incoming administration day office president tyler urging secretary state decided act decisively improve odds immediate annexation texas march cabinet dispatched offer annexation exclusively terms option joint house measure secretary president elect action comment tyler justified grounds likely come pressure abandon immediate annexation reopen negotiations alternative president took office march position recall tyler dispatch texas reverse decision march cabinet upheld tyler action allowed proceed offer immediate annexation texas modification accept annexation terms decision based concern protracted negotiation commissioners expose annexation efforts foreign intrigue interference kept annexation endeavors confidential senators passed resolution requesting formal disclosure administration texas policy stalled senate special session march names commissioners texas submitted denied charges senator intention support new negotiations option declaring total said meant texas president jones called convention july consider annexation constitution june accepted congress joint resolution march texas united_states convention july texas convention debated annexation offer unanimously passed ordinance convention remained session august adopted august citizens texas approved annexation ordinance new constitution october president signed legislation making state union december joint resolution admission state texas union enacted december texas formally relinquished sovereignty united_states february joint resolution precedent legacy hawaii formal controversy legality annexation texas stems fact congress approved annexation texas state territory simple house instead land senate treaty native american lands tyler joint resolution maneuver exceeded strict passed congress compromise bill success joint house texas annexation set precedent applied hawaii annexation republican president attempted annex hawaii senate treaty failed asked consider tyler joint house precedent declined democratic president pursue annexation hawaii president took office quickly revived expectations territorial legislation acquire hawaii thirds senate support forthcoming committees house senate explicitly invoked tyler precedent joint house resolution successfully applied approve annexation hawaii july | Texas annexation | History | World history | North American history |
14580_PennsylvaniaMutinyof1783 | pennsylvania mutiny known anti government protest nearly soldiers continental_army june mutiny refusal stop ultimately resulted congress philadelphia creation federal district serve national capital background march situated known independence hall philadelphia authority national government direct control military times war largely reliant use state militias enforce laws order june congress received message soldiers continental_army stationed philadelphia demanded payment service american revolutionary war soldiers threatened action day complaints addressed congress ignored message soldiers act threat days later congress received word group soldiers left post lancaster pennsylvania approximately miles west philadelphia joined soldiers stationed city barracks group approximately men effective control weapons stores depot protests morning june soldiers demanding payment soldiers blocked door initially refused allow delegates leave delegate new_york persuaded soldiers allow congress meet later address concerns soldiers allow members congress peacefully afternoon evening small congressional committee headed hamilton met secret draft message asking protect congress letter threatened congress forced council act june congressional committee met members including president members congress asked council protect federal government council agreed consult militia commanders reply congress day following morning refused congress request lacking sufficient assurances state willing protect congress members left philadelphia day princeton new_jersey effect reasons forth act council official reasoning unsure local actually protect congress fellow soldiers council thought conflict congress believed mutiny resolved peacefully second theory forth having officer militia sympathetic soldiers grievances theory council refused allow pennsylvania sovereign state demands members congress congress completed business princeton early november capital moved later month maryland new_jersey november finally new_york_city january delegates decided meet philadelphia pennsylvania failure protect institutions national government primary reason constitution decided create federal district distinct states congress provide security delegates agreed article section united_states constitution congress power exercise exclusive legislation cases whatsoever district exceeding miles square particular states acceptance congress seat government united_states following ratification united_states_constitution state new_york delegates agreed new_york_city temporary federal capital congress passed residence act created district_of_columbia located banks land belonging time states maryland virginia serve new federal capital representative pennsylvania convinced congress return philadelphia new permanent capital built result residence act declared philadelphia temporary capital period years final attempt convince congress capital philadelphia city began construction new presidential palace expansion efforts failed national government relocated philadelphia final time | Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 | History | World history | North American history |
15112_KlondikeGoldRush | gold rush migration estimated region north western canada gold discovered local miners august news reached seattle san_francisco following year triggered wealthy majority went vain ended gold discovered alaska prompting exodus photographs books films artifacts reach gold fields took route ports southeast alaska follow white pass trails sail required bring year supply food canadian authorities order prevent starvation equipment weighed close ton carried stages mountainous terrain cold climate meant persisted arrive summer found opportunities left disappointed mining challenging ore distributed uneven manner digging slow result miners chose buy sell claims building huge investments letting work accommodate boom towns sprang routes end founded confluence population hastily constructed town came house people summer built wood isolated suffered fires high prices despite wealthiest spent gambling drinking native people hand suffered rush died moved reserve way newspapers encouraged travel lost interest news arrived summer gold discovered west alaska left new marking end rush boom towns declined population fell away mining activity gold rush lasted production peaked heavier equipment brought mined today legacy draws tourists region contributes prosperity background indigenous peoples north west america traded copper prior european expansion tribes aware gold existed region metal valued russians explored half 19th century ignored rumours gold favour fur trading offered immediate profits second half 19th century american began spread peninsula making deals tribes early succeeded opening important routes white pass reach valley encountered people semi nomadic hunters fishermen lived appear know extent gold deposits region identified gold deposits expedition returned having discovered considerable amounts founded year gold found banks small amounts claims late 1880s miners working way valley living small mining camps trading border log town established years grew paris alaska inhabitants opera houses schools libraries known foreign correspondent came visit end year ghost town news arrived rich amounts gold found upstream discovery august american named wife brother nephew charlie travelling south following suggestion began looking gold called rabbit creek tributaries clear discovered gold group agreed let appear official feared mining authorities reluctant recognize claim indian event gold present river huge quantities measured claims strips ground later legally mined owner river including normal claim second reward having discovered gold jim charlie claims registered day police post mouth mile river news spread rapidly mining camps valley end august claimed miners advanced creeks feeding later named discovered new sources gold prove richer claims began sold miners considerable sums christmas word gold reached despite winter immediately left dog eager reach region best claims taken outside world largely unaware news canadian officials managed send message superiors ottawa finds influx government attention winter prevented river traffic june boats left area carrying mined gold story discoveries beginning july attempt estimated people reach eventually formed height gold rush summer summer began july san_francisco spurred days later seattle early returned bringing large amounts gold ships portland press reported total equivalent million prices brought ships proved migration caught attention joined writers photographers factors lay sudden mass response economically news reached height series financial bank failures 1890s gold standard time tied paper money production gold shortages end 19th century meant gold dollars rapidly increasing value ahead paper contributed financial caused unemployment financial uncertainty huge unresolved demand gold developed world offered individuals region promised higher wages financial security psychologically historian describes far away romantic close accessible furthermore pacific ports closest gold strikes desperate encourage trade travel region mass journalism period promoted event human interest stories lay worldwide publicity campaign engineered largely seattle newspaper man helped establish city premier supply centre departure point gold fields came nations estimated majority percent americans recent immigrants america experience mining industry mass staff join gold rush notorious seattle included mayor policemen significant percentage city drivers famous governor washington joined prominent lawyer known american scout explorer arrived africa called second boer war documented rush swedish born photographer took iconic pictures reporter write hand history later famous american writer left seek gold money rush working seattle san_francisco competed fiercely business rush seattle winning larger share trade join gold rush mayor seattle resigned formed company transport publicity gold rush led branded goods market clothing equipment food sold goods allegedly designed north west published giving advice routes equipment mining capital necessary enterprise newspapers time termed phenomenon routes reached upstream delta downstream head middle tributaries river boats navigate summer delta point called travel general difficult geography climate region mountainous rivers winding impassable short summers hot october june long winters temperatures drop aids travellers carry supplies varied brought dogs horses rely carrying equipment backs pulled hand shortly began canadian authorities introduced rules requiring entering bring year supply food typically weighed pounds time camping equipment tools included typical traveller transporting ton weight price draft animals poor quality horses sell rented day seattle san_francisco travel sea coast ports alaska route following coast referred inside passage led ports ports nearby trails sudden increase demand encouraged range vessels pressed service including old fishing boats barges coal ships coal dust sank water route possible sail way seattle northern pacific coast delta river boat rest way river guided native people lived near water route called rich man route expensive long miles total attraction speed avoiding overland travel beginning ticket bought winter fare settled travellers attempted route vast majority caught river region october successfully reached winter return having thrown away equipment route reach destination time remainder found stranded isolated camps settlements ice covered river desperate circumstances routes landed south east towns located head natural end inside passage need travel miles mountain ranges canada river network trails tent camps sprung places stop eat sleep obstacles lakes head start rush ticket seattle port cost cabin soon paid steamship companies post rates advance increase daily basis white pass trail landed way white pass cutting trail began gently progressed mountains paths narrow feet wider parts covered sharp rocks conditions horses died huge numbers giving route informal volumes travellers wet weather trail impassable late closed notice leaving stranded alternative toll road suitable wagons eventually constructed combined colder weather muddy ground allowed white pass reopen began way canada moving supplies equipment pass stages divided belongings pounds packages carried man heavier loads pulled hand packages forwards walking need thirty round trips distance miles moved supplies end trail heavy strong man covering miles need days reach trail landed neighbour town travelled trail crossed pass reach fed head pass higher gold rush trail passed camps reached flat main ascent steep animals location known scales goods weighed travellers officially entered canada cold weight equipment climb extremely day feet high slope white pass trail supplies needed broken smaller packages carried relay prepared carry supplies cash available route charge later stages natives members people commonly common mountains april claimed lives people travelling began provide solutions winter progressed steps cut ice pass daily fee step staircase known golden steps december powered horse walked circle pulling wheel mounted rope built ferry packages final parts pass soon followed powered steam engine charging cents pound aerial built spring able tonnes goods hour summit head lakes bennett camped build boats final miles spring boats varying size quality left time forests lakes largely cut timber river posed new problem dangerous white horse boats wrecked people died introduced safety rules boats carefully forbidding women children travel additional rules stated boat carrying passengers required licensed pilot typically costing simply boats let drift intent walking collect summer horse powered rail built capable carrying boats equipment canyon time removing need navigate parallel trails trails established alaska trail starting pyramid harbour close went pass miles west turned north distance miles created summer route intended cattle horses charged toll use route started went north east followed river met route point halfway meant dragging river mud crossing feet mountain narrow trail finally route starting port south east route went uneasy head navigation carry supplies miles like route met system canadian routes alternative south east ports canadian routes called stayed canadian soil journey popular british canadians patriotic reasons avoided american customs miles length started british_columbia crossed swamps river mountains met route face difficulties came men attempted travel route mud ice routes proved exhausting killing pack animals creating chaos travellers routes started alberta better barely trails despite advertised inside track door overland route headed north west ultimately meeting continuing overland crossing route encourage travel government hired build trail known trail trails known water routes involved river travel went boat rivers overland system river went north entering alaska meeting fort downstream boat equipment pulled miles estimated travellers took routes arrived taking months journey american route equivalent canadian routes american route aimed reach port lay coast hoped evade canadian customs posts provide american controlled route interior men women attempted late onwards delayed winter fresh efforts spring practice huge stood port interior proved managed climb cold causing deaths rest attempted alternative route east suffering greater hardships manage cross found having negotiate miles wilderness reach expedition forced turn way come men surviving border control borders alaska disputed canada britain american purchase alaska russia canada claimed ports combined numbers american quantities gold mined difficulties exercising government authority remote area control borders sensitive issue early gold rush army sent small detachment case intervention required canadian government considered excluding american took place instead agreed sub port entry canadians allowing british ships land canadian passengers goods freely canada agreed permit american miners operate decisions unpopular domestic american businessmen complained right monopoly regional trade undermined canadian public demanded action american miners set control posts borders disputed easily controlled points white passes units armed maxim guns tasks included enforcing rules requiring travellers bring year supply food allowed checking illegal weapons preventing entry criminals enforcing customs duties task particularly unpopular american faced paying average percent value goods supplies reputation running posts honestly accusations took bribes hand tried prize items like silk whiskey pass hay item ladies mining estimated people reached gold rush finally struck gold rich time arrived best creeks claimed long term miners region arrivals year taken claims recorded authorities july new look find claim region veins gold forced surface volcanic action worn away action rivers streams leaving gold dust deposits known gold lay creek beds lines soil typically feet feet beneath surface formed older streams lay deposits called bench gold finding gold challenging initially miners assumed gold existing creeks late began mined gold distributed areas found prediction good mining sites uncertain way certain gold present conduct digging methods mining began clearing ground vegetation debris prospect holes dug attempt find ore pay streak holes looked productive proper digging commence aiming bedrock majority gold found digging carefully monitored case operation needed shifted allow changes flow sub arctic climate layer hard lay feet surface traditionally meant mining region occurred summer months pressure gold rush delay unacceptable late 19th century technology existed dealing problem including hydraulic mining stripping heavy equipment required brought gold rush instead miners relied wood fires ground depth inches removing resulting gravel process repeated gold reached theory support shaft necessary practice fire melted caused collapses fires produce gases removed tools resulting dirt brought mines quickly winter processed warmer summer months alternative efficient approach called steam devised pump steam directly ground required additional equipment widespread technique years rush summer water pan dirt separating heavier gold gravel required miners construct sequences wooden boxes feet long dirt washed needed mining operation turn required lots water usually produced creating dam ditches crude pipes bench gold mining hill sides use lines water pumped high instead mines boxes moved forth like cradle create motion needed separation finally resulting gold dust exported exchanged paper money rate major banks opened simply money dealing local traders business successful mining took time capital particularly timber cut realistic mining operation required million wood burned melt ground construct dam million ditches boxes total attraction gold found highly concentrated creeks times richer gold california richer south_africa years example million worth gold brought claim canadian law miners license arrived route victoria canada prospect gold found suitable location lay claim mining rights stake claim drive stakes ground measured distance apart return register claim normally days claim person time allowed district married couples exploit allowed wife register claim doubling land claim mined freely year fee paid annually leave claim days good reason claim land canadian government charged royalty percent value gold taken claim proper size claim matter dispute traditionally mining claim granted foot long stretch creek including land valley canadian authorities tried reduce length feet pressure miners forced agree foot exception discovery claim creek feet long exact lengths claims challenged government surveyor conducted surveys settle disputes found claims exceeded official limit excess land available claims valuable claims bought price depended proved contain gold capital consider taking risk claim better creeks buy proved known claim sold million allowed hire work claim later purchases miners set mines employees acquisitions short term loans autumn mcdonald purchased claims estimated worth millions famously borrowed heavily claim creek relying hired hands gold interest payments fortunate funded rapidly found chose sell equipment return south took jobs manual workers mines typical daily pay high external standards low compared cost living possibility new creek suddenly produce gold continued poorer smaller continued gold rush rumours new strikes cause small mob descend fresh sites hoping able stake high value claim life massive influx drove formation boom towns routes largest new towns crowded chaotic disappeared soon came men women travelled region typically wife women entertained gambling dance halls built business men women encouraged lavish spending successful miners remained relatively protected canadian meant gambling prostitution accepted robbery murder kept low contrast especially port jurisdiction infamous criminal underworld extreme climate region general meant supplies communication outside world including news mail scarce boom towns ports entered tiny settlements gold rush consisting log cabin docking facilities ships cargo directly beach people tried goods high tide inevitably smashed stolen lost process travellers arrived intending supply goods services miners turn realizing difficult reach chose weeks offices lined muddy streets surrounded tents famous international media author described town nest ants taken strange country stirred stick remained transit point winter began permanent character built bay order attract greater share town effectively dominated drinking gunfire prostitution visiting superintendent noted little better hell earth place world nonetheless summer population including migrants largest city alaska late summer fell control smith men arrived seattle shortly began expand american confidence man gang strong cheated stole travelling region maintained illusion member community opening creating fake businesses assist operations fake telegraph office charging send messages canada pretending receive reply opposition smith steadily grew weeks activity killed shootout july towns port route boom town earlier gold rushes increased size gambling nude female dancing commonplace formed attempt create american route winter tent city people stayed supply ill fated attempts reach interior canada increased population gold rush immediate region cities san_francisco seattle portland vancouver victoria saw populations result trade brought created early days gold rush decided profit influx men bought acres junction rivers government laid street plan new town bringing timber supplies sell migrants village considered close new town superintendent moved inhabitants miles river small reserve town beginning simply known harper town site named director canada geographical survey grew rapidly hold people winter plots land selling spring population rose arrived passes centre town street lined hastily built buildings warehouses log tents spreading rest settlement running water springs drinking water supplement increasingly river spring streets thick mud summer settlement human plagued flies land scarce plots sold million prime locations street reach million small log cabin rent month result population spread south village renaming communities emerged closer mines newly built town proved highly vulnerable fire houses wood heated lit candles oil lamps water wanting especially frozen winters major fire occurred november started accidentally dance hall girl accidentally started second major fire october absence fire brigade destroyed major post office building cost million worst fire occurred april saloon caught fire middle strike newly established fire brigade major landmarks town burned ground buildings destroyed damage estimated million million logistics proved ongoing problem supply food population grew critical rivers clear food winter evacuated supplies alaska september onwards way search food shelter winter prices remained high supply fluctuated according season winter salt worth weight gold nails vital construction work rose price cans butter sold horses slaughtered dog food kept alive winter fresh goods arriving spring sold record prices eggs reaching conditions potentially fatal illness caused lack proved major problem particularly winter supply fresh food available english gave local canadian black leg account unpleasant effects condition struck writer fatal case brought end mining career malaria common epidemic broke july ran rampant summer patients taken newly constructed thousands affected measures taken following year prevent including introduction better sewage management water upstream gave improvements remained problem new reserve lay downstream badly contaminated river continued contribute gold rush conspicuous consumption despite challenges huge quantities gold coming encouraged lavish lifestyle richer typically open hours day whiskey standard drink gambling popular major running rooms culture high stakes evolved rich routinely betting playing poker pot establishments street grand style mirrors plate glass windows late lit electric light dance halls particularly prestigious major status symbols customers owners wealthy expected drink champagne bottle pavilion cost owner million construct elaborate opera houses built bringing singers specialty acts tales spending huge sums entertainment spent single evening example payments gold dust places like gold profit sweeping floor richest lived ladies man rarely went wearing silk diamonds impress woman liked eggs expensive luxury alleged bought eggs boiled fed dogs threw sequence gold objects ship favourite singer left esteem wealthiest dance hall girls followed suit belt gold dollar coins diamond inserted teeth businessman despite styled king unusual peers lack spending law order unlike american law town members sent district increased expensive commitment canadian government june force headed colonel officer reputation firm discipline murders major arrests offenses year arrests half prostitution resulted attempt regulate sex industry regular monthly arrests fines medical imposed proceeds fund local hospitals called blue laws strictly enforced establishments closed promptly midnight saturday caught working sunday liable fined set generally regarded historians efficient honest force period task helped geography relatively easy bar entry prevent suspects leaving region contrast early civil authorities criticized potentially corrupt gold commissioner temporary head administration start gold rush accused keeping details new claims secret allowing historian termed ignorance reign recorder office following campaigns backed local press relieved canadian government successor major considered stronger character arrived fell ill returned east july left replacement supported conduct reforms commission lack evidence cleared charges meant punished relieved proved stronger administrator subsequently revisited mining surveys predecessors news mail remote great demand news contact world outside months said news old read lack newspapers read labels knew heart following year teams fought way passes reach complete printing presses aim gaining control newspaper market editor arrived equipment team midnight sun produced daily newspaper followed shortly bringing number daily newspapers town gold rush sold annual subscription known popular causes associated miners coverage scandals paper hard find winter printed butcher wrapping paper lack paper news told june bought edition auction charged spectators dollar read aloud halls mail service chaotic ill organised government anticipated united_states region major problems stood way effective system begin mail america sent alaska sent distributed huge distances involved resulted delays months frequently loss protective addresses second problem initially lacked post office relied stores saloon act informal delivery points tasked run mail system october ill trained letters arrive single shipment collected person post office resulted huge lining outside office days time afford pay stand line woman allowed ahead line postage stamps like paper general scarce customer trained postal staff took mail delivery relieved task role women percent living territory women towns like rose percent women arrived husbands families travelled came similar economic social reasons male attracted particular media interest gender encouraged business proposals ship young single women region marry newly wealthy miners marriages took place single women appear travelled hope finding prosperous husbands gave recommendations practical clothes women female dress code time formal long skirts women adapted conditions trails regardless experience women party typically expected cook group mothers brought children risks travel remote location women percent actually worked miners married miners lives partners gold fields hard lonely extensive domestic duties including ice snow water breaking frozen food wood collecting wild foods towns women took laundry money physically demanding job relatively easily combined child care duties took jobs service industry example pay punctuated periods unemployment men women opened women considered better running women worked packing trade carrying goods backs domestic servants women capital invest mines businesses prominent brought cloth hot water bottles arrived early proceeds sales built grand later grand hotel invested widely including acquiring mining company reputed richest woman wealthy abandoned husband early journey continued reaching prominent citizen investing mining business ventures brother relatively small number women worked entertainment sex industries elite women highly paid actresses beneath chorus line dancers usually doubled dance hall workers better paid white collar male workers women worked long hours significant expenses entertainment industry merged sex industry women living prostitutes sex industry concentrated area hierarchy sexual employment existed houses small independent cigar shops middle prostitutes worked small called life workers continual struggle suicide rate high degree involvement native women varied women worked example carrying supplies equipment transporting babies women relatively little contact white immigrants significant social divide local women white women number native women married western men including wife practice survive married women women worked prostitutes respectable white women avoid native women prostitutes cause scandal end gold rush stretched alaska allowing instant international contact railway began built head navigation completed trail obsolete despite improvements communication transport rush began summer arriving found unable living left home stayed wages casual work depressed number men fell month world newspapers began turn gold rush spring spanish american war removed headlines popular phrase express disgust idea branded goods disposed special rates seattle factor decline change developed wealthy boom town conservative municipality modern introduced including bath tables brussels hotel dining rooms printed french balls noted historian visiting senator likened newly paved streets dressed inhabitants strand london longer attractive location way living town stable respectable community final trigger discovery gold canada alaska prompting new time away august gold found lake head generating interest winter larger quantities found mouth flood region left single week august gold rush legacy people handful people left gold rush rich typically spent reaching region combined exceeded produced gold fields time find gold lost fortunes subsequent years died attempting reproduce earlier good fortune fresh mining opportunities businessman example continued accumulate land boom money ran died poverty discovered gold abused alcohol dissipated fortune ended working ship kitchen pay way mixed left wife kate found difficult adapt new lifestyle remarried lived relative prosperity huge income mining royalties refused settle continued prospect death spent died alcohol related accident richest saloon owners businessmen typically lost fortunes died poverty example editor bankrupt spent rest career smaller newspapers prominent saloon owner suffered nervous breakdown died extreme poverty nonetheless joined gold rush prospered example famous dancer remained popular america death business partner lover started career going america greatest theatre movie remarried ultimately second female member canadian parliament impact gold rush native peoples region considerable peoples prospered short term work guides selling food supplies longer term especially people living region suffered environmental damage gold mining rivers forests population begun decline discovery gold 1880s dropped reserve result contaminated water supply smallpox found ways benefit economically gold rush fishing hunting grounds largely destroyed needed aid prevent famine places declined gold rush transport improvements meant heavier mining equipment brought larger modern mines established gold industry gold production increased result hydraulic mining declined approximately pounds recovered area journalist future mother moved thriving away street town increasingly deserted jammed refuse gold rush furniture gold sets dishes double bottles piles mining machinery boilers pumps inhabitants remained compared boom years site ghost town people living nearby settlements created gold rush entirely abandoned 21st century small gold mining industry tourism drawing legacy gold rush plays role local economy buildings center town reflect style era population grown 1970s recorded valley affected gold rush heavy occurred port rush remains preserved period town centered tourist industry sight seeing trips visiting cruise ships restoration work national_park_service began famous con man smith operated visitor centres forming located seattle focus human interest stories gold rush contrast neighbour rival abandoned gold rush ghost town railway built white pass year rush reopened today tourists closely linked trail popular hiking route culture events gold rush rapidly embedded north american culture captured poems stories photographs promotional campaigns long end discovery day celebrated monday august holiday events gold rush promoted regional tourist industries events gold rush frequently exaggerated time modern works subject similarly focus dramatic exciting events accurately describes gold rush myth continues appeal novels books poems generated consequence gold rush writer incorporated scenes gold rush novels set including wild novel dog colleague poet join rush home service created known poems gold rush songs books poetry decade 20th century novel trail written hand log canadian historian grew father wrote historical books gold rush great gold rush experiences resulted posthumous work translated english hard road vivid description period terminology way north american english like referring newly arrived miners experienced miners photographs taken gold rush heavily influenced later cultural approaches gold rush recorded early photographers instance stark black white photographs showing ascent pass rapidly iconic images widely distributed pictures turn inspired gold rush silent movie uses background combine physical comedy character desperate battle survival harsh conditions photographs documentary city gold narrated won prizes pioneering incorporation images documentary film making gold rush widely covered later fictional films western set largely ignores unique features gold rush favour traditional western plot popular literature gold rush approaches simply final phase expansion american west perception modern historians appendix archives images alaska washington library including images university washington library adventures august november private collections photo valley showing traces | Klondike Gold Rush | History | World history | North American history |
15214_Dugwaysheepincident | sheep incident sheep incident known sheep kill sheep kill connected united_states_army chemical biological warfare programs proving ground utah thousand sheep killed near base popular explanation blamed army testing chemical weapons incident alternative explanations offered report commissioned officer public called documented admission army nerve agent killed sheep background founding activity proving ground closely guarded secret activities included aerial nerve agent testing according reports producing small quantities late years united_states renounced biological weapons chemical tests time period sheep incident total nerve agent dispersed open air tests tests weapons mass destruction including open air tests biological weapons dirty bomb tests nuclear material open air conditions simulate dispersal fallout case nuclear incident days preceding sheep incident united_states_army proving ground conducted separate operations involving nerve agents operations occurred march involved test firing chemical artillery shell burning gallons nerve agent open air pit jet aircraft sprayed nerve agent target area west event usually connected skull valley sheep kill incident log proving ground indicated sheep incident began phone march director ecological contract chief ecology branch report sheep dead area initial report incident came manager livestock company sheep grazing area proving ground total sheep deaths reported days result incident attempt count dead sheep compiled total possible causes previously obtained documents said demonstration occurred day sheep deaths march phantom strike aircraft flew test mission proving ground chemical containing completely emptied test gained altitude bombing run trail aircraft drifted north proving ground settled huge flock sheep explanation aftermath incident chemical biological agent escaped proving ground evidence support assertion united_states_army admitted conducting open air tests nerve agent days preceding sheep kill army spray test causing aircraft continue climbed higher altitudes reported small found tissue dead sheep information contradicted initial assumptions contradiction nerve agent exposure cause came symptoms sheep following incident sheep alive sat ground sheep refused eat exhibited normal breathing patterns showed signs internal regular breathing internal inconsistent nerve agent exposure animals type including cows horses dogs rabbits birds appeared suffered ill effects hard explain fact caused sheep deaths aftermath incident affected army military policy year international incident contributed president richard_nixon decision ban open air chemical weapon testing sheep incident events helped contribute rise public sentiment vietnam war ultimately disbanded result following incident army state federal agencies compiled reports later characterized studies report remained classified unreleased public nearly years incident called documented admission army killed sheep reporting content report public time report described evidence nerve agent cause sheep kill report compiled researchers maryland stated found snow grass samples recovered area weeks sheep incident report concluded quantity originally present sufficient account death sheep report surfaced army maintained accept responsibility incident admit late year report went public officials stated reason report published wasn particularly revealing news reported june owned sheep killed outside working incident members family developed nervous system illnesses similar reported people exposed low levels lab experiments probe showed medical tests army claim humans affected considered inconclusive shown signs low level exposure | Dugway sheep incident | History | World history | North American history |
15301_GreatFireofNewYork(1776) | great fire new_york great fire new york devastating fire burned night september west constituted new_york_city southern end island manhattan broke early days military occupation city british forces american revolutionary war fire destroyed city parts city plundered people believed assumed people deliberately started fire variety different reasons british leaders accused revolutionaries acting city residents assumed started fire long term effects british occupation city end background american revolutionary war broke april city new_york important center business metropolis occupied lower portion island manhattan population approximately war began politically divided active patriot organizations colonial assembly strongly loyalist lexington concord patriots seized control city began arresting loyalists early summer war early stages british general embarked campaign gain control city militarily important harbor occupying july launched successful attack long_island late august assisted naval forces command brother admiral lord american general george_washington recognized capture new_york_city withdrew bulk army miles north people including general new_york advocated burning city deny benefits british washington laid question rejected idea event damaged september british forces howe landed manhattan morning british troops marched harlem armies clashed marched city civilian exodus city begun british fleet arrived harbor arrival previous february continental_army troops city prompted people pack leave including loyalists specifically targeted army patriots capture long_island accelerated abandonment city continental_army presence city abandoned buildings appropriated army use british arrived city tables turned property patriots confiscated british army use despite housing demands military occupation significantly strained city available building stock fire early morning hours september fire broke city according eyewitness account american prisoner aboard began fighting tavern near dry weather strong winds flames spread north west moving rapidly tightly packed homes businesses residents poured streets possessions found refuge grassy town today city hall park fire crossed broadway near beaver street burned city broadway hudson_river fire daylight hours stopped changes wind actions british marines sent according henry aid inhabitants stopped relatively undeveloped property located northern end fire damaged area total number buildings destroyed known precision estimates range percent city buildings buildings destroyed survived suspicions arson howe report london implied fire deliberately set attempt number burn town royal governor suspected washington responsible writing circumstances lead washington villainous act officers army found concealed city americans assumed fire work patriot recorded accounts marines returning pearl fighting fire men caught act firing houses americans accused british setting fire city plundered major noted fought blaze managed pay houses near fire washington wrote september specifically denying knowledge fire cause letter cousin washington wrote providence good honest fellow disposed according historian accusation arson scrutiny strongest evidence favor arson theories fact fire appeared start multiple places contemporary accounts explain burning wooden roof spread fire wrote flames communicated houses carried wind distance british interrogated suspects charges coincidentally american captain engaged washington arrested queens day fire started rumors attempting link fires indicating arrested eventually hanged espionage effect british occupation major general confiscated surviving homes known patriots assigned british officers churches state churches church_of_england converted prisons barracks common soldiers civilian families great influx loyalist refugees city resulting returning additional loyalists patriot controlled areas tent cities ruins fire convinced british city martial law returning civilian authorities crime poor persistent problems british occupation end evacuated city november | Great Fire of New York (1776) | History | World history | North American history |
15328_DelphineLaLaurie | born commonly known alleged serial killer infamous likely murdering household slaves born spanish colonial period married times louisiana having twice widowed maintained position new_orleans society april responded fire royal street mansion discovered bound slaves attic showed evidence cruel violent treatment long period house subsequently sacked outraged mob new_orleans citizens escaped france family mansion lived landmark french quarter history relatively homes massive size quarter early life family history born children father originally father brought family new_orleans ireland french colonial period irish surname shortened mother known widow marriage second prominent town white community cousin mayor new_orleans marriage death husband june married high ranking spanish royal officer saint louis cathedral new_orleans spelled spanish spanish colony american acquisition appointed position consul general spain territory traveled spain accounts trip vary wrote trip military punishment met queen impressed beauty report differed stated march recalled spain place court new position arrived madrid died route havana voyage gave birth daughter named nicknamed daughter returned new_orleans second marriage death husband june married prominent banker merchant lawyer legislator time marriage purchased house royal street new_orleans family known later children named died marriage married husband physician younger june bought property royal street managed little involvement husband built story mansion complete attached slave quarters lived husband daughters maintained central position new_orleans society torture murder slaves mansion fire maintained black slaves slave quarters attached royal street mansion accounts treatment slaves mixed writing tales told new_orleans residents visit claimed slaves observed public appearances seen generally black people slaves health court records time showed slaves reported public rumors slaves sufficiently widespread local lawyer dispatched royal street remind laws relevant slaves visit lawyer found evidence wrongdoing slaves recounted tales cruelty current new_orleans residents claimed subsequent visit local lawyer neighbors saw slaves year old girl named fall death roof royal street mansion trying avoid punishment whip wielding hair hit causing grab whip chase body subsequently buried mansion grounds according incident led investigation found guilty illegal cruelty forced slaves slaves bought relatives returned residences similarly reported stories kept cook kitchen beat daughters attempted feed slaves april fire broke residence royal street starting kitchen police fire got found seventy year old woman cook ankle later confessed set fire suicide attempt fear punishment taken room said taken came reported april responding fire attempted enter slave quarters ensure evacuated refused keys broke doors slave quarters found seven slaves mutilated suspended neck limbs apparently stretched torn claimed imprisoned months entered premises judge subsequently deposed having found mansion wearing iron collar old negro woman received deep wound head weak able walk claimed questioned madame husband slaves told manner people better stay home come houses laws people business version story circulating recounted added slaves showed signs whip bound restrictive wore iron kept heads static positions discovery tortured slaves widely known mob local citizens attacked residence demolished destroyed lay hands sheriff officers called disperse crowd time mob left royal street property sustained major damage scarcely thing remaining walls tortured slaves taken local jail available public viewing reported april people attended view tortured slaves convince sun citing writing weeks evacuation slave quarters claimed slaves found mansion died rescue added understand digging yard bodies condemned grounds mansion having uncovered particularly child found claims repeated book placed number unearthed bodies including child escape justice self imposed exile france life fire documented wrote fled new_orleans mob violence followed fire taking coach waterfront travelling schooner mobile alabama paris certainly time personally visited royal street mansion badly damaged windows walls later life death circumstances death unclear recounted popular story died france hunting accident truth late 1930s served discovered old cracked copper plate alley cemetery inscription plate read madame née paris according french archives paris died december mansion new_orleans house occupied time fires stands today royal street corner royal street governor street known stories high described highest building squares result roof look mississippi crescent jackson square entrance building bears iron door carved image flowers depending relief inside black white marble curved staircase runs stories building second floor holds large drawing rooms connected sliding doors walls decorated plaster carved black marble mantle pieces subsequent departure america house remained ruined point prior restored following decades public high school music refuge young bar furniture store luxury apartment building april bought sum million mortgage documents arranged way cage appear november property valued million listed auction result bank purchased million folklore folk histories poor treatment slaves circulated louisiana nineteenth century reprinted collections stories cable account confused unrelated novel madame based contemporary stories newspapers account mixed synthesis dialogue entirely creation stories slaves considerably explicit writing ghost stories old new_orleans alleged appetite inflicted black form torture claimed responded fire found male slaves stark naked wall eyes pulled roots joints skinned great holes flesh away ears hanging lips pulled naked holes rough stick inserted stir brains directly cite sources claims supported primary sources story popularized embellished journey darkness ghosts vampires new operator new_orleans ghost tour business smith book added explicit details discoveries allegedly fire including victim obviously arms skin circular pattern making look like human limbs broken reset odd angles resembled human crab new details smith book supported sources given today modern legend use smith versions tale found claims explicit place number slaves died care popular culture defunct historically themed wax museum french quarter street traditionally included scene depicting abused slaves madame attic poet written poem titled horror mansion history folklore poetic ghost tour directed found footage movie called people spend night disused louisiana plantation house encounter hostile ghosts house new_orleans plantation house location alleged fled fire incident fictional camera crew finds physical supernatural evidence suggesting flee house continue cruelty directed aka evil remains student folklore leading friends research expedition old plantation estate near new_orleans site home woman backstory directly taken reputed mysteriously cause madness death enter portrays heavily fictionalized season american anthology horror television series american horror story character board game evil baby appears character stories game developed play distributed big fish games queen named tells story commission drive away new town popular deal kept end seeks revenge punish years later having taken commission appears second mysteries fever season story house told expanded issues fairy tales books arthur old new_orleans history new_orleans isbn cable george_washington strange true stories louisiana new_york isbn new_orleans episodes louisiana life isbn victoria shannon charleston isbn old louisiana plantation homes family trees isbn ghost stories old new_orleans new_york toronto madame demand publishing isbn king families new_orleans new_york isbn london madame isbn saxon fabulous new_orleans new_york london smith haunted history tours presents new_orleans isbn academic papers women louisiana master arts thesis baker looking phd thesis periodicals house occupied woman april relevant text appears left linked scan article found ease reading popular fury briefly paper yesterday april relevant text appears left linked scan article found ease reading plate haunted house owner found january article found ease reading history royal street updated retrieved web content bob april buys house french quarter big time listings celebrity real estate homes big time listings retrieved november taylor legacy madame dreams strange nation retrieved january november loses homes auction retrieved december | Delphine LaLaurie | History | World history | North American history |
15711_CouncilofKeewatin | legislative body territorial government defunct district canada created passage act october portion canada lieutenant governor convinced government new territorial government unable effectively administer land north east shortly district formed large group arrived infected smallpox quickly spread indigenous nation population allowed council formed purpose containing smallpox epidemic council administered indian treaty claims immigrant land claims trading post concerns health care council lasted november april control territory returned federal jurisdiction founder selected appointed members serve given permission council disbanded legislation passed departments organized council continued remain force late council ceded matters administration handled lieutenant governor location new district separate area extending north postage stamp province canada united_states border northern shores canada west east ontario lieutenant governor served lieutenant governor district history treaty land negotiations morris fully expected sandy bar sign treaty purpose treaty free lands immigration settlement inhabited nations people return nations granted reserve land person annual payment bull cows band annual payment salary chief executive officers amounting total agricultural chief received flag medal land grant emigrated iceland volcanic shortage population increase limited access resources canada attracting immigrants land settle western canada era lord governor general canada lieutenant governor granted territory sandy bar south arrived near october later summer new immigrants iceland joined settlers elected provisional town council members colony administration granted free transportation canada settlement rights reserve known established acres km2 set aside new iceland territory comprised kilometres western shore lake river inclusive canadian government promised local self government laws judicial system maintenance school system received loan offered settlement stages allotted arrivals loan extended summer immigrants cover cost tickets agricultural tools provisions extra paid cover travel costs months provisions received april seed livestock head cattle purchased october saw loan winter provisions cows altogether loaned settlers acres settlement lands local council dissolved april established time territory underwent official transfer land claim dispute land claim dispute arose family family believed boundary line settlements south shore river constructed cabin river north shore supported brought claim morris recently lost wife children smallpox wanted title recognized surveyor general deputy superintendent agreed entitled land indian act treaty signed appeals federal agents land claims failed smallpox severe epidemic smallpox started shortly territory creation settlements sandy bar disease originated large group settlers settled west shore lake thought appearance epidemic recognized deadly smallpox epidemic epidemic quickly spread local native population predominant inhabitants territory council formation created members appointed sworn november lieutenant governor morris sent word ottawa telegraph november asking permission set council federal government responded quickly allowing appointments proclamation printed day members entitled use prefix honourable duration appointments session council opened november morris delivering throne speech emphasized impending need council deal smallpox epidemic fledgling territory detailed history temporary north west council created outlined powers council sat outside boundaries morris determined creation territory affairs district administered fort november total members appointed council law created territory allowed minimum members appointed serve cabinet minister serving lieutenant governor morris portfolio gave title office needed measures people place control access settlers territory help smallpox epidemic members council chosen medical knowledge political background council met home clerk secretary appointed serve council council chose chair proceedings council emergency fearing disease spread morris advised territorial government needed set deal crisis morris appointed lynch care smallpox epidemic visited seek help returning november arrived placed area november hospital established station creek hudson bay outpost emergency hospital epidemic nearby sandy bar band nation community reached lynch young abandoned buildings burned contain smallpox epidemic following trail found remaining residents band people fled east shore lake spread epidemic infected bands living guided doctor bands sandy river dead bodies found warehouse houses burned throne speech read november council got work quickly passed piece legislation act entitled act small served council act defined penalties provisions enforce morris proclamation intercourse people outside infected zone permission council act offered advice procedures medical treatment disease entire lifespan council acts regulations passed geared dealing smallpox wanted business visit infected areas obtain permission council april smallpox epidemic remained june demonstrated southern border requesting end lifted previous day june settlers died smallpox immigrants iceland travelled canada fur trade short existence council involved regulating fur trade council feared contaminated smallpox exported outside zone council invited people involved fur trade united_states government discuss matter purpose meeting testimony gain support industry council effectively draft implement enforce legislation council passed act february subsequently given measures adopted effectively areas district deemed infected prevented export areas deemed free smallpox exported long come contact infected exported district pass depots manned officer appointed believed come contact parts district infected smallpox destroyed led problems council dissolved people destroyed regulations applied government compensation mechanism place act drafted claims compensation considered ultimately ignored lost year northern fur trade pressed steps taken prevent smallpox outbreak appointed medical superintendent october mission native persons resident spring administered people away hunting established powerful territory run head office city local office established town led chief health officer matters district handled board established treat smallpox epidemic territory wide powers carry mission established programs native populations based legislation continued council dissolved governor morris february party establish northern infected area party regulate traffic fur party arrived outpost having travelled winter months foot supplies money instruction arrival party returned july half dissolution council short lived legislative session year formation smallpox crisis district subsided determined territorial government district longer needed entire council resigned effectively dissolved requested april secretary state council resign cost saving measure want members council abuse powers appointments control district returned federal government management cooperation lieutenant governor council remaining portions territory merged land formally comprising territory today governed provincial territorial governments ontario debate senate february honourable presented governor general correspondence government smallpox claims accounts honourable replied accounts examined representing graham representing resolution government dominion government pay government settlement claims equivalent thousand present day terms equivalent thousand elected administrators february provisional constitution colony named lake assembly divided districts administration willow point district district ended july late seed federal government voted survey road colony employ labourers workers paid cents day daily expenses women looking camps similarly paid monetary income enabled settlers remain till following agricultural season province regional government continued nation treaty negotiations requested area white mud river area portion nation agreed settle fisher river community central language group sandy bar group wanted reserve narrows area settlement area northern edge sandy bar central language group portion group entirely smallpox epidemic left located island band requested reserve later renamed band settled hollow water river renounced traditional lands bands met howard october requested lands reserves dog head band requested point opposite dog head river similarly blood vein river band request lands mouth blood vein river time requested lands mouth jack fish head band requests north branch requested site west lake blood vein river band nation central language family band signed treaty nation central language group big island band signed treaty nation central language group | Council of Keewatin | History | World history | North American history |
15741_HistoryofPhiladelphia | history philadelphia written history philadelphia begins october city founded pennsylvania delaware rivers overview king charles_ii gave penn large piece newly acquired american land holdings repay debt king owed admiral sir penn father land included present day pennsylvania delaware claim written create bloody conflict maryland dubbed war land grant owned lord baltimore penn colonial expedition fleet set america middle following summer penn sailing vanguard set foot american soil colony new castle delaware orderly change government ensued normal age privileges aristocracy nationalism colonists pledged allegiance penn new proprietor general assembly soon held colony penn river founded philadelphia core group accompanying seeking religious freedom lands purchased local delaware nation began long period peaceful operation colony delaware contrast tribe swedish dutch colonists new colonists enjoy easy relations rival territorial peoples west number decades english dutch german settlers attracted tolerant colony worked way northwest west south hill country lands lower lord baltimore circa finished decade long declared war dutch trading tools firearms time groups uneasy relations delaware furthermore penn government viewed favorably dutch swedish english settlers delaware historical allegiance pennsylvania immediately began assembly achieved goal southernmost counties pennsylvania permitted split new semi autonomous colony new castle prominent prosperous influential settlement new colony capital brief period empire following victory battle leipzig swedish settlers arrived area early 17th century found nearby colony today southern new_jersey arrival numerous english colonists development port delaware philadelphia quickly grew important colonial city american revolution site revolution city chosen temporary capital united_states beginning 19th century federal state governments left philadelphia city continued years country cultural financial center large free black community aided fugitive slaves founded independent black nation philadelphia industrial centers variety industries largest economic family ties south southern maintaining second homes city having business connections banks sending daughters french finishing schools run refugees selling cotton textile manufacturers turn sold products south instance clothing slaves beginning american civil war southern city residents firmly union war went war american_civil_war city government controlled republican_party established political machine gained power patronage beginning 20th century philadelphia described corrupt reform efforts slowly changed city government new city charter strengthened position mayor weakened beginning great depression voters changed traditional support republican_party increasing support democratic_party president predominant local politics decades population grew dramatically end 19th beginning 20th centuries immigration ireland eastern_europe asia blacks rural south puerto caribbean attracted city expanding industrial jobs expanding hired workers south manufacturing plants navy yard employed tens thousands industrial workers rivers city center finance publishing major universities 1950s philadelphia housing aged post world war era construction area highways middle class families met demand newer housing leaving city suburbs population decline accompanied industrial restructuring loss tens thousands jobs mid 20th century increasing poverty social city gang mafia warfare plagued city mid-20th century early 21st century end 20th century beginning 21st historic neighborhoods attracted increase middle class population people began return city new immigrants southeast_asia contributed energy city promotions incentives 1990s early 21st century improved city image created boom surrounding areas founding philadelphia founded area inhabited delaware indians village place easy located today area villages water flows located european colonization called meaning south river time began dutch expedition led entered river search valley including future location philadelphia new claim dutch dutch explorer cape new_jersey named charted delaware bay dutch built fort west bay swedish dutch german formed trade tobacco north_america command company expedition sailed sweden late ships governor new dismissal brought new project knowledge dutch colony temporarily abandoned efforts focus hudson_river valley north hudson known dutch north river relative south delaware partners knew dutch view colonies held actual occupation necessary secure legal claim ships reached delaware bay march settlers began build fort site present day wilmington delaware named honor year old queen sweden permanent european settlement colony eventually included land west appointed royal governor arriving colony february year rule administrative center moved north immediate today philadelphia built fort new manor house called english settlement occurred families new haven colony connecticut led tried establish mouth new haven colony earlier struck deal buy new_jersey south present day dutch area burned english colonists buildings swedish court swedish governor convicted indians colony received support governor said dissolved owing summer sickness mortality disaster contributed losing control area larger connecticut colony supported victory war maryland led general dutch recognized legitimacy swedish claim late summer director general mustered military expedition subdue rogue colony colonists recognize authority dutch terms tolerant swedish finnish settlers continued enjoy local autonomy having militia religion court lands official status lasted english conquest october continued unofficially area included charter pennsylvania area modern philadelphia inhabited europeans farmers debt charles_ii england granted charter pennsylvania colony shortly receiving charter penn said lay large convenient place health navigation penn wanted city live peacefully area fortress walls bought land legend penn treaty friendship chief tree city penn envisioned city people regardless religion worship freely live penn experienced religious persecution planned city streets set grid idea city like rural towns england crowded cities homes spread far apart surrounded gardens city granted land homes access delaware bay atlantic ocean important port thirteen colonies named city philadelphia love friendship brother commercial center market state house key buildings penn sent commissioners supervise settlement set aside acres city commissioners bought land settlement began lay city north area went mile modern south penn ship anchored coast new castle delaware october arrived philadelphia days expanded city west bank total acres streets laid system widest streets high market broad streets named prominent landowners owned adjacent lots streets renamed ones running east west named local trees vine cherry chestnut spruce pine cedar north south streets numbered area squares named logan washington franklin set aside parks open penn designed central square intersection broad market street surrounded public buildings settlers lived caves dug river bank city grew construction homes churches new landowners share penn vision non city people bought land instead spreading westward lots bought subdivided smaller streets constructed people lived west fourth street early growth philadelphia grew inhabitants population english welsh irish germans dutch african slaves left philadelphia time october issued charter charter established philadelphia city gave mayor authority issue laws regulate markets known jewish resident philadelphia german moved city mentioned article entitled philadelphia business published april philadelphia important trading center major port initially city main source trade west_indies established sugar cane plantations associated africa british isles queen anne war french trade cut west_indies hurting philadelphia financially end war brought brief prosperity british territories depression philadelphia growth saw immigration germany northern ireland philadelphia surrounding countryside region developed agriculture philadelphia exported grains lumber products seeds europe american colonies pulled city depression philadelphia pledge religious tolerance attracted religions catholics jews moved city soon outnumbered continued powerful economically politically political tensions existed religious groups national connections riots took place high bread prices drunken sailors october bloody election riots sailors attacked germans peace politics strained war ear city plagued petty criminals working city government poor reputation fines imposed citizens refused serve office chosen man fled philadelphia avoid serving mayor half 18th century like american cities philadelphia dirty garbage animals streets roads rainy seasons impassable early attempts improve quality life ineffective laws poorly enforced philadelphia turning major city christ church better known independence hall built streets paved illuminated oil lamps philadelphia newspaper began publishing december city developed culturally scientifically schools libraries theaters founded arrived philadelphia secretary help establish philadelphia place culture learning logan mayor philadelphia early created largest libraries colonies helped guide prominent philadelphia residents included botanist arrived philadelphia october play large city development help protect city fire franklin founded franklin named city post master generals established postal routes philadelphia new_york boston helped raise money build american colonies hospital opened year project franklin received charter incorporation threatened french spanish franklin set volunteer group defense built batteries french indian war began seven years war franklin recruited militias war city attracted refugees western frontier rebellion occurred refugees fled city including group hiding native americans angry white boys tried follow philadelphia attacks prevented city militia franklin convinced leave revolution passage stamp act combined increased political tension anger england colonies philadelphia residents joined british goods tea act threats store tea ships brought tea delaware shipment tea arrived december ship committee told captain depart unloading cargo series acts angered colonies activists called general congress agreed meet philadelphia held september hall american revolutionary war began april following battles lexington concord met met year later write sign declaration independence july philadelphia important war effort said consider philadelphia situation extent commerce number circumstances united_states heart human body circulating blood port city vulnerable attack british sea officials recruited soldiers studied defenses invasion delaware bay built forts installations march british frigates began blockade mouth delaware bay british soldiers moving south new_jersey new_york december fear invasion caused half population flee city including moved baltimore general george_washington pushed british advance battles princeton refugees congress returned september british invaded philadelphia south washington intercepted battle driven thousands fled north pennsylvania east new_jersey congress moved lancaster york british troops marched half philadelphia september cheering loyalist crowds occupation lasted months french entered war british troops pulled philadelphia june help defend new_york_city arrived day city supervised major general appointed city military commander city government returned week later returned early july historian emphasizes role working class distrust northern ports argues working class skilled radical element philadelphia took control city starting promoted radical democratic form government revolution held power control local militia ideology working class stay power businessmen staged conservative philadelphia suffered inflation causing problems especially poor unable buy needed goods led unrest people blaming upper class loyalists riot january sailors striking higher wages ended attacking ships fort wilson riot october men attacked declaration independence accused loyalist soldiers broke riot people died injured temporary capital following united_states congress moved philadelphia settled new_york_city designated temporary capital united_states politics longer centered philadelphia political compromise congress chose permanent capital built philadelphia selected temporary united_states capital years starting congress occupied known supreme_court worked city hall donated home 6th market street residence president washington president yellow fever city economy grew rapidly postwar years yellow fever interrupted development identified outbreak august yellow fever epidemic years lasted months thousand refugees recently arrived city flight revolution represented percent city total population likely carried disease island endemic rapidly transmitted bites residents fear contracting disease caused residents flee city mid september neighboring towns prohibited entry trade virtually stopped baltimore new_york people goods philadelphia people feared entering city interacting residents fever finally end october onset colder weather declared end mid november death toll population yellow fever philadelphia major ports nineteenth century fatalities epidemic philadelphia prompted exodus estimated residents died slavery pennsylvania abolished slavery required slaves brought city freed months residency state law challenged french colonial refugees brought slaves defended slaves gained freedom city violence accompanying revolution island southern ties residents worried free people color encourage slave city years federal capital members congress exempt abolition law executive judicial branches president washington vice president jefferson brought slaves domestic servants evaded law regularly shifting slaves city month deadline washington slaves escaped president gradually replaced slaves german immigrants servants remains president found excavation new leading work memorial site opened commemorate washington slaves african americans philadelphia history mark house site industrial growth pennsylvania state government left philadelphia united_states government left time city busiest ports country largest city people living philadelphia suburbs philadelphia maritime trade interrupted act war war philadelphia shipping industry returned pre status new_york_city succeeded busiest port largest city decrease foreign trade led development local factories produce goods longer available imports manufacturing plants built philadelphia important center paper related industries leather shoe boot industries coal iron mines construction new roads canals railroads helped philadelphia manufacturing power grow city major industrial city major industrial projects included iron water pipes response working conditions philadelphia workers staged general strike north_america workers city won hour increase wages addition industrial power philadelphia financial center country chartered private banks city home second banks united_states cultural institutions developed nineteenth century passed create public school system ethnic rivalries mid late 1840s immigrants ireland germany streamed city swelling population philadelphia suburbs philadelphia rich moved west 7th street poor moved upper class homes converted boarding houses small row houses crowded small streets areas filled garbage smell animal 1840s 1850s hundreds died year philadelphia surrounding districts diseases malaria smallpox tuberculosis cholera related poor diseases brought immigrants poor suffered fatalities small housing constructed south violence problem gangs like killers blood controlled neighborhoods 1840s early 1850s volunteer fire companies gangs responded fire fights fire companies broke fire companies virtually ended city took control operations 1840s 50s violence directed immigrants people feared competition jobs resented newcomers different religions ethnicity held anti catholic anti irish meetings violence immigrants occurred worst riots violence african americans common 1830s 50s immigrants competed jobs deadly race riots resulted burning african american homes churches commented probably city known world dislike amounting hatred coloured population city love anti slavery societies formed free blacks operated safe houses associated working class ethnic whites opposed abolitionist movement difficulty controlling residential development north philadelphia led act consolidation act passed february making philadelphia borders incorporating county american_civil_war began philadelphia southern reduced popular hostility shifted southern threatened newspaper homes suspected turned away police mayor philadelphia supported war soldiers ammunition war ships manufacturers produced army uniforms philadelphia major receiving place wounded soldiers sailors treated city philadelphia began preparing invasion repelled union forces late 19th century years following civil war philadelphia population continued grow population grew city population stood dense population areas growing north south moving westward large portion growth came immigrants irish german seven percent philadelphia population born outside united_states february act consolidation city philadelphia inclusive entire county away municipalities 1880s immigration russia eastern_europe italy started immigration western_europe immigrants russia eastern_europe jewish jews city number increased philadelphia italian population grew majority settling foreign immigration domestic migration african americans south led philadelphia having largest black population city period nearly african americans living philadelphia population near immigrants moved city philadelphia rich left newer housing suburbs easy newly constructed railroads 1880s philadelphia upper class moved growing suburbs west city politically city dominated republican_party developed strong political machine republicans dominated post war elections corrupt officials way government continued control city voter fraud intimidation hub city political machine trust controlled gas company supplying lighting city board complete control republicans awarded contracts government reform occur time police department reorganized volunteer fire companies eliminated replaced paid fire department compulsory school act passed freed city education political machine higher education changed moved reorganized modern form founded city major project organizing staging world fair united_states celebrated nation centennial held exhibits included telephone beginning end exposition november million people visited fair city undertook construction new city hall designed match ambitions project ridden took years complete completion city hall tallest building philadelphia position maintained nearly years philadelphia major industries era sons ship westward expansion helped philadelphia nearby new_york_city domestic commerce cities fought dominance transporting iron coal resources pennsylvania philadelphia local railroad series taken new occurred new_york_city branch philadelphia bank company failed panic 1890s hampered philadelphia economic growth depressions hurt city diverse array industries helped weather difficult times numerous iron steel related manufacturers including owned iron steel works outside city notably city largest industry philadelphia philadelphia produced city textile industry employed percent city workers cigar sugar oil industries strong city time major department stores lit brothers developed market street end century city provided municipal swimming pools making leader nation early 20th century beginning 20th century philadelphia taken poor reputation people inside outside city commented philadelphia citizens dull lack change commented thing philadelphia new different image philadelphia known political corruption republican controlled political machine run parts city government official estimated million wasted year city infrastructure programs majority residents republican voter fraud common city enacted election reforms personal voter registration establishing city offices residents city political bosses continued control retired successor controlled outside brothers george william created organization central authority senator took charge contributed reform candidate elected mayor administration numerous cost cutting measures improvements city services served term machine gained control policies administration reunited city republican_party world war temporarily halted reform movement murder police officer defending city_council primary candidate ignited passed legislation reduce city_council houses provided council members annual salary deaths city political boss 1920s public prohibition laws mob violence police involvement illegal activities led mayor appoint brigadier general marine_corps director public safety butler cracked bars tried stop corruption police force demand liquor political pressure job difficult little success years butler left january police reforms repealed august suffered stroke weeks later grand jury investigation city mob violence crimes began numerous police officers dismissed arrested result investigation permanent change resulted strong support residents democratic presidential candidate catholic marked city turning away 20th century republican_party philadelphia continued grow immigrants coming eastern_europe italy african american migrants south foreign immigration briefly interrupted world war demand labor city factories including new naval yard constructed ships trains items needed war effort helped attract blacks great migration african american september cases reported naval yard began spread mortality days people time began october people died rising popularity automobiles led widening roads creation northeast roosevelt boulevard changing existing streets way streets early 1920s construction bridge new_jersey philadelphia began steel concrete constructed old buildings wired electricity city commercial radio station founded city constructed subway hosted south philadelphia opened great depression world war years stock market crashed philadelphia banks closed large savings loan associations faced trouble properties savings loan associations shut regional manufacturing fell percent factory fell percent retail sales fell percent worst hit construction dropped percent unemployment peaked percent whites percent african americans percent foreign born whites work mayor blamed people economic worldwide great depression claimed starvation city soon fired city workers instituted pay cuts forced unpaid vacation reduced number contracts city awarded saved philadelphia millions dollars efforts kept city debts unpopular unemployed city relied state money fund relief efforts moore successor instituted numerous programs financed new deal despite condemning program mayoral campaign peak financed jobs employed program encouragement state government labor founding philadelphia union city trade unions african americans years closed labor advances workers dissatisfaction conditions led numerous strikes textile unions organized labor industries strikes taking place 1930s democratic_party began grow philadelphia influenced leadership roosevelt administration depression newly organized reached residents held philadelphia majority voters city reelected democrat president voted democratic state representatives city government continued dominated republicans politicians elected small margins beginning world war europe threat involved generated new jobs defense related industries involved war city mobilized philadelphia consistently met war bond war ended residents armed forces men serving military labor shortage businesses industries hired women workers outside city promoted african americans positions previously excluded public transportation vehicles workers protested began strike nearly city president roosevelt sent troops replace striking workers federal ultimatum workers returned days reform decline world war ended philadelphia housing shortage half city housing built 19th century units lacked proper facilities poor condition competition housing african americans come city great migration south puerto moved new neighborhoods resulted racial tension middle class residents white continued suburbs called white flight population peaked million residents afterward city population declined neighboring suburban counties grew residents moved region altogether restructuring industry loss tens thousands jobs city philadelphia lost percent population 1950s percent 1960s thirteen percent 1970s manufacturing major philadelphia businesses supported middle class lives working class moving area shutting industrial restructuring including major declines railroads city encouraged development projects area north philadelphia removed chinese wall elevated railway developed market street east transportation hub occurred restoration properties historic neighborhoods society hill area airport expanded expressway interstate built formed residential industrial development took place preparations began early 1970s million spent plans set planning group reorganized numerous city wide events planned restored development completed half expected visitors came city event helped revive identity city inspiring annual neighborhood events selected democratic candidate lost incumbent mayor campaign numerous specific charges corruption city government city_council set committee investigate findings followed grand jury investigation year investigation findings garnered national attention million city spending found president judge pleas court cases fire marshal went prison official tax collection office water department employee inspector head police vice squad committed suicide criminal public press demanded reform end new city charter drafted new charter strengthened position mayor weakened city_council council elected district seven large city administration streamlined new boards commissions created elected democratic mayor years clark filled administration positions based merit worked corruption despite reforms clark administration powerful democratic patronage organization eventually replaced old republican clark succeeded continued policies predecessor resigned run governor city council president elected city irish catholic mayor elected mayor reelected despite opposition opposed organization insider major cities 1960s turbulent decade city numerous civil rights anti war protests took place including large protests led students took sit race riots broke riot killed people injured caused million damages crime problem primarily drug related gang warfare plagued city crime rated city number problem survey court system tactics police department police commissioner controversial credited preventing level violence seen cities time elected mayor outspoken reelected divisive figure loyal supporters passionate opponents police fire departments cultural institutions supported city departments like experienced large cuts radical group called formed tension soon developed city officials major clash occurred group headquarters resulting death police officer members convicted trial sentenced prison stand occurred group new headquarters residents believed armed police dropped bomb house helicopter set fire killed members including children destroyed neighboring houses survivors sued city civil court won damages crime continued problem 1980s deadly mafia warfare plagued drug gangs crack houses invaded city murder rate mayor philadelphia african american mayor development continued areas south street large modern glass granite designed nationally known architects constructed city employee labor contracts signed administration helped set city financial crisis green unable prevent city near bankruptcy end 1980s group refugees settled philadelphia end 1970s civil war associated vietnam war attacked acts city held hearings incidents author spirit catches fall said lower class residents resented receiving federal grant employment assistance work believed american citizens getting assistance quarters people settled philadelphia left cities united_states join relatives vietnamese immigrants asia settled city near italian market area addition numerous hispanic immigrants entered city settling 21st century elected city jewish mayor time city numerous unpaid bills lowest bond rating largest cities budget deficit million attracted investment city stabilized city finances produced small budget parts philadelphia continued 1990s new convention center opened creating hotel boom seventeen hotels opening city hosted city began promoting heritage tourism producing festivals entertainment attract tourists named citing recent general compact city council president elected mayor city continued 21st century street administration targeted city worst neighborhoods considerable progress tax breaks created helped create boom increasing population helping slow city year population decline population rose number households grew percent city struggles series scandals 1990s plagued police department including crime street administration plagued scandal administration people accused awarding contracts based campaign donations street reelection campaign 2000s rise violent crime decline 1990s philadelphia murder rate inhabitants versus rate background business elected city african american mayor july oversaw decrease crime rate july tourism city main industries philadelphia 10th visited city atlanta ahead miami dallas boston instrumental philadelphia prevention program program copied cities country stabilize housing retain residents owned units pope francis visit united_states directly visit cuba francis visit new_york_city washington philadelphia philadelphia francis attended world meeting families coordinated philadelphia ended papal visit saying mass crowd million people benjamin franklin parkway philadelphia francis attended events including speech crowd people independence hall visit blessing saint joseph university city old sources philadelphia brief account institutions public objects metropolis complete guide strangers philadelphia usa city watson annals philadelphia pennsylvania collection memoirs anecdotes incidents city inhabitants earliest settlements inland pennsylvania days founders philadelphia usa daniel history philadelphia philadelphia usa philadelphia traveller pocket companion course main road philadelphia new_york philadelphia washington actual survey 2nd philadelphia printed narratives early pennsylvania delaware editor original narratives early american history new_york sons | History of Philadelphia | History | World history | North American history |
15802_SpanishconquestofYucatán | spanish conquest spanish conquest campaign undertaken spanish late states yucatán_peninsula vast limestone plain covering south eastern mexico northern guatemala belize spanish conquest yucatán_peninsula hindered politically fragmented state spanish engaged strategy concentrating native populations newly founded colonial towns native resistance new settlements took form flight inaccessible regions forest joining neighbouring maya groups submitted spanish maya ambush favoured tactic spanish weaponry included light artillery maya warriors fought flint tipped spears bows arrows stones wore cotton armour protect spanish introduced number diseases previously unknown americas initiating devastating swept native populations encounter occurred fourth voyage came large maya trading canoe honduras landfall tip peninsula expedition continued coast suffered heavy losses pitched battle forcing retreat cuba explored coast heard tales wealthy west result rumours set sail fleet continued peninsula fought battle continued onward conquer empire led expedition honduras cutting southern northern guatemala set sail spain small fleet left garrisons east coast northeast peninsula returned east find garrisons eliminated supply ship explore southwards entire peninsula central mexico aid son named spanish moved base operations repulsed significant maya attack battle spanish founded town north carved province soldiers local maya rebelled laid siege small spanish garrison forced flee end beginning spanish retreated veracruz peaceful attempts incorporate spanish empire failed renewed spanish military presence forced spanish outpost isolated hostile population permanent spanish town councils entire peninsula founded powerful lord converted roman catholic religion submission spain conversion christianity encouraged lords western provinces accept spanish rule late alliance eastern provinces launched unsuccessful uprising spanish eastern maya defeated single battle marked final conquest northern portion yucatán_peninsula south remained independent received refugees fleeing spanish jurisdiction unsuccessful missions attempted peaceful conversion pagan slaughtered spanish parties trying reach capital events ended spanish attempts contact course number spanish expeditions attempted reach mutually independent spanish colonies guatemala early spanish began build road south activity intensified significant losses spanish governor launched assault march city fell brief battle defeat independent native kingdom americas fell spanish geography yucatán_peninsula bordered caribbean_sea east gulf_of_mexico north west line running gulf coast caribbean coast incorporates modern mexican states eastern portion state department belize peninsula formed vast plain hills mountains generally low coastline kilometre stretch high rocky coast runs south city gulf_coast number bays situated east coast peninsula north south santo bay bay north coast features wide sandy zone extreme north peninsula roughly corresponding underlying bedrock consisting flat limestone south limestone rises form low chain steep initial running kilometres east gulf_coast near terminating kilometres caribbean coast near border hills reach maximum altitude metres northwestern northern portions yucatán_peninsula experience lower rainfall rest peninsula regions feature highly limestone bedrock resulting surface water limestone geology results directly bedrock zone slowly flows coasts form large submarine springs freshwater springs rise coast form holes limestone caused formation extensive cave systems cave subject collapse forming deep cave deeper level formed contrast northeastern portion peninsula characterised forested northern portion peninsula lacks rivers rivers located south flows west east south central lake flows northwards belize lake flows belize northwards flow belize join form caribbean_sea southwest peninsula form gulf_of_mexico drainage region consists densely forested low lying limestone plain featuring topography area crossed low east west oriented ridges limestone characterised variety forest soil types water sources include generally small rivers low lying seasonal swamps known chain fourteen lakes runs central drainage basin rainy season lakes drainage area measures approximately kilometres east west kilometres north south largest lake near centre drainage basin measures kilometres broad savannah extends south central lakes north lakes region frequent interspersed forest far north basin forms interior drainage region south plain gradually rises canopy height forest gradually decreases northwards averaging metres dense forest covers northern southern portion south north vegetation turns lower forest consisting dense climate climate progressively drier north peninsula north annual mean temperature average temperature peninsula varies january july lowest temperature record peninsula mean annual precipitation millimetres rainy season lasts june september dry season runs october dry season rainfall averages millimetres wet season increases average millimetres prevailing winds easterly created east west precipitation gradient average rainfall east exceeding millimetres north northwestern portions peninsula receiving maximum millimetres southeastern portion peninsula tropical rainy climate short dry season winter hot climate receives highest rainfall climate divided wet dry seasons rainy season lasting june december seasons clearly defined south rain occurring year climate varies tropical south north temperature varies usually drop beneath mean temperature varies southeast northeast highest temperatures reached april june january month experiences hot dry period late august annual precipitation high varying mean millimetres northeast millimetres central conquest large maya cities developed far south yucatán_peninsula far formed ancient maya civilization classic period 16th century maya provinces northern likely evolved maya classic period century century united northern provinces time shared joint form government great cities dominated fallen ruin beginning 10th century onset classic maya collapse significant maya presence remained period abandonment major classic period cities population particularly concentrated near permanent water sources early 16th century spanish discovered yucatán_peninsula region dominated maya civilization divided number independent provinces referred language provinces shared common culture internal organisation varied province access important resources differences political economic makeup led hostilities provinces politically fragmented state yucatán_peninsula time conquest hindered spanish invasion central political authority overthrown spanish able exploit taking advantage pre existing rivalries estimates number northern vary sixteen boundaries stable subject effects alliances wars forms government likely stable boundaries loose provinces spanish discovered provinces important region mutually hostile maya allied spanish maya enemies european time conquest north included largely small stretch coast north peninsula coastal province east east north coast modern city situated site capital known mutually hostile engaged wars control salt beds north coast small province south large province east southeast south bordered caribbean_sea eastern half peninsula southwest northwest borders poorly understood extended occupy portion caribbean coast capital provinces north southwest northernmost province gulf_coast peninsula modern south followed modern south extending west gulf_coast maya speaking province extended east far southern portion state capital located southern portion peninsula number occupied occupied territory north east lakes west maya speaking confused modern inhabitants controlled territory tributaries spanning southwestern guatemala eastern fierce reputation spanish insufficient data accurately estimate population sizes time contact spanish early spanish reports suggest maya populations existed particularly central lakes rivers defeat controlled influenced parts belize martial prowess impressed neighbouring maya kingdoms spanish enemies capital island city lake developed modern town capital department guatemala spoke variety maya second importance hostile neighbours located east eastern lakes lake lake appear dominant central alongside territory maximum extension east shore lake eastwards belize 17th century capital located site north shore lake time spanish contact allied alliance cemented groups late 17th century spanish colonial records document hostilities maya groups lakes region sites including lake groups known precise territorial extent political makeup remains obscure impact old world diseases single soldier arriving mexico carrying smallpox initiated devastating swept native populations americas european diseases ravaged indigenous inhabitants americas severely affected maya groups entire yucatán_peninsula modern estimates native population decline vary mortality terrible swept peninsula recorded written histories combined neighbouring maya peoples suggest smallpox rapidly transmitted maya area year arrived central mexico forces command old world diseases mentioned briefly indigenous accounts making difficult identify exact culprit deadly aforementioned smallpox number diseases including tuberculosis disease attributed arrival spanish maya inhabitants diseases swept periodic 16th century late 16th century reports high suggest arrival malaria region yellow fever reported century mention particular outbreak traced island caribbean introduced port city transmitted mortality high approximately population settlements wiped sixteen reported died probably majority based time probably numbered outbreak areas peninsula experience conditions particularly possessing rapidly conquest introduction malaria parasites example time populated province occupying northeastern portion peninsula occupied town months spanish recorded approximately houses town adult male population time estimated spanish records tributaries registered indicating population drop years native population northeastern portion peninsula completely eliminated years conquest south conditions spread malaria existed belize time fall estimated maya living lake including large number refugees areas estimated died years colonial rule owing combination disease war likewise population approximately reduced estimated smallpox main weaponry strategies tactics spanish engaged strategy concentrating native populations newly founded colonial towns known native resistance new settlements took form flight indigenous inhabitants inaccessible regions forest joining neighbouring maya groups submitted spanish remained fell victim diseases example effect populations strategy province occupied area spanning southern eastern passed estimated population size population recorded population forcibly moved gulf coast easily accessible spanish authorities spanish recorded tribute paying inhabitants probably total population indicates drop population year span inhabitants fled forest succumbed disease inadequate housing spanish coastal convenient spanish administration vulnerable pirate attacks case pirate attacks european diseases led town extinction maya ambush favoured tactic spanish weaponry armour 16th century spanish armed light artillery mounted armed metre lance served pike variety bills employed handed metre long handed version metre arms horn bone cane supplied facilitate drawing string easier maintain especially humid tropical climate caribbean region included yucatán_peninsula native weaponry armour maya warriors entered battle spanish flint tipped spears bows arrows stones wore cotton armour protect members maya aristocracy wore cotton armour warriors lesser rank wore twisted rolls cotton wrapped bodies warriors bore wooden animal hide shields decorated feathers animal skins encounters july fourth voyage arrived coast honduras sent brother scout island explored island boats large canoe approached west apparently route island canoe carved large tree trunk powered naked rowers curious visitors seized boarded found maya trading canoe carrying dressed maya rich cargo included cotton yellow stone axes flint war clubs copper axes bells cargo small number women children probably destined sold slaves number rowers europeans looted took interest cargo seized elderly maya captain serve interpreter canoe allowed continue way recorded contact europeans maya likely news strangers caribbean passed maya trade routes invaders sent northern maya god probably recorded time course passed books spanish set sail central american coast command ship sailing santo domingo inform colonial authorities ongoing conflict ship reef known alternatively jamaica survivors wreck including captain set ship boats bad sail thirteen days half survivors died landfall coast seized maya lord captain sacrificed companions flesh served feast guerrero held prisoner killing guerrero managed escape captors fled neighbouring lord enemy took prisoner kept slaves time passed slave lord guerrero completely served new lord loyalty married daughters children guerrero achieved rank war leader served enemies francisco set sail cuba small fleet consisting dual intention exploration rounding slaves experienced served pilot previously served pilot final voyage approximately strong expedition members expedition sailed west cuba weeks day storm week sighting coast northeastern tip yucatán_peninsula ships close shore coastal waters maya city leagues inland low hill spanish called literally great cairo size location known certainty believed sighting following morning spanish sent ships shallower draught find safe approach anchored league shore large powered sails rowed meet spanish ships thirty maya boarded vessels mixed freely maya visitors accepted gifts leader indicated signs return spanish ashore following day maya leader returned following day promised spanish shore packed natives ashore ships boats daring boarded native spanish named words spoken maya leader sounded spanish like ashore loosely advanced city path low covered point maya leader gave shout spanish party ambushed maya warriors armed spears bows arrows stones thirteen injured arrows assault repulsed maya attack advanced small plaza bordered temples outskirts city temples found number low grade gold items filled enthusiasm expedition captured retreated ships following days spanish discovered maya arrows struck little force flint tended impact causing infected wounds slow death wounded died arrow wounds inflicted ambush days fleet slowly followed coastline west south brought cuba leaking expedition running dangerously low fresh water hunt priority expedition advanced shore parties searching water left dangerously exposed ships pull close shore february day city spotted named spanish known original maya large contingent ashore ships boats fill water freshwater pool approached finely dressed unarmed indians water loaded boats questioned purpose means signs spanish party accepted invitation enter city led large buildings stood blood altar city inhabitants crowded indians visitors act followed procession armed maya warriors war paint followed maya priests maya set fire indicated spanish killed gone time consumed spanish party withdrew defensive formation shore rapidly boarded boats retreat safety ships small fleet continued days fine weather followed stormy days time water dangerously short ships spotted inlet close city landing party discovered fresh water armed maya warriors approached city water filled communication attempted signs night fell time water filled attempts communication concluded darkness hear movements large numbers maya warriors decided night time retreat risky instead posted guards waited dawn sunrise spanish saw surrounded army maya warriors launched assault missiles including arrows stones charged hand hand combat spears clubs eighty defenders wounded initial barrage missiles captured frantic followed spanish party received wounds including spanish defensive formation forced passage shore discipline collapsed frantic scramble boats ensued leaving spanish vulnerable pursuing maya warriors sea precious water abandoned beach surviving spanish reached safety ships realised lost men half number men died wounds following days battle lasted hour spanish named far help low supplies men lost injured sail ships cuba decided abandon smallest ship purchased credit governor cuba men wounded manning ships battle reinforced men suffered relatively minor wounds ashore remote beach dig water found brought ships drank ships sailed storm days nights pilot steered course florida found good drinking water lost man local indians drank water died ships finally port cuba wrote report governor describing voyage cities plantations importantly discovery gold died soon wounds captured maya survived voyage cuba interrogated swore abundant gold based report testimony interrogated indian prisoners governor wrote discovery governor cuba report gold organised new expedition consisting ships men placed nephew command eventually conquer peninsula captain ships captained ships served crew able secure place expedition favour governor served pilot governor provided ships attempt protect claim peninsula small fleet stocked muskets goods pork bread took captured indians expedition fleet left cuba april landfall island east coast maya inhabitants fled spanish respond friendly fleet sailed south east coast peninsula spanish spotted large maya cities coast probably ascension thursday fleet discovered large bay spanish named land cities turned north bay looped north yucatán_peninsula sail west coast spanish tried water maya refused opened fire city small cannon inhabitants fled allowing spanish abandoned city messages sent maya slow escape maya remained hidden forest spanish boarded ships continued coast inhabitants routed men fleet approached small number large war ships cannon soon flight mouth spanish sighted warriors natives approach means indicated wished trade wine exchange food supplies natives received gold news empire west expedition continued far confirm reality gold rich empire sailing far north fleet returned cuba spanish attacked avenge previous year defeat spanish expedition led killed wounded ensuing battle including port havana months left return aroused great interest cuba believed land waiting plundered new expedition organised fleet ships carrying men horses placed command crew included officers famous including aboard veterans expedition fleet landfall remained days maya temples cast christian cross heard rumours men mainland presumed europeans sent able rescue enslaved maya lord learnt language interpreter fleet looped north yucatán_peninsula followed coast renamed honour spanish captain discovered anchored ships town maya prepared battle spanish horses firearms quickly decided outcome defeated lords offered gold food clothing group young women tribute women young maya called given spanish marina spoke maya means able communicate marina consort eventually bore son continued veracruz subject city went conquer sent veteran spain treasure king spain pleaded cause supporters remained spain seven years eventually succeeded acquiring hereditary military title maya spanish conquest led expedition honduras land cutting southern kingdom northern guatemala aim subdue rebellious sent conquer honduras set independently arrival territory left october spanish soldiers mounted mexican warriors horses herd pigs artillery munitions supplies captured emperor captive lords marched maya territory army crossed near crossed province recruited carriers believed captive lords plotting ordered hanged army left march expedition passed onwards territory reported towns situated easily locations fortified built rocky near lake river fed town fortified wooden surrounded moat reported town larger fortified walls earthworks town divided individually fortified districts said war unnamed smaller town claimed towns fortified attacks aggressive neighbours arrived north shore lake march roman catholic priests accompanying expedition celebrated mass presence king said impressed pledged worship cross destroy idols accepted invitation visit known crossed maya city spanish soldiers rest army continued lake meet south shore departure left cross lame horse treated deity attempting feed meat flowers animal soon died spanish officially contact arrival priests cross said standing lake continued south western slopes particularly journey took days cover kilometres lost thirds horses came river swollen constant torrential rains falling expedition turned upstream took days cross cost horses april expedition arrived maya village local guides headed hills north guides abandoned fate expedition lost hills came close starvation captured maya boy led safety found village shore crossed settlement dozen companions waited rest army week time remnants expedition reduced succeeded contacting searching find officers rebellion returned mexico sea richer lands mexico engaged main attention years veteran expeditions successfully petitioned right conquer december year issued hereditary military title permission yucatán_peninsula left spain men ships horses small arms cannon provisions set sail santo domingo supplies horses collected allowing increase cavalry ships left santo domingo supply ship provide later support ships set sail reached island east coast second half september received peace lord ships stopped briefly making coast expedition landfall near maya province mexico state garrisoned soldiers second command posted nearby pole renamed spanish settlement peninsula provisions soon exhausted additional food seized local maya villagers soon consumed local maya fled forest spanish raiding parties surrounding area food finding little discontent growing men took drastic step burning ships strengthened resolve troops gradually harsh conditions able food friendly visit mainland took men set expedition explore north eastern portion peninsula expedition passed towns survives today gathered leaders nearby maya towns ordered swear loyalty spanish crown led men town described having houses spanish party halted months spring left city abandoned maya inhabitants cover darkness following morning inhabitants attacked spanish party defeated spanish continued kilometres north engaged major battle maya killed maya spanish victory neighbouring maya leaders surrendered party continued heading arrived party found man garrison survived garrison pole entirely wiped support ship eventually arrived santo domingo sail south coast sent land discovered thriving port city modern learnt spanish sailor region sent messages inviting return join guerrero declined maya fed false information spanish unable find link returned overland transferred fledgling spanish colony nearby modern considered better port waiting result sailed south far honduras turning heading coast finally meet lieutenant late left oversee sailed north loop yucatán_peninsula head spanish colony central mexico appointed mayor local colonial governor province aid son named sent eastern conquer extended southeast younger founded base operations established base launch new attempts conquer proved disappointment gold taking lower levels population hoped soon abandoned new settlement set lands arriving end colonial power struggle elder imprisoned time release met son rejoined moved base operations sent overland east peninsula passing received maya continued southeast founded spanish town royal town local maya fiercely resisted placement new spanish colony men forced abandon honduras maya amassed strong force attacked city spanish able fight elder killed lord attacking maya surrendered spanish battle younger northern province lord reluctantly allowed found spanish town real carved province soldiers gave men thousand maya months spanish rule dissatisfaction longer contained killed failed attempt kill younger death lord served anger mid laid siege small spanish garrison younger abandoned real night arranging distraction attackers men fled west provinces remained spanish rule younger received friendship lord province spring rejoined father province near modern city son attempting consolidate spanish control met ruler maya maintained friendship spanish conquest spanish authority eventually established large support reuniting founded new spanish town spanish suffered hardships returned received friendship local maya accompanied friendly lord travelled horseback lord cousins taken chains younger remained continue attempts conquest region finding situation difficult soon retreated rejoin father returned shortly younger time news began arrive conquests peru rich soldiers taking morale band followers soldiers began abandon seek fortune seven years attempted conquest northern provinces yucatán_peninsula little gold found end beginning year son retreated veracruz taking remaining soldiers elder embroiled colonial right rule honduras claim conflict captain general guatemala claimed honduras jurisdiction ultimately prove successful elder absence central mexico honduras younger acted lieutenant governor captain general conflict arrived attempt peaceful incorporation assured spanish authorities military activity undertaken attempting conversion faith soldiers permitted enter peninsula initial efforts proving successful captain arrived command soldiers younger soon conflict forced abandon return central mexico attempt subdue maya unsuccessful local resisted attempts assert spanish dominance region resistance sufficiently younger sent cousin command diplomatic successful submitted spanish rule spanish outpost yucatán_peninsula increasingly isolated situation difficult conquest settlement northern elder late 60s turned royal rights son younger early younger joined cousin remain long quickly moved forces younger commanding spanish soldiers established permanent spanish town council yucatán_peninsula shortly establishing spanish presence younger summoned local maya lords commanded submit spanish crown number lords submitted peacefully including ruler maya lord refused submit younger sent cousin remained awaiting reinforcements younger cousin met far january founded second permanent town council calling new colonial town january lord approached spanish peace bearing needed food supplies expressed interest spanish religion witnessed roman catholic mass celebrated benefit greatly impressed converted new religion baptised stayed spanish months receiving instruction catholic faith ruler powerful province northern submission spain conversion christianity repercussions peninsula encouraged lords western provinces peninsula accept spanish rule eastern provinces continued resist spanish younger sent cousin eastern lords greeted peace maya resisted fiercely soon defeated spanish maya rose newly imposed spanish domination opposition quickly continued eastern province reaching east coast pole stormy weather prevented spanish crossing drowned attempted crossing killed hostile maya rumours setback grew telling provinces rose european spanish hold eastern portion peninsula remained number maya remained independent including november alliance eastern provinces launched coordinated uprising spanish provinces united effort drive invaders peninsula uprising lasted months eighteen surprised eastern towns sacrificed contemporary account described slaughter allied maya livestock impending attack younger cousin arrived december reinforcements gathered rebellious eastern maya finally defeated single battle allied maya killed battle marked final conquest northern portion yucatán_peninsula result uprising spanish response maya inhabitants eastern southern territories fled extreme south spanish achieved dominance north remained independent continued receive refugees north covers area guatemala colonial times originally fell jurisdiction governor transferred jurisdiction guatemala kingdom centred lake visited march honduras early 17th century following visit spanish attempted visit inhabitants years set mission attempt peaceful conversion pagan central accompanied maya month journey travellers received current stayed days attempt refused renounce maya religion showed interest masses held catholic missionaries attempts convert failed left friendly terms returned october welcomed friendly manner time maya hostile missionaries expelled food water survived journey march governor ordered captain launch assault set spanish soldiers expedition later joined expedition advanced southwest lengthy delay waited reinforcements route believed soldiers treatment maya excessively cruel left expedition way eighty maya belize meantime learnt approaching military expedition hardened spanish missionary attempts learnt departure sent soldiers persuade return continue escort refuse soldiers caught determined reach sent messenger asking permission travel king replied promise safe passage missionary companions party initially received peace capital soon spanish soldiers let guard seized bound new arrivals soldiers sacrificed maya gods sacrifice took cut heart displayed head stake fortune leader maya companions better word escort sent spanish soldiers maya scout learn fate arrived shore lake took island capital imprisoned scout escaped returned news soon january war party led caught soldiers guard unarmed church killed spanish reinforcements arrived late number local maya men women killed spanish attackers burned town following killings spanish garrisons stationed towns southern rewards offered whereabouts maya governor set maya track succeeded capturing captain followers looted church items belonging prisoners taken spanish captain interrogated torture tried condemned hanged drawn heads displayed towns colonial mexico state events ended spanish attempts contact internal strife spain distracted government attempts conquer unknown lands spanish crown lacked time money interest colonial adventures decades late 17th century nobleman proposed spanish king construction road southwards link colony process reducing independent native populations colonial greater plan southern upper reaches original plan province build northern section guatemala build southern portion meeting territory plan later modified pass east kingdom governor began build road south beginning march captain led group spanish soldiers accompanied native guides labourers expedition advanced south territory began kilometres north modern border mexico guatemala rounded natives moved colonial settlements met armed resistance decided retreat middle april march captain set guatemala spanish soldiers accompanied large number maya native dominican spanish pressed ahead lake engaged series fierce skirmishes hunting parties sight spanish encountered large force retreated south main camp interrogation prisoner revealed kingdom state high alert repel spanish expedition immediately withdrew mid marched southwards spanish soldiers maya plus maya labourers final tally people regarded considerable army impoverished province ordered companies maya join expedition kilometres southeast city end assigned join spanish force accompanied lay brother second group continue onwards independently contact led accompanied lay brother ordered construction fort leagues approximately miles north lake serve main military base real royal road project company native pushed ahead road builders town fled company officers sent reinforcements arrive returned collect abandoned food nervous feared residents returning discharged muskets groups retreating company arrived reinforce charged battle approaching injured ensuing skirmish retreated forest path injury company followed path found deserted settlements large amounts abandoned food seized food retreated path august moved entire army forward october spanish soldiers established near source november garrisoned soldiers december main force reinforced soldiers spanish maya labourers expedition june appointed groups head group join military expedition second group head lake independently second group headed accompanied lay brother christian maya group left june continued south course new road finding increasing evidence spanish military activity overtook kilometres august advanced tried persuade stay minister prisoners instead split group left secret companions seeking attacked advance companies retreated forest unable find manage information path led southwards kingdom returned plans short supplies maya charged converting disappearing forest daily ordered return arrived september group led continued following territory modern near september november small group arrived august found army opened road southwards seventeen leagues approximately miles half way lake returned seasonal rains accompanied lay brother return provincial superior additional join group convert october wrote provincial superior reporting told ready receive spanish friendship day men voluntarily come resided early november brother sent establish mission received native chief pagan priest sufficiently far new spanish road free military interference oversaw building church largest mission town territory second church built attend refugees gathered spanish church established overseen expedition december january left december arrived january accompanied companions followed indian trail led past source steep hills hole ruins followed small town called arrived western end lake enthusiastic welcome local following day current travelled lake eighty greet visitors port town west shore returned baptised children following days tried convince convert christianity surrender spanish crown success king cited prophecy said time right january king arrived spoke arguing acceptance christianity spanish rule discussions exposed deep divisions learnt plot allies ambush kill king advised return spanish lost suffered great hardships including death companions month wandering forest found way returned battle february mid january captain arrived advance portion soldiers plus labourers captain senior officer arrived allied warriors accompanied maya approached carrying approximately warriors warriors began freely spanish party broke dozen spanish party forced killed point spanish soldiers opened fire muskets retreated lake prisoners included spanish party retreated lake shore open ground surrounded thousands warriors ordered men fire volley killed realising outnumbered spanish retreated abandoning captured companions fate convinced surrender peacefully began organise assault work road month battle spanish arrived supported artillery large number gathered nervous spanish soldiers opened fire cannons muskets casualties reported retreated raised white flag safe distance expedition february march led expedition marched men arriving february march captain led party ahead lake accompanied dominican nobleman taken prisoner previous expedition drew close shore lake sent ahead party lured trap expedition members killed man captured sacrificed killed total expedition members including soldiers maya left days followed trail arrived lake week later men scouted south shore near approached land kept safe distance extremely suspicious small offered transport party nightfall approached retreated men took positions small hill nearby early hours morning ordered retreat san received news embassy december apparent formal surrender spanish authority unable reconcile news loss men conditions abandoned unfinished fort retreated guatemala assault continued resistance major embarrassment spanish colonial authorities soldiers arrived western shore lake soldiers february built heavily armed attack boat carried men artillery pieces cross transported lake attack capital march number arrived negotiate sent canoe white flag raised bearing offered peaceful surrender received embassy peace invited visit days later appointed day failed arrive instead maya warriors amassed shore lake assault launched capital morning march boarded soldiers secular priests personal servants baptised brother law prisoner attack boat rowed east capital half way lake encountered large fleet spread arc approach simply gave order row large quantity defenders gathered shore roofs city began shoot invaders ordered men return fire arrows wounded number soldiers wounded soldiers discharged musket point officers lost control men defending soon fled spanish gunfire city fell brief bloody battle warriors died spanish suffered minor casualties spanish bombardment caused heavy loss life island surviving abandoned capital swam mainland dying water battle surviving defenders melted away forests leaving spanish occupy abandoned maya town planted standard highest point island renamed los lady remedy lake nobility fled maya settlements response spanish region search parties soon captured help maya ruler king soon captured maya nobles families defeat independent native kingdom americas fell european | Spanish conquest of Yucatán | History | World history | North American history |
15847_StatenIslandPeaceConference | island peace conference island peace conference brief meeting held hope bringing end american revolutionary war conference took place september residence colonel new_york participants british admiral lord members lord howe authority design extremely limited congressional delegation meeting outcome conference held days british capture long_island lasted hours failure americans insisted recognition recently declared independence howe limited authority inadequate deal development conference british continued military campaign control new_york_city background british authorities planning deal rebellious north american colonies late early decided send large military expedition occupy new_york_city brothers admiral lord general given command naval land aspects operation respectively believed possible end dispute violence howe brothers insisted granted diplomatic powers addition military roles admiral howe previously discussed colonial grievances informally resolution general howe believed problem colonial taxation resolved retaining supremacy parliament king george iii reluctantly agreed grant limited powers lord took harder line insisted given powers seen giving colonial demands relief taxation representation called acts consequence granted ability issue substantive concessions commissioners mandated seek dissolution establishment pre war colonial assemblies acceptance terms lord north resolution self taxation promise discussion colonial grievances concessions hostilities ended colonial assemblies specific parliamentary supremacy fleet arrived july admiral howe attempts open communications continental_army general george_washington attempts deliver letters washington rebuffed howe refused recognize washington title washington agree meet person howe colonel meeting july washington learned diplomatic powers essentially limited granting responded americans committed faults need lord howe sent letter detailing proposal truce offers franklin read letter congress july wrote admiral directing offered colonies parties injured effect increasing impossible think submission government cruelty burnt town excited massacre peaceful farmers slaves murder masters bringing foreign mercenaries settlements blood pointed admiral gave expectations reconciliation place howe apparently somewhat taken franklin forceful response battle long island august british forces successfully occupied western long_island modern brooklyn compelling washington withdraw army manhattan general howe consolidate gains brothers decided diplomatic battle captured high ranking continental_army officers including major general managed convince sullivan conference members yield fruit released parole deliver message congress philadelphia proposing informal meeting discuss ending armed conflict britain rebellious colonies sullivan speech congress commented diplomatic attempt calling sullivan duck accusing british sending sullivan seduce independence noted appeared attempt blame congress war congress agree send members adams conference lord howe instructed ask questions howe answers authority howe learned committee limited authority briefly considered calling meeting decided proceed discussion brother commissioners believed conference lord howe initially sought meet men private citizens british policy recognize congress legitimate authority order conference place agreed american demand recognized official representatives congress meeting house selected meeting place occupied british troops use barracks condition room cleaned prepared meeting arrangements included british officer left american hostage meeting congressional delegation leaving american lines invited accompany arrival delegation escorted past line soldiers house according adams tongue served meeting lasted hours sides unable find common ground americans insisted negotiations required british recognition recently declared independence lord howe stated authority meet demand asked authority repeal act authorized naval blockade colonies claimed sullivan howe claiming sullivan mistaken howe authority included ability suspend execution provided colonies agreed fixed contributions instead taxes parliament levied colonies agreed end hostilities meeting sides lord howe expressed feel america loss like loss brother franklin informed endeavors save lord howe stated view american delegates british subjects adams replied consider light british subject lord howe spoke past adams franklin stating adams appears decided character effects returned philadelphia reported lord howe america expect total submission learned years later list people specifically excluded pardon offers congress published committee report comment lord howe publish account meeting meeting outcome perceived sign british weakness loyalists british observers suspected congressional report meeting british commentator wrote meeting met talked parted remains fight lord howe reported failure conference brother preparations continue campaign new_york_city days conference british troops landed manhattan occupied new_york_city parliamentary debate terms diplomatic mission actions prompted opposition whig members essentially boycott parliamentary proceedings major peace effort occurred british sent commissioners led occupied philadelphia authorized treat congress body offered self government roughly equivalent dominion status effort undermined planned withdrawal british troops philadelphia american demands commissioners authorized grant house conference took place preserved museum conference house park city park listed national_register_of_historic_places | Staten Island Peace Conference | History | World history | North American history |
15942_HistoryofSt.Louis | history history missouri began settlement area native american mound builders lived culture 9th century 15th century followed migrating tribal groups starting late 17th century french explorers arrived spain took trading company led established settlement february attracted french settlers leaving illinois britain took control east mississippi city grew population location trading post mississippi_river western fur trade lucrative city played small role american revolutionary war connection east mississippi south north missouri west located main base trade 1840s destination massive immigration irish germans native born americans reacted fear newcomers adopting sentiments missouri slave state city proximity free states caused center filing freedom suits slaves gained freedom suits years 1850s scott case interpretations changed supreme_court ruled ruled unconstitutional contributing tensions causing american_civil_war war small skirmish outskirts held union control war city expanded railroad connections industrial activity suffered corresponding rise pollution river waterfront early 1870s constructed mississippi_river city established large parks including local political economic disputes city separated independent city limited geographic area success 20th 21st centuries small tax base late 19th century home major_league_baseball teams blues music flourished city african americans making major contributions jazz city hosted world fair summer olympics attracting millions visitors infrastructure fair basis major city institutions early century african americans migrated south city industrial jobs great migration escape great depression high unemployment world war city hosted war industries employed thousands workers war federal highway subsidies postwar development encouraged outward migration residents moved gain newer housing significantly reduced city middle class population city efforts create new attractions construction focus civil rights movement gain non segregated jobs skilled trades litigation civil rights act unions city worked replace housing new public housing projects combination factors resulted unsuccessful demolished late 20th century starting 1980s continuing following century construction increased areas particularly downtown city crime reduction progress continued struggle crime perceptions crime city saw modest population growth showed decline exploration louisiana earliest settlements middle built 10th century people culture constructed dozen platform area future european american city related center culture large complex east mississippi_river culture ended unknown reasons 14th century sites time speaking groups migrated eastern lived villages missouri rivers groups competed northeastern tribes groups confronted earliest european explorers extensive european exploration near confluence missouri mississippi rivers began nearly century city officially founded jesuit priest traveled south mississippi_river june passed future site reached mouth turning years later french explorer led expedition south mouth mississippi gulf_of_mexico claiming entire valley france named mississippi river basin louisiana king region near confluence ohio mississippi rivers named series forts mississippi valley french built settlements illinois french trading companies built towns including fort missouri european town missouri west mississippi fighting french indian war north american seven years war halted settlement building economy remained weak ongoing war britain defeated france following year city founding early history arrival new_orleans new governor louisiana june led changes colonial policies quickly moved grant trade stimulate economy new set august build fur trading post near confluence missouri mississippi rivers settlement established site south confluence west bank mississippi february group men arrived site provided detailed plans village including street grid market area french settlers began arrive settlements east bank mississippi fears british control given transfer eastern land great_britain treaty paris local french lieutenant governor moved began awarding land grants peace negotiations end seven years war spain gained control louisiana according secret treaty travel times spanish took official control transfer spanish confirmed french land grants spanish soldiers provided local security occupation settlers farming nearly acres km2 cultivation fur trading major commercial focus residents lucrative agriculture period residents particularly religious spite roman catholic faith church constructed acquired resident priest making catholic religious customary component life french settlers brought black indian slaves majority domestic servants worked agricultural laborers spanish prohibited indian slavery louisiana practice entrenched french compromise spanish governors ended indian slave trade allowed retention current slaves children born census determined population village including whites males females african slaves indian slaves reported technical grew slowly spanish commanders replaced american revolution beginning american revolutionary war spanish governor new_orleans assisted american rebels weapons food blankets tents ammunition spanish lieutenant governors aided particularly forces illinois campaign official entry spain american revolutionary war june americans french british began preparing invasion attack mississippi outposts warned plans residents began town british indian forces attacked town forced retreat fortifications indian forces spite defeat british allies destroyed agricultural lands cattle stock killed residents wounded captured prisoners murdered capture subsequent counterattack launched british forts midwest ended threat attack town british defeated french families evaded anglo american rule moving spanish controlled land west bank including wealthy merchants families family create dominated society families marital ties spanish government officials including lieutenant governors transfer france united_states towns near expanded small farmers sold lands farmers moved towns district population lived village spanish government secretly returned louisiana territory france october treaty san spanish officially transferred control october spanish administrators remained charge time french ownership shortly afterward team american purchased louisiana including march flag spain lowered government buildings according local tradition flag france raised march french flag replaced united_states expansion growth civil war government religion initially governor governed included district organizational law forbade foreign slave trade reduced influence region wealthy petitioned congress review system july congress reorganized territorial capital territorial governor division missouri capital population city expanded slowly expansion increased desire incorporate town allowing create local approval territorial legislature november elected board passed slave codes created volunteer fire department created improve street quality enforce town board created town jail established fortifications built end war population began expanding quickly expansion land donated population increase stirred interest missouri congress passed missouri compromise authorizing missouri admission slave state state constitutional convention general_assembly met shortly incorporated city december mayor city board replaced earlier early city government focused improvements health conditions addition street paving program voted streets transfer louisiana united_states spanish ended subsidies catholic_church result catholics resident priest arrival early january arrival replaced original log chapel brick church recruited priests established seminary separate diocese created bishop received services ministers late spanish required american territory purchase baptist missionary built protestant church methodist ministers reached town early years purchase formed congregation began bible reading society december members organized church built chapel late year fourth protestant group root founded 1830s 1840s faith groups came including jewish congregation area organized followers arrived organized church despite events pre civil war era population culturally catholic organized religion commerce growth commerce focused fur trade operations led family alliance role major trading post city departure point lewis american immigrant families began arriving opening new businesses including printing banking starting published newspaper west mississippi missouri gazette july groups merchants formed banks town led closure effect subsequent depression slowed commercial activity businesses began recover largely introduction arrive docked august north city northernmost port large pike ships soon transformed inland port goods available economic recovery largely result new power new banks retail stores opened starting late 1820s early 1830s fur trade continued major industry 1830s joined fur trading company smith later known west american travel overland california new fur trade companies pioneered trails west beaver fur lost popularity 1840s continued hub buffalo hide construction county courthouse late 1820s encouraged growth addition western lots ninth street new city hall adjacent river military post far north city moved nearer city built south year 1830s included dramatic population growth increased roughly reached doubled doubled infrastructure education improvements large rapid population growth cholera significant problem major cholera epidemic killed nearly people leading new sewer system draining mill pond removed outskirts reduce contamination year large fire broke spread boats destroyed large portion center city landing significantly improved 1850s engineering planning constructed illinois direct water missouri eliminate sand bars threatened landing infrastructure improvement city water system begun early 1830s continually improved expanded 1840s 1850s early remained wealthy merchants purchased books private libraries early schools fee based conducted lessons french substantial educational effort came authority catholic_church opened later renamed college applied state charter december chartered university west mississippi_river medical school opened faculty included founder moses founder medical journal west mississippi_river later president university primarily seminary students general public 1840s catholic_church offer large scale instruction schools founded second university city 1850s boys girls later merged public education provided began creation elementary schools system quickly expanded 1840s system schools served nearly students district opened high school considerable fanfare high school known public high school west mississippi_river nearly students enrolled district district opened normal school later entertainment options increased pre civil war period early theatre production opened including musical accompaniment late 1830s member orchestra briefly played orchestra opened played concerts slavery immigration missouri admitted slave state 1840s number slaves increased percentage relative population declined 1850s number percentage declined roughly free blacks slaves lived working domestic servants crew slaves allowed earn wages able save money purchase freedom relatives occurred relatively frequently surrounding rural areas attempted escape attempted gain freedom freedom suits freedom suit filed suits filed civil war famous wife case heard old courthouse suit based having traveled lived master free states state ruled favor appeal resulted ruling court ruled slaves counted citizens basis national debate slavery economic expansion 1830s irish german immigration increased substantially particular writings encouraged german immigration irish motivated irish potato famine failed irish uprising irish settlers came reputation catholic city sentiment increased late 1840s leading mob attacks riots riots derived popular outrage resentment human taking place discovery human remains prompted rumors grave mob residents attacked medical college destroying interior facilities worst riot took place local militia end fighting people killed wounded buildings damaged regulations elections prevented fighting future elections american civil war war core leadership shifted irish families new group dominated anti slavery germans new class leaders led effort create local militia loyal union missouri governor hinted local militia allied union army forces leadership cleared confederate outside city known marched town group citizens attacked union militia forces costing civilian lives entirety civil war pressure considered city borderline people confident abolition concerned economic effect losing free work force addition developing city war lead utter destruction ruin necessity ammunition survived transformed leader cities military threats union control guerrilla activity continued rural areas duration war union general placed city martial law august suppress dismissal union army forces continued suppress pro confederate demonstrations war significantly damaged commerce especially confederacy blockaded mississippi shutting connection eastern markets war slowed growth 1860s increase residents fourth city status decades civil war grew nation fourth largest city new_york_city philadelphia chicago experienced rapid infrastructure transportation development growth heavy industry period culminated world fair summer olympics held concurrently infrastructure parks education civil war infrastructure suffered neglect cholera epidemic struck fever response improved water system established regulate industries park system expanded 1860s 1870s creation railroads railroad connections southwest texas improved 1870s formation addition connecting west railroads began demand connections east mississippi work bridge mississippi continued despite setbacks disease bridge formally opened july accommodate increased rail traffic new railroad terminal constructed large consolidate train service location replacement station called opened september chicago illinois greater volume traffic railroads met city united_states rail platform expanded operated passenger rail terminal 1970s education public education systems expanded students respectively established public united_states instruction proposals free library system originated prior civil war conflict established 1870s 1880s variety local fee based libraries consolidated school library system school system library system independent entity racially segregated schools operated secretly illegally 1820s integrated group formed colored schools established schools public finances black pupils appropriated funding black schools facilities conditions poor considerable effort protest black community high school classes began offered high school black students west mississippi inequality remained rampant schools radical historians 1960s anti bureaucratic new left emergence bureaucratic school systems argue purpose suppress upward aspirations working class historians emphasized necessity building non standardized systems reforms according historian born necessity confronted problems managing rapidly expanding increasingly complex institutions found bureaucratic solution remove schools bitterness spite ward politics argues space generation public education left highly system dedicated training children basic skills literacy special discipline required urban citizens replaced largely highly organized efficient structure specifically designed teach students specialized skills demanded modern industrial society terms programs entailed introduction instruction doubling period schooling broader concern welfare urban youth separation missouri state created boundaries city existed county starting 1850s rural county voters began exert political influence questions taxation court county court given power assess collect property tax revenue city property providing financial county government city government revenues power transfer city began favor options greater representation county court charter changes city county consolidation urban form independent city missouri state constitutional convention delegates region agreed separation plan city reorganized boundaries proposed final plan separation new city charter size city include new rural parks useful missouri mississippi confluence mouth fraudulent election initially showed rejection plan december showed voters approved separation industrial commercial growth leading industries included flour tobacco processing industries including manufacture paint bricks iron 1880s city grew population percent making country fourth largest city ranked fourth measured value manufactured products factories existed 1890s manufacturing growth slowed dramatically subsequent depression grain mills considerably productive valuable flour industries suffered similar declines introduction railroad helped spread fortune industrial success completion manufacturers products consumers east_coast faster small industry took arrival germany introduced beer quickly city popular choice industry expanded rapidly late 1850s city largest industry pioneered railroad cars beer transport company market beer home whiskey heart whiskey ring early 1870s conspiracy began federal tax officials avoid paying taxes breakup ring conspirators charged fraud including grant private secretary early conspirators convicted fraud defendant acquitted company headed family headquartered city world largest brewery remained fixture city economy 21st century city home largest lead mining concern country headed family headquartered downtown insurance companies founded reduce impact fires city rapid pollution brick firing produced air pollution paint making created lead dust beer liquor produced grain worst pollution coal dust smoke infamous 1890s greatest number complaints industries engaged rendering produced spite pollution control hindered desire promote growth controls began regulations enforced strictly areas little encouraging factories concentrate industrial districts addition industrial growth 1880s 1890s period significant growth downtown commercial building retail district centered fourth street washington avenue banking business centered south fourth olive streets 1890s significant retailers businesses moved westward new buildings constructed result movement building designed tallest building city time construction remains example early skyscraper design culture september opened musical orchestra choir organization provided annual concerts renamed starting 1890s district known area near present day center home known jazz composers lived played including addition early players composer moved missouri associated composed music city moving chicago sport baseball began played years following civil war team known founded founding member national_league hometown favorite defeating later chicago_cubs opener original club closed unrelated national_league team founded team repeatedly changed shortening settling team moved milwaukee adopted louis relation previous 1950s home major_league teams notable residents field literature included poets playwright world fair beginning 1850s hosted annual agricultural mechanical park connect regional manufacturers 1880s connection agriculture declined new music hall built house industrial exhibits attempted host world exposition project awarded chicago hosted exposition delegates states selecting site world fair celebrating centennial purchase company directors selected western half fair site sparking real estate construction boom rail service area improved new system implemented improve water supply fair consisted temporary exhibition palaces permanent exhibit palace fair fair celebrated american world cultures exhibits historical french fur trading filipino villages concurrently summer olympics held campus decline inner city urban renewal civic improvements segregation policies early 1900s 1910s began building program created parks deteriorating residential neighborhoods parks commissioner professional tennis player continued development recreational facilities early 1910s expanding tennis facilities building public hole golf course northwest forest park constructed early 1910s leadership mayor 1890s attempted control air pollution problems little success damage buildings flora issue visible 1920s problems came head sky lasted weeks ban burning low quality coal solved problem december addition natural gas heating assisted making transition cleaner late 1940s world fair demonstrated viable means transportation october second international balloon racing event held city airplane flight occurred late year airfield established nearby missouri october hosted president president fly airplane departing field local entrepreneur purchased expanded facilities renamed departed route new_york begin solo non stop flight atlantic_ocean early city purchased airport making owned airport united_states remains area primary airport enforced variety laws area generally lower level racial violence fewer black community stable relatively concentrated near railroad yards informal discrimination existed housing market end civil war pass residential segregation ordinance ordinance quickly court private restrictive real estate transactions limited ability white owners sell blacks form racial discrimination overturned real estate limitations unconstitutional court case based sale house black family despite racist attitudes acted haven police fleeing blacks bridge shelter food provided city government represented led congressional investigation events eventually sponsored anti bill response influx refugees general effects great migration blacks rural south industrial cities black population increased rapidly decade world war period louis german irish communities urged neutrality outbreak world war contributed entry war result german suffered discrimination war elements german culture commerce dramatically affected war leading world war population started decrease men needed work artillery plants factories closer atlantic world war nationwide prohibition alcohol brought heavy losses industry industries light manufacturing clothing automobile manufacturing chemical production filled gap economy relatively healthy 1920s suffered comparable cities early years great depression manufacturing output fell percent slightly national average percent output remained low world war unemployment depression high urban areas exception table black workers cities suffered significantly higher unemployment white counterparts aid unemployed city allocated funds starting relief operations addition city relief aid new deal programs employed thousands civic improvement construction jobs reduced number persons direct relief aid late 1930s world war world war location large ammunition factory wright aircraft factory area factories produced uniforms rations chemicals manhattan_project refined starting atomic bomb scientists ties including start war german italian japanese interrogated arrested fbi investigated charges area residents engaged civil defense drills supported war effort scrap drives war bond purchases produced notable soldiers war including grew won medal honor combat pacific home african american pilot shot enemy aircraft destroyed multiple ground targets june outbreak war african american workers gained greater acceptance industry previously discrimination remained problem black workers war city officials passed municipal integration ordinance allowing african americans eat city owned private lunch black sailor uniform refused service privately owned lunch counter action prompted peaceful sit protests downtown changes segregation policies lunch resulted admitted black students starting august casualties war listed missing killed action end war led closure factories major beginning continuing august late returning soldiers encountered chronic housing job shortage city bill allowed veterans purchase homes pursue higher education encouraged sub war reduced city population sub population loss internal population migration westward feature earliest days accelerated rapidly late 19th century starting 1890s system commuter railroad stations enabled travel suburban towns bordering city downtown towns grew rapidly extensive movement towns doubled population restrictions immigration outward migration city grew percent period 1930s city population declined small time grew nearly percent nearly percent new residential construction region occurred outside city limits late 1930s planners unable combat problem annexation city reached highest recorded census population reaching population peaked early 1950s approximately residents new highway construction increased automobile ownership enabled population began long decline factor city population loss white flight began earnest late 1950s continued 1960s 1970s city population declined percent city declined percent decline white population declined primarily massive outward migration primarily suburbs net percent white city residents moved addition city white death rates exceeded birth rates early 1970s white population city decreased significantly particularly child bearing age black population saw natural increase percent 1960s gain loss migration decade overall percentage black city residents rose percent black population declined size nearly residents representing significant black migration city period moved suburban developments urban renewal projects arch early urban renewal efforts coincided efforts plan memorial honor later include famous gateway arch work began early 1930s acquisition demolition block area memorial stand remnant street grid preserved north bridge known building area remain old cathedral demolition continued outbreak world war area began parking lot project stalled design competition memorial launched finnish architect design inverted weighted curve won competition groundbreaking occur arch topped october museum visitors center completed underneath structure opening addition attracting millions visitors arch ultimately spurred million downtown construction 1970s 1980s concurrent plans build 1930s plans create housing city despite efforts civic improvement starting 1920s significant housing projects built world war houses shared outdoor toilets thousands lived crowded unsafe conditions starting cleared area selling land developers constructed middle class apartment buildings nearby city cleared acres km2 residential neighborhood known mill creek valley displacing thousands residential mixed income development known town created area early 1960s eventually demolished expansion majority people displaced mill creek valley poor african american typically moved historically stable middle class black neighborhoods issued bonds financed completion project new high rise housing projects famous largest opened northwest edge downtown included story buildings nearly units built units public housing opened enthusiasm local leaders media new tenants beginning problems plagued projects quickly apparent little recreational space healthcare facilities shopping centers employment opportunities scarce crime rampant particularly complex demolished housing projects remained relatively occupied 1980s spite lingering problems crime housing projects urban renewal bond issue totaled million bonds provided funds purchase land build downtown later interstate interstate interstate highway street bridge opened traffic mississippi_river openings arch bridge accompanied opening new stadium cardinals moved early season construction stadium required demolition ending decades old presence chinese immigrant community government consolidation attempts city population decline beginning 1920s accelerating 1950s local government leaders attempts consolidate services pre great depression annexation attempt city failed opposition county voters world war efforts consolidation successful attempts consolidation resulted creation metropolitan sewer district city county water sewer company formed year city county mass transit agency rejected voters followed failed charter revision unified city county county population grew local subdivisions began incorporating cities towns producing separate municipalities 1960s regional planning advocates succeeded creation east west gateway coordinating council group given power approve deny applications federal aid cities recent developments present crime prevention projects late 1970s urban decay spread described historian suburban development premier example urban abandonment fourth largest city america gateway west seventh ghost self contained inhabitants census counted old neighborhoods collections burned buildings homes vacant lots air juvenile crime remaining industries warehouses aging factories grown lots adjoining half rail yards like elderly couple longer sure purpose life children moved away neighborhoods face future election city youngest mayor problems significant cities major development projects incomplete city economic base developed projects early terms office assisted operation provided city graffiti cleanup instituted safety program address crime known blocked access certain streets provided low cost security measures crime declined starting despite small resurgence continued decline 1990s school voluntary transfers segregation public schools ended brown area continued employ tactics ensure facto segregation 1960s 1970s lawsuit challenging segregation led settlement agreement school districts agreed accept black students city voluntary basis state funds transport students provide integrated education agreement called white students county voluntarily attend city schools effort city remaining schools despite opposition state local political leaders plan significantly schools percent black students city attended black schools percent late 1990s voluntary transfer program largest program united_states enrolled students renewed agreement districts agreed continue participation albeit opt clause allowed districts reduce number incoming transfer students starting addition districts permitted reduce available seats program districts reduced availability percent annually year extension voluntary transfer program approved year extension approved allowing new place school year participating districts critics transfer program note plan transfer black students county transfer white students city criticism program city schools removing talented students county schools despite issues program continue transfer students reach graduation group transfer students allowed program end school year new construction rehabilitation new construction projects initiated downtown levels unseen early 1960s tallest building city designed built new retail projects began shape amtrak abandoned passenger rail terminal reopened festival marketplace direction baltimore developer year downtown developers opened louis centre enclosed story shopping mall costing million stores square feet retail space late 1990s mall fallen favor expansion missouri mall flagship store closed mall closed beginning developers began convert mall parking structure adjoining building apartments hotel retail city sponsored major expansion 1980s focused efforts retaining professional sports teams end city purchased arena seat venue professional ice hockey home early 1990s worked business groups develop new ice hockey arena known site city promise developer adjacent opera house arena opened original arena demolished renovations opera house begin years initial development plan named corporate contributor reopened october performances jay_leno january owner national_football_league team known announced team team replaced nfl franchise moved departed arizona played game stadium edward jones dome october starting early 1980s rehabilitation construction projects began remain incomplete movie theater closed completely restored reopened performing arts venue areas undergo washington avenue historic district extends washington avenue edward jones dome west dozen blocks early 1990s manufacturers moved large office buildings street end decade residential developers began convert buildings prices square foot increased dramatically area nearly apartments built washington avenue projects remain development converted offices apartments retail movie theater effect increasing downtown population central business district washington avenue district doubling population downtown projects include renovation started completed seven adjacent buildings vacant early 1990s complex included variety tenants including branch branch variety government offices renovation spurred development adjacent plaza linked new million residential building called roberts tower new residential construction downtown 1970s early began pushing construction new stadium broader trend major_league_baseball stadium building early plans new park settled state local leaders cardinals owners according agreement state city issue bonds construction cardinals agreed build development known village site new stadium opened groundbreaking took place february population crime issues starting early 1990s home substantial immigrant community second largest united_states city began increase immigrants mexico vietnam immigrants reported moving particularly south neighborhood low cost living compared american cities despite increase foreign born population region roughly national average population began growing following half century decline census estimates successfully challenged population figures revised upward challenges data permitted spite gains 2000s showed decline slightly percent given losses industry jobs significant persistent problems crime perceptions crime named world report dangerous city united_states data published addition named city highest crime rate united_states data reported fbi critics analyses note division crime reports area appear inflated reporting crime differs greatly depending involved fbi cautioned data form ranking presents simplistic view crime rate city youth killed guns second highest united_states according data released rate deaths metropolitan statistical area fifth city rate | History of St. Louis | History | World history | North American history |
16042_CharlesS.Morehead | july december representative kentucky served 20th governor kentucky member political service joined know american party governor kentucky elected party political service began kentucky house representatives appointed state attorney general served capacity years later returned chosen speaker house times elected congress served terms congressional tenure joined chosen party candidate governor campaign marred anti immigrant anti catholic rhetoric touched bloody monday riots louisville delegate attempted civil war favored kentucky neutrality south open critic lincoln administration imprisoned september formal charges brought released prison january afterward fled canada europe mexico war returned united_states settled plantation mississippi died december early life born near kentucky july son charles margaret slaughter cousin kentucky twelfth governor father served houses educated area public schools earned bachelor degree graduating honors graduation tutor university earned bachelor laws degree relocated kentucky admitted bar commenced practice worked farmer owned plantations mississippi louisiana married july died july age following death married wife sister september children charles margaret fond music theater dances parties political career elected whig elected following second term legislature moved kentucky believing provided better opportunities legal practice appointed state attorney general served years authored digest statute laws kentucky represented state house chosen speaker house elected thirty serving march march thirty congress whig caucus considered candidate speaker house voting speaker began december caucus chose candidate ballots unable obtain majority rivalries caucus northern states voted free southern voted democrats similarly unable muster majority candidate caucus meeting night december agreed continue voting day elected switch support believed hold votes win votes southern southern democrats intentions known december end day reported received commitments support southern democrats day voting southern shifted support gentry shift cost support northern caucus meeting night december declared election ruin whig party north especially gained support southern democrats fracture caucus withdrew consideration finally elected ballot december governor kentucky following congressional tenure resumed law practice management plantations presidential served term kentucky house early divisions ripped apart national whig party kentucky associated claimed union democratic_party hoped whig organization accordingly know candidate governor judge withdrew race failing health influx nominated replace gubernatorial election prior dissolution party expected nominate party convention april kentucky small population immigrants catholics campaign directed groups state immigrant catholic population resided louisville tensions reached climax anti foreign riot known bloody monday august won election votes votes democrat inaugural address denounced fugitive slave act despite campaign rhetoric proclaimed perfect equality citizens term governor active approved appropriation funding kentucky state fair seen vehicle encouraging improvements agriculture approved formation state geological survey begun governor completed published internal improvements progressed railroad mileage state increased miles miles term kentucky school system expanding rapidly creating shortage qualified teachers state responded need proposing bill state supported teacher education program state superintendent lobbied bill claiming failure educate teachers kentucky result northern teachers state children minds bill passed transition private institution state supported university money raised school taxes previously regarded revenue legislature diverted support teacher education program enrolled seventy students opposition plan developed soon passage citizens felt public school money support higher education governor defended plan legislature convened years later revoked university funding number prisoners housed state increasing prisoners detained facility cells state law required solitary confinement night statute impossible administer space constraints legislature developed plan expand cells state contract warden favorable state allowed warden collect income convict labor early term approved new bank charters later vetoed beginning proposed proposed bank charters died general_assembly later years administration hindered financial panic december reported state expenditures relief poor civil war later life moved louisville formed law partnership nephew february attended peace conference tried resolve differences states chosen delegate ultimately futile attempt civil war refused sign final document produced convention agree statements contained advocate kentucky position neutrality personally sympathetic south outspoken critic lincoln administration condemned secretary state cutting trade south september editor man named arrested taken indianapolis indiana day louisville circuit court judge issued writ corpus september officer arrested told secretary war simon cameron ordered taken shortly grand jury convened failed return charges later transferred complained captors conditions prison specifically difficulty writing letters confined men room measured feet feet petitions release delivered president lincoln lincoln told secretary state arrested released friends lincoln kentucky think later told lincoln arrest beneficial cause kentucky january condition swear oath confederate march discharged parole returned home louisville feared refusal oath allegiance constitution lead arrest june fled canada europe finally mexico following war returned united_states lived plantation mississippi died december buried grounds cemetery kentucky | Charles S. Morehead | History | World history | North American history |
16162_AppleRiverFort | apple river fort today known frontier forts hastily completed settlers northern illinois southern wisconsin following onset black hawk war located present day elizabeth illinois united_states fort settlement built week forts attacked war attacked band led battle apple river fort hour ensued forces eventually withdrawing fort suffered militia man killed action wounded war fort stood occupied sold private property owner dismantled building today replica fort stands site original constructed non profit organization replica based earlier archaeological investigations site revealed information layout settlement fort listed national_register_of_historic_places state illinois took operations site designated apple river fort numerous illinois historic sites slated close october cuts illinois budget governor removed office new illinois governor reopened site history early history earliest settlers vicinity apple river fort probably miners likely arrived decade fort construction miners settled site built log near trail route ferry obtained fresh water nearby spring black hawk war background fort construction motivated consequence treaty governor council leaders fox native american tribes treaty land settlement ceded million acres km2 fox land united_states annual treaty controversial chief disputed validity said tribal councils consulted council negotiated treaty authority land treaty allowed fox remain land sold discovery lead illinois 1820s miners began moving area ceded treaty fox returned winter hunt found land occupied white settlers forced return west mississippi_river angered loss birthplace led number incursions mississippi persuaded return west time april encouraged promises alliance tribes british moved called british band warriors non combatants crossed river illinois finding allies attempted return iowa illinois militia actions led clash construction apple river fort site advanced quickly number engagements followed militias illinois mobilized hunt construction constructed early settlers region present day elizabeth illinois protection black hawk war onset settlers southern wisconsin northern illinois constructed series forts fortified homes apple river fort forts erected defeat newspaper reported finished completed days later militia company formed local families single men boys unit elected local surveyor land owner commander settlement militia contingent settlement time fort completion home families traveled long distances families like took residence nearby family resided homestead near new fort relatively contemporary descriptions fort exist complete later descriptions mention detail found post black hawk war text history county trees dragged area enclosed foot trench dug proposed line post raised place filled hold timber erect projecting feet high corner fort formed walls existing log house settlers lived opposite corner built block house stories upper story likely constructed existing agricultural second story projecting feet indians come near building purpose setting fire exposed guns settlers yard extant long dwelling purposes corners occupied houses elevated benches built outward projections log wall stand fort attacked afternoon june sac warrior man war party fort defended thirty men boys women children man named wounded hip early action lasting hour ensued apple river fort suffered fatality man wounded battle women rose occasion aid defence fort singled bravery motivated fort settlers especially women support defenders number casualties absorbed force unknown war war ended fort remained standing 1840s immediate aftermath war conclusion site occupied purchased land fort united_states federal government salvaged logs usable fort process construct barn property fort site remained relatively ensuing years non profit organized archaeological investigation conducted june reconstruction effort ended today replica fort stands south original site remains preserve archaeological integrity state historic site apple river fort site set close october cuts budget illinois governor supporters historic site elizabeth led appealed protest legislators governor closing economic impact fort closing community delay proposal close seven state parks dozen state historic sites including apple river fort went ahead november new governor reopened closed state parks february march quinn announced committed reopening state historic sites june began attempting locate original site fort spring local tales told fort situated hill far main street elizabeth group unable determine tale hired archaeologist determine location old frontier fortification archaeological investigation site led fever river research consultation summer portion investigation initial site yielded pre civil war artifacts subsequently research team lightly site perform controlled surface collection surface collection yielded wide range artifacts including different types glass personal items small amounts brick stone structural materials items retrieved collection strongly suggested occupation site occurred early 19th century probably extending short term site uncovered original fort smaller estimated foot foot area significant contributions understanding nature early settlement archaeologists efforts fort site allowed construction replica beginning volunteers built fort tools materials settlers logs stripped split hand split hand trench dug connect cabin interior walls built foot long logs addition volunteers completed firing stands hand design archaeological investigation site found display nearly identical construction pattern fort blue black hawk war frontier fort near present day wisconsin major difference structures placement buildings walls apple river uncovered dozen original features apple river fort remains found fort southeast corner fort food storage dairy processing pit northwest corner fort west fort log buildings largest cellar located beneath fort southeast corner trash pit 1840s cellar yielded earliest archaeological material collected site significance played role black hawk war forts attacked conflict fort attacked band led site original fort holds potential yield significant sub surface archaeological artifacts data military archaeological significance added november january state illinois took operation reconstructed center state operates area illinois purchase funded illinois grant | Apple River Fort | History | World history | North American history |
16541_JayCooke&Company | bank operated headquartered philadelphia pennsylvania branches new_york_city washington bank helped effort wire house pioneering use telegraph messages confirm transactions clients bank building failed history early years founded bank ownership split thirds later partners included brothers henry hold bank seat civil war company sold hundreds millions dollars union government bonds reputation investors world enabled bank sell bonds secretary treasury salmon chase asked try sell government new million issue bonds paid percent interest gold matured years years numerous agents variety small insurance agents real estate professionals sell bonds support union war effort innovative use telegraph confirm sales allowed selling country coordinated philadelphia war war continued fund investments sale black friday scare apparent find sources capital firm turned investing railroads exclusive bond agent difficulty marketing bonds investors wound owning percent company bank liability public investors began withdrawing money wrote expected returns sale bonds ultimately sell bonds meet obligations run bank ensued operations suspended heard announcement causing chain reaction bank runs failures united_states signaled arrival american shores bankruptcy commenced soon collapse junior partners suffer bank collapsed anticipated failure assets government seized larger estates moved smaller properties allies banking business soon collapsed including executive refused testify congress found contempt detained declined release thompson | Jay Cooke & Company | History | World history | North American history |
16909_HistoryofMinneapolis | history minneapolis minneapolis largest city population state minnesota county seat origin growth city spurred proximity major united_states military presence area location provided power flour mills established confluence mississippi soldiers began falls land available settlement towns founded falls east minneapolis west towns later merged city early development focused flour mills eventually dominant industry industrial development fueled development railroads banks foundation innovations techniques minneapolis world leading center flour production earning city grew culture developed churches arts institutions famous park system designed flour mills long gone minneapolis remains regional center banking industry largest companies merged remain prominent area city rediscovered hosts early european exploration minneapolis grew mississippi_river end commercially section river locks installed 1960s french explorer explored minnesota area mission extend french dominance area exploring area got word explorers held captive arranged release prisoners included father catholic priest missionary expedition father explored falls named patron saint anthony published book entitled describing area interested europeans time went developed tendency edition book described falls having drop feet drop feet including nearby estimate current total drop river level series dams city land acquired united_states series treaties purchases negotiated band separately european nations england claimed land east mississippi france spain france claimed land west river land east river west claimed united_states purchased tracts land indians tract located mouth river second larger tract ran confluence minnesota width miles east west river return distributed trading goods gallons liquor promised payment united_states government united_states senate eventually approved payment established extend united_states jurisdiction area concerns british fur traders area soldiers initially camped site south conditions hard nearly fifth soldiers died winter later moved camp camp military activity conducted fort built camp site cold clear flowing spring considered sacred native soldiers needed supply fort built roads planted vegetables wheat hay raised cattle weather recordings area lumber mill mill built falls supply fort settlement east bank mississippi near envisioned 1830s commander accurate survey reservation lands transmitted map acres reservation drew boundary line exclude certain parts east bank plan stake pre claim falls plans stake claim july word reached fort treaty united_states ratified land river rushed falls built marked boundary lines party arrived morning late claim desirable land claimed desirable land near claim settlers went build dam falls built cut logs area hunters soon found debt fur traders pressed outbreak loss buffalo deer bear loss forests logging treaty traverse des sold remaining land west river allowing settlement clever plan obtain land west falls suggested associated colonel bargain obtain land stevens agreed operate ferry service mississippi exchange claim acres km2 government mills government approved bargain stevens built house winter house permanent dwelling west bank area minneapolis years later land controlled fort reduced order president rapid settlement followed village minneapolis soon sprung southwest bank river city pioneers anthony obtained proper title land turned energies building anthony falls obtained financing built dam east channel river equipped partner moved minnesota dispatched crews mississippi_river begin cutting lumber began cutting lumber september october enlisted supervise mill salary year gave anthony town quickly grew workers addition followed mill built town approximately people incorporated city house built purchased moved square house surveyed minneapolis west river laid washington avenue parallel river streets running parallel perpendicular washington later questioned decision thinking run streets directly east west north south ended nicely wide straight streets washington avenue feet wide feet wide contrasted streets feet wide early community tried names rejecting brooklyn small lakes city limits led minneapolis suggest derived word water greek word city recognized town minneapolis boundaries changed minneapolis incorporated city minneapolis joined minneapolis changed road names including names transportation avenue bridge suspension bridge bridge built width mississippi_river built dedicated january bridge span feet roadway feet built cost toll cents pedestrians cents wagons early settlers minnesota seeking railroad transportation insufficient capital available rails finally built minnesota paul pacific railroad built miles track area stop short railroad continued building track minneapolis minneapolis west early predecessor milwaukee road built line minneapolis railroad gradually extended austin crossed iowa border met line connection gave minneapolis rail service milwaukee prairie wisconsin service beginning october system minneapolis area took shape company began service horse drawn cars leadership company merged took electrification began system grown miles business industry early industrial development minneapolis tied power provided minneapolis led nation mills produced million board feet lumber total risen board feet board feet peak activity operating falls supported related industries mills lumber factories built doors windows manufacturers wooden flour industry dating government mill later eclipsed lumber industry value finished product flour production stood barrels rising barrels imposing mill built stories high promoted largest mill west buffalo new_york prominent industries falls included machine shops textile mills time east separate minneapolis west result inferior management water power found manufacturing district declining people organizations started talk merging cities citizens committee recommended merging cities vote issue rejected minneapolis incorporated city cities found competing larger population head navigation mississippi_river access railroads threatened collapse cities later pushed merger disaster nearly wiped falls geological formation area consisted hard thin layer limestone soft sandstone formation sandstone eroded away large blocks limestone fall expansion industry falls accelerated process erosion fragile limestone cap eroded away completely falls turn longer provide water power process came head october tunnel collapsed filled water limestone cap breached tunnel quickly created water threatened destroy falls falls quickly years falls repaired building wooden apron sealing tunnel building low dams falls avoid exposing limestone weather work assisted federal government eventually completed federal government spent effort cities spent possibly result bonding needed falls cities minneapolis merged april development flour newspaper predicted time distant minnesota superiority soil seasons wheat culture water power manufacturing flour export largely article mills turn wheat superior quality appearance manufactured west eighteen flour mills built west river falls mills traditional technology grain grind flour possible pass system worked best winter wheat fall resumed growth spring harsh winter conditions upper midwest lend production winter wheat deep lack snow cover killed crop spring wheat spring summer crop conventional techniques produce desirable product harder spring wheat fractured flour mixed completely flour turn minneapolis companies solved problem possible separate flour earlier process developed gradual reduction process grain series iron steel process resulted patent flour commanded double price clear flour replaced mill attempted techniques companies lured employees away able duplicate process flour industry grew steadily major event caused disturbance production flour mill exploded grain dust ignited explosion killed eighteen workers destroyed capacity district nearby businesses residences end year seventeen mills operation including rebuilt mill completely rebuilt took opportunity rebuild new technology dust collection systems largest mill east river mill built designed local architect wanted building beautiful functional seven story building stone walls feet thick base tapering eighteen inches improvements additions years world largest flour mill mill mill formed consolidating smaller mills corporate entity minneapolis led nation flour production earning nickname minneapolis surpassed world leading flour miller production stood dry barrels annually minneapolis mills grinding percent nation grain flour production hit peak dry barrels annually hydroelectric power hydroelectric power plant united_states built falls headed supplied equipment included generators electricity transmitted circuits shops washington avenue power plant turned lights september ahead wisconsin started generating electricity september company competed later began building dam feet falls objective build hydroelectric plant sell energy steam power generate electricity dam completed march later began construction plant leased plant later known railroads development flour mills falls spurred demand railroad service minneapolis minneapolis served spur chicago milwaukee fledgling minneapolis found railroads based milwaukee chicago favoring cities wheat minneapolis mills response owners minneapolis mills chartered minneapolis connect minneapolis iowa border took control paul pacific railroad goal bad economic conditions caused relinquish control paul pacific railroad mississippi railroad eventually reorganized paul pacific railroad minneapolis later great northern railway line lines leading giving access wheat growing regions served mills minneapolis small passenger station minneapolis inadequate hill decided build new depot expected share railroads mainline ran east mississippi new bridge river needed reach station result stone arch bridge completed opened passenger service april milwaukee road expanded presence minneapolis short line connection acquisition line going west minneapolis south built large shops avenue north lake street large depot washington avenue minneapolis got start goal serving atlantic ports marie michigan bypassing chicago altogether businesses founded market trade grain helped farmers ensuring got best prices possible wheat corn usual supply demand curves similar harvest times region introduced contract hard red spring wheat organization renamed term chamber commerce synonymous organizations lobbied business social issues flour industry spurred growth banking minneapolis area mills required capital investments plants machinery ongoing operations early 20th century minneapolis known financial center northwest cultural institutions education founded seven years minnesota state preparatory school school forced close american civil war financial difficulties support reopened president university granted bachelor_of_arts degrees awarded doctor philosophy degree beginnings area university eventually grew large campus east bank mississippi campus addition campus 1960s founded archbishop catholic secondary school early mission commercial school parents asking college preparatory school school operation years buildings parks park minneapolis land donated city took years community major interest parks civic leaders pressed assistance february legislature authorized city form park district levy taxes initial vision create number based design concepts connect parks civic leaders hoped stimulate economic development increase land values landscape architect hired create system parks named grand rounds donated city lake built current built fifth location purchased park park named character epic poem song came minneapolis parks superintendent tenure park system increased acres properties acres properties park system organized minneapolis chain lakes including cedar lake lake isles lake model park planners world encouraged active recreation parks opposed setting aside parks passive admiration arts established citizens committed bringing fine arts minneapolis community present building structure designed firm white opened later received additions minnesota orchestra dates founded renamed moved building downtown minneapolis walker art center established public art gallery 1940s museum shifted focus modern art gift possible acquire works museum continued focus modern art traveling shows 1960s big modern art museums churches lady founded oldest church minneapolis continuous use church originally built later catholic church catholic french canadian congregation acquired saint mary constructed land farm garden archbishop supervised planning church originally named chose architect trained des paris mass held church leaders desired build finest altar america finest marble afford elevated rank united_states building listed national_register_of_historic_places area finest examples architecture changing city fall empire decades 20th century minneapolis began lose dominant position flour industry reaching peak rise steam power later electric power eroded advantage provided water power wheat fields minnesota began suffering soil exhaustion consecutive wheat crops leading increase wheat leaf related crop diseases farmers southern plains developed variety hardy red winter wheat suitable bread flour kansas_city area gained prominence changes rail shipping rates buffalo new_york able ship flour response companies began marketing brands specifically consumers branded flour gold medal recognition prize won advertised slogan eventually countered slogan best incorporating brand invented character answer product questions purchased radio station renamed standing company merged regional companies renamed sought flour contests publishing recipes began developing semi prepared foods prepared foods flour mills gradually began shut buildings vacated demolished railroad served mills demolished mill canal mill ruins filled gravel mills left falls mill mill shut mill oldest mills operations city corridors avenue ceased early 20th century demand rail use fell result continue economic use river civic leaders pushed plans build locks dams making mississippi_river time congressional approval came wasn constructed sets locks lower dam falls covered falls permanent concrete apron project resulted stone arch bridge replacing arches steel rest spirit island process politics corruption anti social change minneapolis known anti beginning 1880s 1950s city described capital anti united_states time city jews excluded membership organizations faced employment discrimination considered residents neighborhoods jews minneapolis allowed buy homes certain neighborhoods minneapolis 1940s lack anti noted midwest exception minneapolis noted lack anti neighboring 1920s 1930s prohibition ruled underworld city ruled jewish led known linked murders prostitution money destruction minneapolis system political chief connor saint paul police established connor system provided haven capital city corruption spread named morgan operated gambling police protection underworld godfather allied morgan competed jewish prohibition death got start minnesota politics early 1940s organizer time realized party best chance success come minnesota merged democratic_party party leaders discussing merger idea farmer labor merged party order gain strength thousands loyal voters party got minnesota democratic ran mayor minneapolis losing thousand votes campaigned election support city labor leaders found support city african american community promising implement city civil rights commission appealed city middle class giving talks civic virtue area churches elected largest margin date elected immediately proposed city ordinance racial discrimination employers subject fine long period discussion finally approved ordinance margin january ordinance created nation established minneapolis nation leader imposing fines employment discrimination pressure local limit employment opportunities african americans ordinance years contrast similar measures passed milwaukee chicago ordinance gave city newly created authority impose fines prison sentences employers enacted job discrimination larger banks department stores saw value civil rights began hire african americans recognized city police officers operating racial ethnic prejudice causing urban unrest instructed city police chief officers minority neighborhoods contact clergy teachers business owners neighborhood leaders helped issue prejudice got attention problem solved fact life taken granted progress civil rights minneapolis gained national attention cities establish civil rights commissions reelected votes opponent votes delegate led strong civil rights address said rushing issue civil rights years late issue civil rights infringement states rights time arrived democratic_party shadow state rights walk bright sunshine human rights elected united_states senate election served years prominent minnesota politician including vice president later served years agreed run mayor city black mayoral candidate supported major political party white present minneapolis threatened family daily campaign police department guarded home fbi gave protection dogs davis received support white politicians including years later minneapolis elected african american mayor date city non white mayor founded advance civil rights native americans growing city census minneapolis highest population recorded people main growth city organized private system million passengers ran important roads extending downtown minneapolis neighborhood residential development core dates turn century result system growth allowed minneapolis annex land neighboring villages subsequently pushed incorporation today inner ring suburbs system built operated efficiently program profits system improvements new_york investor gained control system halted rebuilding program announced goal completely converting system buses policies alienated public ousted successor continued cut service replace system buses june took run photo taken shows handing check burned background later discovered associates plundered system personal gain small section line operated downtown downtown minneapolis hub business financial activity served time tallest building minneapolis construction municipal ordinance instituted restricted buildings height feet later raised feet construction height feet caused concerns real estate industry foot story limit request minneapolis civic commerce association seven story built major challenger height limit thirty story tower built highest building minneapolis builder wanted tower built lines staged lavish dedication ceremony complete march composed weeks later lost fortune wall street crash check bounced forbade play march debt great depression buildings suffered lack maintenance writer returning minneapolis long absence said minneapolis ugly parking lots like buildings narrow dirty irregular relationship set bad teeth decade later downtown surrounding areas radically urban renewal freeway construction world war businesses residents started moving suburbs downtown minneapolis nation perceived dying urban planners advocating radically rebuilding complete rebuilding forcing manufacturing federal housing act provided funding clearing areas city officials interpreted definition provided funding interstate highway system transform minneapolis gateway district centered intersection avenues west mississippi_river major casualty urban renewal neighborhood known cheap hotels announced moving corporate headquarters city planners decided implement large scale gateway district plan included large number buildings downtown minneapolis leveled including metropolitan building freeway construction impact city neighborhoods disrupted housing stock lost interstate south border city northeastern corner interstate border downtown county road later minnesota state highway southern boundary minneapolis built remaining portion interstate highway northern boundary city completed highway later rebuilt interstate standards point renumbered interstate proposed projects built running southeast downtown area minneapolis saint paul international airport slated freeway upgrade canceled neighborhood opposition similarly proposed interstate run interstate northeast minneapolis connection interstate north downtown project canceled neighborhood opposition shaping skyline destruction gateway district left large gap downtown minneapolis developments transform skyline developments building mall previously known avenue portion central business tree lined mall pedestrians transit mall forms kind linear park trees farmers market summer boosted city retail trade dramatic change skyline came opened height feet inches built previous highest building tower additions downtown included feet known south sixth built renamed campbell tower previously built built headquarters bank opened demolished served home previously hosted minnesota golden football team site reconstructed new 1990s wave downtown development filled parcels towers stories companies target vertical residential housing followed corporate development 1970s boom saw high rises blanket districts downtown west riverside plaza cedar square west completed tower mixed income self contained urban village originally larger contains tallest buildings outside downtown plain modern concrete styles period contrasted late 1990s 2000s brought prominent residential towers skyline varying colors architecture themes residence block south mississippi_river stories built art style recent addition skyline tall stories begun extending skyline south neighborhood contrast traditional red brick proportions modern glass light rail debut minneapolis opening june line metro system starts downtown minneapolis progresses southeastward minnesota state highway known avenue passes west serves minneapolis saint paul international airport terminates service began green line connects downtown downtown industry railroads left mississippi people gradually aware destination living working shopping acquired land river banks including corridor properties developed trails spurred development private land adjacent creating new neighborhood opened pedestrian traffic creating link trail system providing spectacular views old commercial buildings adapted new uses built standard mill north star new use building projects number projects provide residents opportunity live view urban uncovered remnants flour mills built 1860s 1870s canal supplied water mills supports ruins buried gravel fill open public park signs interpreting history area buildings mill severely damaged fire stabilized hosts opened museum presents history flour industrial development river story elevator ride shows steps turned wheat flour moved new building southeast | History of Minneapolis | History | World history | North American history |
17032_DelphineLaLaurie | born commonly known alleged serial killer infamous likely murdering household slaves born spanish colonial period married times louisiana having twice widowed maintained position new_orleans society april responded fire royal street mansion discovered bound slaves attic showed evidence cruel violent treatment long period house subsequently sacked outraged mob new_orleans citizens escaped france family mansion lived landmark french quarter history relatively homes massive size quarter early life family history born children father originally father brought family new_orleans ireland french colonial period irish surname shortened mother known widow marriage second prominent town white community cousin mayor new_orleans marriage death husband june married high ranking spanish royal officer saint louis cathedral new_orleans spelled spanish spanish colony american acquisition appointed position consul general spain territory traveled spain accounts trip vary wrote trip military punishment met queen impressed beauty report differed stated march recalled spain place court new position arrived madrid died route havana voyage gave birth daughter named nicknamed daughter returned new_orleans second marriage death husband june married prominent banker merchant lawyer legislator time marriage purchased house royal street new_orleans family known later children named died marriage married husband physician younger june bought property royal street managed little involvement husband built story mansion complete attached slave quarters lived husband daughters maintained central position new_orleans society torture murder slaves mansion fire maintained black slaves slave quarters attached royal street mansion accounts treatment slaves mixed writing tales told new_orleans residents visit claimed slaves observed public appearances seen generally black people slaves health court records time showed slaves reported public rumors slaves sufficiently widespread local lawyer dispatched royal street remind laws relevant slaves visit lawyer found evidence wrongdoing slaves recounted tales cruelty current new_orleans residents claimed subsequent visit local lawyer neighbors saw slaves year old girl named fall death roof royal street mansion trying avoid punishment whip wielding hair hit causing grab whip chase body subsequently buried mansion grounds according incident led investigation found guilty illegal cruelty forced slaves slaves bought relatives returned residences similarly reported stories kept cook kitchen beat daughters attempted feed slaves april fire broke residence royal street starting kitchen police fire got found seventy year old woman cook ankle later confessed set fire suicide attempt fear punishment taken room said taken came reported april responding fire attempted enter slave quarters ensure evacuated refused keys broke doors slave quarters found seven slaves mutilated suspended neck limbs apparently stretched torn claimed imprisoned months entered premises judge subsequently deposed having found mansion wearing iron collar old negro woman received deep wound head weak able walk claimed questioned madame husband slaves told manner people better stay home come houses laws people business version story circulating recounted added slaves showed signs whip bound restrictive wore iron kept heads static positions discovery tortured slaves widely known mob local citizens attacked residence demolished destroyed lay hands sheriff officers called disperse crowd time mob left royal street property sustained major damage scarcely thing remaining walls tortured slaves taken local jail available public viewing reported april people attended view tortured slaves convince sun citing writing weeks evacuation slave quarters claimed slaves found mansion died rescue added understand digging yard bodies condemned grounds mansion having uncovered particularly child found claims repeated book placed number unearthed bodies including child escape justice self imposed exile france life fire documented wrote fled new_orleans mob violence followed fire taking coach waterfront travelling schooner mobile alabama paris certainly time personally visited royal street mansion badly damaged windows walls later life death circumstances death unclear recounted popular story died france hunting accident truth late 1930s served discovered old cracked copper plate alley cemetery inscription plate read madame née paris according french archives paris died december mansion new_orleans house occupied time fires stands today royal street corner royal street governor street known stories high described highest building squares result roof look mississippi crescent jackson square entrance building bears iron door carved image flowers depending relief inside black white marble curved staircase runs stories building second floor holds large drawing rooms connected sliding doors walls decorated plaster carved black marble mantle pieces subsequent departure america house remained ruined point prior restored following decades public high school music refuge young bar furniture store luxury apartment building april bought sum million mortgage documents arranged way cage appear november property valued million listed auction result bank purchased million folklore folk histories poor treatment slaves circulated louisiana nineteenth century reprinted collections stories cable account confused unrelated novel madame based contemporary stories newspapers account mixed synthesis dialogue entirely creation stories slaves considerably explicit writing ghost stories old new_orleans alleged appetite inflicted black form torture claimed responded fire found male slaves stark naked wall eyes pulled roots joints skinned great holes flesh away ears hanging lips pulled naked holes rough stick inserted stir brains directly cite sources claims supported primary sources story popularized embellished journey darkness ghosts vampires new operator new_orleans ghost tour business smith book added explicit details discoveries allegedly fire including victim obviously arms skin circular pattern making look like human limbs broken reset odd angles resembled human crab new details smith book supported sources given today modern legend use smith versions tale found claims explicit place number slaves died care popular culture defunct historically themed wax museum french quarter street traditionally included scene depicting abused slaves madame attic poet written poem titled horror mansion history folklore poetic ghost tour directed found footage movie called people spend night disused louisiana plantation house encounter hostile ghosts house new_orleans plantation house location alleged fled fire incident fictional camera crew finds physical supernatural evidence suggesting flee house continue cruelty directed aka evil remains student folklore leading friends research expedition old plantation estate near new_orleans site home woman backstory directly taken reputed mysteriously cause madness death enter portrays heavily fictionalized season american anthology horror television series american horror story character board game evil baby appears character stories game developed play distributed big fish games queen named tells story commission drive away new town popular deal kept end seeks revenge punish years later having taken commission appears second mysteries fever season story house told expanded issues fairy tales books arthur old new_orleans history new_orleans isbn cable george_washington strange true stories louisiana new_york isbn new_orleans episodes louisiana life isbn victoria shannon charleston isbn old louisiana plantation homes family trees isbn ghost stories old new_orleans new_york toronto madame demand publishing isbn king families new_orleans new_york isbn london madame isbn saxon fabulous new_orleans new_york london smith haunted history tours presents new_orleans isbn academic papers women louisiana master arts thesis baker looking phd thesis periodicals house occupied woman april relevant text appears left linked scan article found ease reading popular fury briefly paper yesterday april relevant text appears left linked scan article found ease reading plate haunted house owner found january article found ease reading history royal street updated retrieved web content bob april buys house french quarter big time listings celebrity real estate homes big time listings retrieved november taylor legacy madame dreams strange nation retrieved january november loses homes auction retrieved december | Delphine LaLaurie | History | World history | North American history |
17151_Shays'Rebellion | rebellion rebellion armed uprising massachusetts springfield revolutionary war veteran led thousand rebels called rising perceived economic suspension civil rights including multiple notices massachusetts later attempt capture national weapons arsenal springfield rebellion met defeat militarily privately raised militia prompted numerous national leaders including george_washington came retirement deal issues raised rebellion stronger national government suppress future rebellions resulting according historian fundamentally altering course history rebellion took place political climate reform country governing document widely seen necessary events rebellion occurred called began widely seen affected debates shape new government shock rebellion drew retired general george_washington public life leading terms president exact nature consequence rebellion influence content constitution ratification debates continues subject historical discussion debate background rural parts new_england particularly hill towns central western massachusetts economy american revolutionary war little agriculture residents areas little way assets land goods services lean times farmers obtain goods credit suppliers local market towns paid times better economically developed coastal areas massachusetts bay fertile economy basically market economy driven activities wholesale merchants dealing europe west_indies north american coast surprisingly state government dominated merchant class revolutionary war ended european business partners massachusetts merchants refused extend lines credit insisted pay goods hard currency despite continent wide shortage currency merchants began demand local business partners including merchants operating market towns state interior merchants passed demand customers popular governor impose hard currency demands poorer refused actively prosecute collection taxes rural farming population generally unable meet demands merchants civil authorities individuals began lose land possessions unable fulfill debt tax obligations led strong tax collectors courts creditors obtained enforced tax collectors obtained authorizing property meeting convened farmer identified situation greatly abused obliged war loaded class rates town rates province rates continental rates rates pulled hauled collectors cattle sold worth great men going think time rise stop courts collectors lawyers financial issues fact veterans war received little pay war faced difficulty collecting pay owed state soldiers began organize protests oppressive economic conditions massachusetts revolution broke joined continental_army saw action battles lexington concord eventually wounded action resigned army unpaid went home find court debts soon realized inability pay debts began organizing debt relief early early protest government led organized residents physically prevent tax collectors work second larger scale protest took place central massachusetts town mob seized property confiscated local constable returned owners governor ordered sheriff suppress actions rural communities attempted use legislative process gain relief petitions proposals repeatedly submitted state legislature issue paper currency issues currency making possible meet obligations high values lower valued paper merchants opposed idea generally stood lose proposals result proposals repeatedly rejected governor accused anticipating trouble resigned citing health reasons early perennial loser earlier elections elected governor year matters severe stepped civil actions collect taxes legislature exacerbated situation additional property tax raise funds state portion foreign debt payments comparatively conservative commentators observed heavier people bear shutting courts protests rural massachusetts turned direct action august state legislature considering petitions sent boston august organized force formed successfully prevented county court sitting leaders later forces proclaimed seeking relief judicial processes people land possessions called reference movement north_carolina sought reform corrupt practices late september governor issued proclamation denouncing mob action took military measures planning militia response future actions court worcester shut similar action september county militia composed mainly men sympathetic refused turn governors neighboring states similar protests took place acted decisively calling militia hunt protests rhode_island matters resolved violence country party gained control legislature enacted measures forcing merchant trade debt instruments currency impact lost boston merchants especially held massachusetts notes participated action began active role uprising november firmly denied leaders september indicted leaders rebellion persons supreme judicial court scheduled meet springfield september luke day organized attempt shut anticipated local militia commander began gathering government supporting militia saturday court sit time court ready open men protecting springfield courthouse day able recruit similar number chose demonstrate exercising troops outside lines attempt seize building judges postponed hearings 28th hearing cases withdrew force grown men federal rumored target seizure activists protests concord successful shutting courts communities september october wrote october state bordering civil war courts larger towns cities able meet required protection militia called purpose boston resistance governor commanded legislature insulted dignity government claimed foreigners british treason helped draw resolution corpus order permit authorities people jail trial adams proposed new legal distinction rebellion republic unlike monarchy punished execution legislature moved concessions upset farmers saying certain old taxes paid goods instead hard currency measures followed prohibiting speech critical government offering willing oath allegiance legislative actions unsuccessful protests suspension corpus alarmed late november issued arrest protest november men rode arrest rebel leaders area chased arrested 30th wounded sword slash process action arrest protest leaders eastern parts state west began organize overthrow state government seeds war wrote correspondent mid january rebel leaders spoke smashing government massachusetts rebellion federal government unable recruit soldiers army primarily lack funding massachusetts determined act independently january governor proposed creation privately funded militia army continental_army general funds end january raised merchants militia recruited army entirely eastern counties massachusetts marched worcester january government forces organized day rebel leaders west organized forces establishing regional regimental organizations run elected committees major target federal springfield general orders governor taken possession arsenal arm force militia despite fact federal state property permission secretary war henry insurgents organized major groups intended surround simultaneously attack group east springfield near luke day second force force north rebels planned assault january luke day changed minute sending message indicating ready attack 26th day message intercepted men militia parsons men approached 25th knowing support west forces neared found militia waiting ordered warning shots fired approaching heads ordered cannons fire shot men killed wounded musket fire rebel advance collapsed rebel force fled north eventually opposite river day forces fled north eventually reaching general lincoln heard springfield incident immediately began marching west worcester men mustered rebels moved generally north east avoid lincoln eventually establishing camp way raided shops local merchants supplies taking hostage lincoln pursued reaching miles february night february led militia forced march bitter arriving early morning surprised rebel camp thoroughly scattered time parties guards lincoln claimed capture men officers leading historian suspect report leadership escaped north new_hampshire vermont sheltered despite repeated demands returned massachusetts trial lincoln march marked end large scale organized resistance capture fled neighboring states pockets local resistance continued rebel leaders approached lord british governor quebec assistance reported promise assistance form warriors led proposal vetoed london assistance came rebels day lincoln arrived state legislature passed bills authorizing state martial law giving governor broad powers act rebels bills authorized state payments lincoln merchants funded army authorized recruitment additional militia february legislature passed disqualification act seeking prevent legislative response rebel bill forbade acknowledged rebels holding variety elected appointed offices lincoln army melted away late february expired end month commanded thirty men base meantime rebels new_york february crossed border marching major market town southwestern corner state raided shops merchants homes merchants local professionals came attention brigadier mustered force men caught rebels nearby sheffield late day encounter rebellion rebels wounded mortally government soldier killed wounded reinforced encounter reported taking prisoners consequences thousand people signed confessions acknowledging participation events rebellion exchange amnesty participants eventually indicted charges relating rebellion pardoned general amnesty excluded eighteen men convicted sentenced death overturned appeal pardoned sentences condemned men hanged december pardoned returned massachusetts hiding vermont woods boston press painted opposed government later moved new_york area lived died poor obscure crushing rebellion harsh terms reconciliation imposed disqualification act worked governor politically gubernatorial election held april received votes rural parts state military victory tempered tax changes subsequent years legislature elected cut taxes placed debts state spending away interest payments resulting decline value massachusetts payments fell vermont independent republic seeking independent new_york claims territory unexpected rebellion rebel broke new including major landowners claims vermont territory calling state recognize support vermont bid admission union cited vermont facto independence ability cause trouble providing support neighboring states reasons introduced legislation broke new_york vermont responded favorably publicly pushing luke day state quietly continuing support negotiations new_york passage new constitution vermont fourteenth state impact constitution serving ambassador france time refused alarmed rebellion letter january argued little rebellion good thing tree liberty time time blood patriots natural contrast jefferson sentiments george_washington calling constitutional reform years wrote letter talk good sir employing influence present massachusetts know influence found proper remedy disorders influence government let government lives liberties properties secured let know worst influence constitutional convention time rebellion weaknesses federal government constituted apparent vigorous debate going states need stronger central government arguing idea anti opposing historical opinion divided sort role rebellion played formation later ratification united_states_constitution scholars agree played role temporarily drawing anti strong government early influential merchants political leaders agreed stronger central government needed convention maryland september delegates states concluded vigorous steps needed taken reform federal government disbanded lack representation calling convention states held philadelphia notes prominent figures hoped convention fail requiring larger scale convention french diplomat thought convention intentionally broken early achieve end early wrote rural disturbances inability central government fund troops response federal government manifest observed uprising massachusetts clearly influenced local leaders previously opposed strong federal government historian david writes timing rebellion convinced sovereign states proposed gathering philadelphia place states massachusetts delayed choosing delegates proposed convention ways resembled extra legal conventions organized rebellion violent influence constitution convention met philadelphia dominated strong government advocates delegate connecticut argued people trusted exemplified rebellion members federal house_of_representatives chosen state popular vote example rebellion influential addition language constitution concerning ability states manage domestic violence ability demand return individuals states trial rebellion played role discussion number executives delegates thought single executive effective responding national disturbances cited rebellion example confederation government weaknesses opponents thought federal response rebellion worse state merchant massachusetts delegate convention delegates refused sign new constitution reasons stem rebellion influence ratification constitution drafted massachusetts viewed state widespread sentiment rural parts state including active swing votes debates leading state convention vote taken february representatives rural communities involved rebellion voted ratification wide margin day carried coalition merchants urban market town leaders state ratified constitution vote historians divided impact rebellion ratification debates notes major rarely mentioned anti fact massachusetts survived rebellion evidence new constitution unnecessary publications like pennsylvania gazette explicitly tied anti opinion rebel cause calling opponents new constitution argues debate states affected particularly massachusetts rebellion effect richards records observation opposition ratification massachusetts motivated cursed spirit broader opposition states originated constitutional concerns expressed published widely distributed pamphlet outlining concerns powers granted constitution lack bill rights military powers constitution soon use president george_washington passage united_states congress whiskey act protest taxes imposed began western pennsylvania protests escalated washington led federal state militia known memorials events people uprising commemorated towns lived events took place sheffield erected memorial pictured marking site battle route runs called statue general erected hometown town massachusetts memorial erected new_york memorial commemorates general raised troops routed rebellion february ends line obedience law true liberty | Shays' Rebellion | History | World history | North American history |
17293_Refugiooilspill | oil spill oil spill deposited gallons barrels crude oil diverse coastlines west coast pipeline blamed spill closed indefinitely resulting financial impacts county estimated high million related pipeline remain service years cost cleanup estimated company million overall expenses including expected legal claims potential settlements million oil spill located immediately north california originated feet diameter underground pipeline named owned crude oil produced offshore platforms transported onshore receiving plants pipeline transported oil inland processing oil pipeline operators midland texas turned alarm notified leak dealing separate problem pump year old pipeline equipped automatic shut valve eventually shut control operators notified leak parties visually located spill hundreds animals coast coated thick crude oil died state parks beaches located coastline temporarily closed smaller oil rig resulted oil spill spill greater long term effects potential impact state marine protected areas unique characteristics area studied marine environments united_states background area earliest locations california developed offshore oil gas production crude oil natural gas produced offshore platforms processed onshore receiving plants transported distant source spill line mile pipeline owned inch buried line constructed coast service crude oil produced offshore drilling pipeline transport gallons barrels day contents heated high area typically heated retain oil heat transit oil blended natural gas allow flow readily pipeline truck transportation oil phased 1970s considered safer option pipeline spill inspection year old line pipeline found extensive problems resulting pipeline walls pipeline automatic shut valve required pipeline line categorized interstate pipeline officials plains american pipeline claimed installing new valve present potential dangers line underwent comprehensive internal inspection july area pipe broke repaired times line longer pipeline transports oil line inland gathering facilities line found seriously offshore oil production owns offshore platforms harmony heritage transport oil onshore tanks depend line transport oil pump station coastal canyon near crude oil known flows transported inland miles gathering facilities southern_california platform holly located depends lines holly platform mile offshore coal oil point gallons barrels day comes natural line production platforms owned coast narrow coastal terrace spill took place primarily recreation cattle grazing local land use agencies kept oil processing facilities minimum lightly populated coast land held agricultural preserves act lemon tree parks agricultural areas narrow coastal terrace situated rugged coastline nearest city mile coast main coastal railroad line parallel coastline harmony oil easily seen offshore santa barbara channel highway railroad coast mediterranean climate considered unique biodiversity ocean life unusual species found result cold water north meeting warm water south annual migration gray progress time spill come close foot shoreline oil spill detection response pipeline operators midland texas remotely detected pressure shut line initially responded report strong smell coming area fire crews found crude oil flowing drainage passed pacific_ocean reported leak authorities local pipeline workers know leak notified state parks staff noon oil water struggling find leaking pipeline workers located line leaked flowed storm company officials responsible center staffed united_states_coast_guard officers marine science technicians sole federal point contact reporting hazardous substances releases oil oil spill mandatory federal requirements timely manner company officials said unable contact employees site employees busy dealing immediate demands situation state parks agency closed governor declared state emergency declared state emergency emergency management team eventually recommended proclamation local emergency intact till anticipated significant winter storm bring submerged oil situation spring sensitive area oil quickly spread miles coastline west east slick reached marine protected areas significant ecological cultural significance naples campus point culturally significant land artifacts people found area immediate concern potential use chemical big washing ashore break oil small disperse water column significant concerns health effects effects aquatic life officials overseeing cleanup indicated chemical immediately rule use size spill cleanup efforts plains american pipeline stated time spill pipeline operating maximum capacity gallons hour reported august total gallons barrels crude oil leaked pipeline preliminary reports estimated gallons barrels gallons barrels oil ocean highway drainage adjacent broken pipeline oil reaching ocean later revised gallons barrels established consisting local state federal agencies included united_states_coast_guard including response responsible party plains american pipeline federal ordered pipeline operator provide pipe testing order establish condition pipe failed oil pipeline cleaned section removed determine pressure series failures led pipeline scientists multiple disciplines began collaborating immediately spill based lessons learned studies earlier refined computer models predicted spill spread including impacts los_angeles area beaches information provide guidance cleanup agencies monitor effects ecosystem feet floating boom deployed contain oil day boats helicopters identified patches slick ocean cleanup vessels oil dozen vessels oil water working days immediately following spill days spill workers boats cleaning shoreline gathering water mixture ocean hauling away cubic yards oil contaminated soil sand vegetation coastal bluff month spill efforts continued clean mile long portion shoreline heavily damaged sandstone cliff face large oil coming difficult clean sandy beaches farther south inundated tar balls beaches rocky shoreline south spill slick fresh crude oil ocean long altered tar balls wind waves tar balls days spill tar balls began washing ashore beaches coast nearby farther coast source tar balls immediately confirmed pipeline company sent workers clean crews cleaned coin sized oil shoreline beaches city including extensive officials scientists said tar balls appearance coincidence unrelated spill close known offshore oil gallons barrels day tar balls continued beaches farther coast including beaches tested tar ball recovered matched chemical signature oil cleanup crews responded farther south beaches month spill approximately miles beaches damaged spill cleaned remaining miles area spill site near rest coastline south spill aftermath environmental effect spill smaller nearby oil spill january oil rig blow estimated million gallons crude oil day period thick crude oil damaged coats skin hundreds animals workers eventually collected dead birds dead mammals included sea lions impact known animals travel distance injuries live birds live mammals rescued animals freed cleaned health adult brown released spending weeks team scientists administered september released sea lions affected oil spill border field state park scientists monitor movements sea lions satellite spill cleanup occurred nesting season snowy special precautions necessary cleaning tar balls birds found beaches coast plain nests hard open sand birds easily frightened away human activity leaving eggs fast moving predators sea endangered species bird concern cleanup efforts marine researchers note mammals birds attention smaller creatures base ocean food chain harmed oil life sea floor near shore unable way exposed oil organisms suffer mortality recovery population decades researchers began collecting samples hours spill monitor impact marine environment researchers volunteers returned area times collect additional samples students researchers previously area study purposes data available professor university said discharge heavy oil presents unique opportunity discover novel ecological marine communities heavy oil ecosystem response opportunity study ecosystem changes reactions early stages entire year rare scientists day zero access sort event like economic impact plains american pipeline estimated cleanup cost million joint oversight hearing june overall expenses related spill estimated million earnings report plains american pipeline issued time included emergency response cleanup efforts expected legal claims potential settlements ceo stated report million covered insurance figure include lost revenue economic consequences county difficult financial impact county estimated director million line remains dormant years dependence region oil gas industry product line workers income property taxes federal royalties reduced line service impact tourism bad predicted thousands workers involved cleanup appear benefited hotels lightly populated recreation brings outdoor enthusiasts spill affected visitors public private facilities area state closed heavily month finally reopened june camping day use heavily damaged reopen july popular parks quickly filled summer crowds reopened sector superintendent said booked day opened half people didn know closed good testament clean park response spill square miles km2 fisheries closed order lifted weeks determined area safe eat posed significant health threat closure impacted commercial fishermen fishing charters local commercial fishermen reported tough sell fish caught outside closed area impression region oil spill long term concern oil wiped main food source sea life area predominant products region red sea red rock crab average million sales revenue year estimate million financial impact years county includes approximately million lost property taxes million worker income million reduced federal royalties result region oil gas industry heavily dependent lines prior spill region biggest oil operator time pace generate approximately million revenue november generated estimated million offshore oil platforms rely lines forced shut onshore storage tanks filled december established restart truck transport continuing production offshore platforms allowed local agencies exceptions closely local officials allowing august transport crude oil onshore truck limited period oil evacuated tanks allow maintenance onshore facility serves legislation bills signed law response spill new law required review oil conditions year federal regulations mandate review years new law provides making oil spill response times faster effective finally new law force use best known technology automatic shut litigation year spill jury handing criminal plains announced count company employees california state attorney general opened criminal investigation right spill said prosecution send message plains oil gas industry california profound economic impacts local fishermen couldn fish fishery led filing lawsuits suits alleging losses property value consolidated class action lawsuit plains additional class action suit filed claiming plains provided false misleading statements pipeline maintenance monitoring plains american pipeline ordered march stop misleading sought interim damages issued order stated plains misleading victims rights recovery class action lawsuit obtain compensation city filed lawsuit seeking million compensation plains media coverage spill created perception oil spill city miles away according city officials discouraged visitors peak tourism season losing city millions dollars tax revenue federal requested provide records internal inspection conducted details maintenance data monitoring information incident reports repair logs requested release records santa barbara filed lawsuit agency december months received requested documents regulations pipeline hazardous material safety administration responsible developing enforcing regulations pipeline operation transportation having created months following spill found line inspection tool plains line degree company withheld line inspection data enhance interpretation data according order issued october proposed new rules assist preventing inspection | Refugio oil spill | History | World history | North American history |
17439_GadsdenPurchase | purchase known mexico spanish sale square mile km2 region present day southern arizona southwestern new_mexico purchased united_states treaty signed december american ambassador mexico time ratified changes april signed 14th president final approval action taken mexico government general congress purchase territorial acquisition united_states add large area country purchase included lands south west largely construct railroad deep southern route happened railroad constructed aimed reconcile outstanding border issues mexico following treaty ended earlier mexican american war railroad age evolved business oriented saw railroad linking south pacific_coast expand trade opportunities thought topography southern portion original boundary line future states california nevada utah arizona new_mexico western colorado mexican american war mountainous allow direct route projected southern railroad routes tended run north eastern ends favor connections northern railroads ultimately favor northern saw avoid mountains route southeastern terminus need swing south mexican territory administration president strongly influenced secretary war later president southern saw opportunity acquire land railroad acquire significant territory northern mexico end territory railroad purchased million million today mexico large scale sale territory united_states debate treaty involved dispute slavery ending progress american civil war planning construction railroad southern route southern commercial conventions january whitney new_york state presented united_states congress plan construct railroad congress took action proposal commercial convention memphis took issue prominent attendees included south_carolina influential convention recommending southern route proposed railroad begin texas end san_diego hoped route ensure southern prosperity opening west southern influence settlement southern interest railroads general pacific railroad particular accelerated conclusion mexican american war war officers conducted surveys demonstrated feasibility railroad originating western arkansas ending san_diego editor publicized south benefits building railroad president rail road company decade later company laid miles track extending west charleston south_carolina million dollars debt wanted connect southern railroads network concerned increasing railroad construction north shifting trade lumber farm goods manufacturing goods traditional north south route based ohio mississippi rivers east west axis bypass south saw charleston home town losing prominence addition southern business interests feared northern route cut south trade orient argued plantation economy south independent northern october convention discuss railroads held memphis response separate convention called earlier fall discussed northern route memphis convention overwhelmingly advocated construction route beginning connect san_diego line disagreement arose issue financing convention president virginia preferred strict private financing thought federal land grants railroad developers necessary california supported california admitted union free state advocated south_carolina considered slavery social blessing greatest curse nation proposal failed working cousin lawyer san_francisco california state senator attempted divide california proposed southern half state allow slavery planned establish slave holding colony based rice cotton sugar use slave labor build railroad highway originated san_antonio railway highway transport people california gold fields end december asked green secure california state legislature large land grant located 34th 36th parallels proposed dividing line california states months potential settlers south_carolina florida submitted petition california legislature permanent citizenship permission establish rural district farmed thousand african petition stimulated debate finally died committee land grants compromise created facilitate southern route west_coast territory railroad organized allow federal land grants financing measure competing northern central routes championed respectively senators illinois thomas hart missouri need territories precedent federal land grants established signed bill promoted douglas allowed south north mobile chicago railroad financed federal land grants specific purpose railroad construction satisfy southern opposition general principle federally supported internal improvements land grants transferred appropriate state territorial government oversee final transfer private developers majority south interested exploiting advantages developing railroad railroads general businessmen like advocated economic minority southern economy based cotton exports current transportation networks met plantation system needs little home market south trade short term best use capital invest slaves land support canals railroads roads rivers historian wrote gained great deal land grant act concentrated efforts continued opposition federal aid president spirit young america efforts build railroads canals central_america mexico divided forces leaving lot time pacific railroad compromise encouraged opponents railroad controversy treaty treaty ended mexican american war issues affecting sides needed resolved possession protection mexico indian raids right transit treaty provided joint commission surveyor commissioner country determine final boundary united_states mexico treaty specified west miles north treaty based attached copy year old map surveys revealed miles south miles west map showed mexico favored map united_states faith results survey disputed territory involved thousand square miles residents significantly included bordering valley consisted flat desert land measuring miles north south miles east west valley essential construction railroad southern route rhode_island united_states agreed allow mexico retain setting boundary north american claim easternmost north mexican claimed boundary exchange boundary turning north order include santa mountains believed rich copper deposits silver gold mined opposed alternative railroad supported president congress prevented action approval separate border treaty eliminated funding surveying disputed replaced pro railroad politician alabama mexico asserted commissioners valid prepared send troops enforce agreement indian raids article treaty contained guarantee united_states protect preventing cross border raids local tribes time treaty ratified secretary state believed united_states commitment resources enforce promise described difficulties task years approval treaty united_states spent million today area general chief estimated times necessary police border mexican officials frustrated failure united_states effectively enforce guarantee demanded losses inflicted mexican citizens raids united_states argued treaty require compensation require greater effort protect expended protecting citizens administration mexico claimed damages million today offered allow buy article million today president proposed settlement million negotiations treaty americans failed secure right transit mile southern mexico idea building railroad considered long time mexican president sold rights build railroad canal deal included land grants miles right way future colonization development british bank bought rights raising fears british colonization hemisphere violation monroe doctrine united_states interest right way increased finding gold sierra nevada finding impetus memphis commercial convention recommended united_states pursue trans route appeared unlikely railroad built soon interests louisiana especially adamant option believed railroad divert commercial traffic away mississippi new_orleans wanted secure southern route showing interest new_york ran import export business new_york purchased rights route today realized grant little value supported mexican american governments mexico officer reported secretary state railroad feasible practical idea instructed minister mexico negotiate treaty protect rights proposal gave shipping guaranteed mexican rights zone allowed united_states send military necessary gave united_states favored nation status mexican cargo fees treaty finalized treaty united_states great_britain guaranteed neutrality canal finalized april mexican refused treaty eliminate mexico ability play britain eliminated right united_states intervene militarily united_states senate approved treaty early refused accept treaty meantime proceeded treaty approved eventually committee new_orleans businessmen joined secured charter louisiana legislature create new company sold stock sent survey teams mexico started acquire land mexican legislature rejected treaty led contract use right way losses million today asked united_states government intervene president refused mexico sold canal franchise land grants associates new_york today march contracted british company build railroad sought exclusive contract new deliver mail new_york san_francisco soon bank loans contract sold pierce administration pierce administration took office march strong pro southern pro expansion mindset louisiana senator sent spain negotiate acquisition cuba virginia arkansas appointed ministers respectively france nicaragua pierce secretary war record favoring southern route railroad southern rail enthusiasts reason encouraged south remained divided january senator texas introduced bill create railroads northern route southern route starting memphis mississippi_river legislation president authorized select specific termini routes contractors build railroads worried northern central interests leap ahead construction opposed direct aid private developers constitutional grounds preferred proposals amendment added bill prohibit direct aid split vote congress amendment failed rejection led legislative demands sponsored california ohio supported railroad interests new surveys possible routes expected southern route approved davis secretary treasury supported based railroad planned build link texas join southern route davis argued southern route important military application likely event future troubles mexico march treaty initiated administration provide joint mexican united_states protection grant signed mexico time treaty received washington pierce learned new mexico territorial governor issued proclamation claiming new_mexico leading protests mexico pierce aware efforts france consul san_francisco acquire mexican state pierce recalled lane replaced kentucky given orders stay negotiations mexico completed encouragement appointed negotiate mexico acquisition additional territory secretary state gave clear instructions secure purposes building railroad convince mexico best indian raids mexican cooperation efforts citizens build canal railroad supporting interests instructions mexican government going political financial turmoil process returned power time pierce inaugurated willing deal needed money rebuild defense united_states initially rejected extension border south sierra mountains initially insisted damages caused american indian raids agreed let international tribunal resolve realized needed money passed information secretary pierce responded new instructions authorized purchase parcels land price fixed price include settlement indian damages relieve united_states obligation protect million billion today bought baja california peninsula large portion northwestern mexican states million today buy square miles km2 desert necessary railroad plans antagonistic manner advised spirit age soon lead northern states sell mexican president felt threatened attempt capture baja california troops annex government backing walker expelled placed trial criminal worried allow aggression mexican territory needed money little territory possible great_britain rejected mexican requests assist negotiations opted million package ratification pierce cabinet began debating treaty january disappointed territory secured terms submitted senate february suggested northern senators block treaty order deny south railroad signed pierce treaty needed ratified vote senate met strong opposition senators opposed acquisition slave territory lobbying gave treaty bad reputation senators objected financial assistance treaty reached senate body focused debate kansas nebraska act april debate senate voted favor treaty falling votes short necessary thirds required treaty approval defeat secretary davis southern senators pressed pierce add provisions treaty including protection grant requirement mexico protect power prosecution preservation security work referring canal permission united_states intervene feel sanctioned public international law reduction territory acquired square miles km2 dropping price million million version treaty successfully passed senate april vote reduction territory accommodation northern senators opposed acquisition additional slave territory final vote split took revised treaty accepted changes treaty went effect june land available construction southern railroad issue strongly associated debate slavery receive federal funding wrote unfortunate debates left mark course national politics pacific railroad remainder period increasingly difficult outright impossible consider proposal relating slavery issues people fully realized close taken firm hold nation completion pacific railroad prohibited money interest enthusiasm devoted emotion filled topics pacific railroad effect railroad development accelerated north south post ratification controversy originally envisioned purchase encompassed larger region extending far south include current mexican states baja california baja california sur mexican people opposed boundaries anti slavery senators saw purchase acquisition slave territory sale relatively small strip land angered mexican people saw actions betrayal country watched dismay funds generated purchase contemporary mexican historians continue view deal negatively believe defined american mexican relationship way purchased lands initially existing help control new land army established present day southern arizona november difficulty governing new areas territorial capital led efforts early organize new territory southern portion early settlers region pro slavery sympathetic south resulting congress best territory shifting course cause later dispute boundary purchase lands state texas known treaty treaty subsequent treaties established maintain border later treaties duties expanded allocation river waters nations providing flood control water viewed model international cooperation recent decades heavily criticized institutional passed modern social environmental political issues growth region army control residents area gained citizenship slowly american life half century principal threat peace security settlers travelers area raids indians army took control purchase lands troops stationed troubled region june established south head creek valley fort protected area evacuated destroyed july new stability brought miners late 1850s mining camps military posts transformed arizona countryside generated new trade state mexico supply center wheat nearby fed troops fort town sustained mines miles north civil war american civil war formed arizona including new territory mainly areas acquired north south dividing line union created western half new american included lands acquired territory admitted union state arizona february area lower states receive social development purchase southern arizona social elite including families remained primarily mexican american coming railroad 1880s opened silver mines southern arizona sought employ educated middle class americans shared work ethic leadership abilities operate mines biographical analysis employees classed managers laborers general service personnel reveals resulting work force included europeans americans indians mixture failed stabilize remote area lacked formal social political economic organization years civil war economic development late 1840s 1870s texas drove beef cattle southern arizona texas california trail impressed grazing possibilities offered purchase country arizona century moving arizona establishing range cattle industry contribute proven range methods new grass country arizona problems texas brought poor management resulted introduced destructive diseases difficulties force laws associations arizona curb resolve anglo american frontier arizona extension texas experience formed southern portion later created easternmost portion january subject ongoing border related conflicts area characterized rapidly growing ongoing raids smuggling cattle border growing operations expansion new technologies mining telecommunications 1860s conflict americans height constant warfare region adjacent mexican border illegal cattle operations kept beef prices border region lower provided cheap stock helped small early residents looked way robbed called frequently robbed stole cattle broad daylight legitimate watching border united_states mexico raid direction use sanctuary december year mexican authorities complained american outlaw stole mexican beef arizona reported mexican stealing horses selling livestock mexico arizona territorial governor investigated mexican government allegations accused turn allowing use base operations raiding arizona 1870s 1880s considerable tension rural residents democrats town residents business owners largely republicans industrial tension culminated called feud feud ended historic ride railroad development los_angeles reached arizona march completed second railroad december portion arizona originally largely western later rerouted north serve city phoenix portion new_mexico runs largely territory disputed mexico united_states treaty gone effect time purchase completed railroad august remainder pre purchase border area traversed excluded mile section today mouth including needle section highway miles northwest superior miami world takes alternate route road miles gap highway north given elevations places grade required population pop suburb texas new_mexico largest community new_mexico new_mexico pop county seat disputed area new_mexico county seat north mexican american land claims proposed compromise left mexico boundaries counties arizona follow northern boundary counties arizona populations land purchase contain areas north areas low population exception northeastern arizona including towns florence extends south area area populated largest city point american mexican border period approximately town arizona miles southwest phoenix | Gadsden Purchase | History | World history | North American history |
17824_Beaumont-HamelNewfoundlandMemorial | newfoundland memorial memorial site france dedicated commemoration forces members killed world war acre preserved battlefield park encompasses grounds unsuccessful attack july day battle battle regiment major engagement assault lasted approximately minutes regiment wiped purchased people newfoundland memorial site largest battalion memorial western largest area battlefield preserved preserved trench lines number memorials contained site officially opened memorial site national historic sites canada located outside canada canadian national memorial memorial site experience come represent newfoundland world war experience result newfoundland symbol sacrifice source identity background world war newfoundland largely rural dominion british empire population canada outbreak world war led government newfoundland recruit force service british_army island possessed formal military organization men soon volunteered entire battalion formed later maintained war regiment trained locations united_kingdom increased initial contingent men battalion strength men deployed period egypt regiment deployed bay gallipoli peninsula 29th support close gallipoli campaign regiment spent short period transferred western march battle france regiment regained battalion strength preparation battle regiment 29th went line april situated near northern end kilometre assaulted joint french british force attack originally scheduled june postponed days july partly account weather partly allow time artillery preparation 29th infantry brigades faced defences manned experienced troops 26th involved invasion france august manning section line nearly months prior battle german troops spending great deal time training position including construction numerous deep tunnels infantry assault 29th july preceded minutes earlier explosion heavily fortified explosion kilogram underneath german lines successfully destroyed major enemy strong point served alert german forces imminent attack following explosion troops immediately deployed firing line preventing british taking control resulting crater planned assault finally began troops brigade 29th quickly stopped exception 1st right flank initial assault man land short german barbed wire divisional headquarters staff trying numerous confusing messages coming observation posts contact aircraft leading brigades indications troops broken gone german line effort exploit perceived break german line ordered brigade reserve send forward battalions support attack 1st received orders forward situated support trench yards british forward line sight enemy movement forward communication trenches possible dead wounded men shell fire lieutenant colonel battalion commander decided immediately attack formation advance surface involved navigating british barbed wire defences skyline british line effectively troops moving battlefield clearly visible german defenders subjected force started forward dead dying wounded minutes leaving road trench reached skeleton tree lay man land utilized landmark far officers ranks directly involved advance officers slightly ranks casualties men went forward survived unscathed available roll following day purposes wiped unit having suffered casualty rate approximately unit suffer greater casualties attack 10th attacking west village rest war july remained relatively quiet battle continued south final act assaulted 51st highland division november opening battle days 29th division objectives july taken great german prisoners area memorial site rear area troops lodged german camp established vicinity present german withdrawal march kilometres battlefield salvage parties moved closed initial efforts probably restore land agriculture march checked exactly battle lines german withdrawal late august protagonists confronted ground actions routine line trench raids patrols artillery harassment history newfoundland purchased ground unsuccessful attack day battle credit establishment acre memorial site given lieutenant colonel roman catholic priest regiment director newfoundland representative imperial war graves commission negotiated french landowners purchase site played leading role selecting developing sites newfoundland memorials currently stand supervising construction memorial memorials including newfoundland memorial site constructed government newfoundland site officially opened memorial unveiled june newfoundland confederation canada responsible site maintenance care site fallen disrepair german occupation france second world war following confederation replacement original site cabin modern building trench restoration work undertaken time 45th anniversary battle memorial site established national historic sites canada located outside canada minister canadian heritage april site site situated kilometres north albert france near village area containing numerous memorials related site places western visitor trench lines world war related terrain preserved natural state largest site dedicated memory largest battalion memorial western largest area battlefield preserved site founded honour memory contains number memorials maintained commonwealth war graves commission ridge unusual mass burial site hunter cemetery popular location battlefield tours site important location burgeoning field world war battlefield preserved largely state increasing number visitors memorial resulted authorities taking measures control access fencing certain areas battlefield 29th near entrance site situated memorial 29th division lieutenant general wartime commander 29th unveiled monument morning official opening site june wartime unit 29th sent representative form guard honour occasion detachment joined french infantry formed honour guard unveiling newfoundland regiment memorial memorial memorials erected following world war erected france belgium sixth park newfoundland canada memorial bronze emblem standing atop newfoundland granite facing foe head thrown high defiance newfoundland memorial site mound rises approximately feet ground level surrounded native newfoundland plants base newfoundland memorial mound bronze carry names members marines gave lives world war known grave memorial situated close headquarters brigade brigade sixteen memorial designs submitted review recommended government accept british sculptor plan erect identical statues memory regiment known newfoundland previously commissioned execute statue fighting located landscape architect designed sites supervised construction native netherlands living decided plant newfoundland native tree species spruce boundaries site total trees project completed memorial unveiled official opening site field marshal june participated present included chief french general staff marshal france marie newfoundland colonial secretary lieutenant generals hunter regimental commanding officers lieutenant colonel 51st division monument memorial 51st ground originally donated veterans 51st division found unstable beneath lieutenant colonel offered location overlooking site scene fierce fighting division november selected sculptor 51st base monument consists rough blocks granite produced scotland assembled pyramid form major model figure atop memorial figure faces east village plaque inscribed blair math english translates friends good day battle unveiled september marshal france ferdinand commander memorial july panel referring died world war second wooden celtic cross directly track memorial originally sited subsequently moved newfoundland site cross commemorates men 51st fell july danger tree trees located halfway originally landmark newfoundland regiment trench raiding party days battle british german artillery eventually stripped tree leaves left shattered tree trunk infantry assault tree landmark troops ordered gather tree highly visible landmark german artillery site proved location german particularly deadly result regiment suffered large concentration casualties tree replica representation twisted tree stands spot visitors centre visitors centre exhibits historical social circumstances newfoundland beginning 20th century traces history personalities memorial room centre houses copy bronze plaque listing won centre incorporates administrative offices site archive canadian student guides based site available provide guided tours explain particular battlefield newfoundland involvement influence newfoundland significance events day battle strongly felt great conflict experienced dominion newfoundland left sense loss marked entire generation effects post war generation compounded chronic financial problems caused newfoundland large debt war prolonged post war economic recession decline fisheries lasting impressions war experience prevalent island canada july celebrated canada day recognition canadian confederation canadian province newfoundland date memorial day remembrance losses originally established memorial lost lives active service world war lastly memorials national war memorial erected following world war establishment preserved battlefield park visited thousands tourists year site serves informal function visitors experience history island | Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial | History | World history | North American history |
17827_BattleofBennington | battle battle battle american revolutionary war campaign took place august new_york miles namesake vermont rebel force men primarily composed new_hampshire massachusetts led general reinforced vermont led colonel members decisively defeated detachment general army led lieutenant colonel supported additional men lieutenant colonel detachment mixed force composed primarily including small amounts canadians loyalists indians sent raid disputed area horses draft animals supplies believing town lightly defended unaware stark stationed rain caused stark men position taking prisoners killing reinforcements sides arrived stark men battle restarted warner stark driving away reinforcements heavy casualties battle decisive victory rebel cause reduced army size men led indian support largely abandon deprived needed supplies cavalry draft horses food factors contributed eventual surrender victory colonial support independence movement played key role bringing france war rebel battle anniversary celebrated state vermont battle day background american revolutionary war years old british changed plans giving rebellious new_england colonies decided split new_england british believed loyal southern colonies british command devised grand plan divide colonies way movement western command repulsed siege fort failed southern progress hudson valley new_york_city started general decided instead capture philadelphia northern proceeding southward montreal enjoyed success british victories fort anne general proceeded campaign goal capturing albany gaining control force plan went meet dividing colonies british forces progress albany initially met great success including scattering men advance slowed crawl late july logistical difficulties exacerbated american destruction key road army supplies began concern supplies early august received word howe howe going philadelphia fact going advance hudson_river valley response proposal july commander german troops baron sent detachment troops command lieutenant colonel foraging mission acquire horses german draft animals assist moving army harass enemy detachment primarily regiment way joined local companies loyalists canadians indians company british originally ordered proceed connecticut river valley believed horses preparing leave verbally changed goal supply depot believed guarded remnants warner brigade colonial militia american forces unknown citizens new hampshire grants territory disputed new_york vermont republic appealed states new_hampshire massachusetts protection invading army following british capture new_hampshire responded july authorizing raise militia defense people annoyance enemy funds provided stark raised new_hampshire space days percent new_hampshire male population age sixteen marched fort number modern new_hampshire crossed river border grants stopped manchester stark conferred warner manchester general promotion preference stark cause stark resignation continental_army attempted assert army authority stark men stark refused stating solely responsible new_hampshire authorities stark went warner guide warner men remained manchester lincoln returned american camp general hatched plan lincoln men join stark warner actions harass communications supply lines movements significantly altered plans prelude germans left camp fort edward august marched waited joined indians company british company marched august minor skirmishes way learned prisoners taken sizable force place august men encountered detachment stark men sent investigate reports indians area stark men retreated destroying bridge delay advance stark receiving word approaching force sent request manchester support moved troops force setting defensive line sent message following contact indicating american force larger expected likely retreat advanced miles neared stark position realized message incorrect sent second message requesting reinforcements day half preventing battle time men constructed small crest hill hoped weather prevent americans attacking reinforcements arrived stark sent probe german lines managed kill thirty indians spite difficulties keeping gunpowder dry reinforcements sides marched 15th travel difficult heavy rains sent men warner company came south manchester lieutenant command late night august stark awakened arrival band massachusetts nearby insisted joining force response minister fiery threat men come allowed participate stark reported said dark rainy night people tell rest lord gives sunshine fighting come stark forces day arrival indians bringing force excluding warner men nearly men stark unexpected reinforcements force grew group local loyalists arrived camp morning august battle afternoon august weather cleared stark ordered men ready attack stark reputed rallied troops saying fight natural born rights added enemies night sleeps widow hearing militia melted away woods assumed americans retreating stark decided capitalize weaknesses german widely distributed position sent sizable flanking parties lines movements assisted ruse employed stark men enabled closer safely opposing forces germans spoke english told soldiers bits white paper hat loyalists fired stark men heard suitably adorned hats fighting broke german position immediately surrounded gunfire stark described hottest engagement witnessed resembling continual thunder loyalists indian positions overrun causing flee surrender left trapped high ground germans fought running low powder destruction ammunition wagon desperation led sabre charge attempt break forces charge failed causing massive amounts german casualties gaining ground rebels mortally wounded final charge remaining germans surrendered battle ended stark busy prisoners looting supplies arrived reinforcements seeing americans disarray immediately pressed attack hastily stark forces tried hold ground new german onslaught began fall lines collapsed warner men arrived scene reinforce stark troops pitched battle continued dark sides began hasty retreat lost quarter force artillery pieces aftermath total german british losses recorded dead captured american losses included americans dead wounded battle times particularly brutal loyalists met patriots cases came communities prisoners kept eventually marched boston army cross hudson august word battle arrived believing reinforcements necessary marched army word arrived remnants force returning continued arrive day night word disaster spread camp effect campaign significant lost nearly men half regulars lost crucial indian support council following battle indians traveled quebec decided home loss severely hampered reconnaissance efforts days come failure bring nearby supplies meant rely supply lines dangerously long eventually broke september shortage supplies significant factor decision surrender following france entered war reacted news battle optimism especially indian screen left small groups local patriots began emerge harass fringes british positions significant portion stark force returned home influential campaign appearing october complete army reward memorable battle suit clothes rank reward stark likely valued highest message thanks president included commission brigadier army united_states order battle battle forces generally described numbers generally consistent sources british units disagreement wide array sources number troops generally listed approximately incorrect identifying american units identifies having separate command apparently led companies regiment failed include massachusetts militia company erroneously believing worcester massachusetts militia companies worcester area marched companies arriving day battle originally raised company cavalry unit august legal holiday vermont known battlefield new_york state historic site designated january added national_register_of_historic_places october 1870s local historic society commissioned design construction battle monument complete dedicated ceremonies attended president monument feet high listed national_register_of_historic_places monument ready time mark centennial battle 100th anniversary battle marked speeches attended president | Battle of Bennington | History | World history | North American history |
17939_GreatNewYorkCityFireof1845 | great new york city fire broke july fire started whale oil manufacturing establishment quickly spread wooden structures neighborhood reached warehouse broad street stored caused massive explosion spread fire farther subdued fire destroyed buildings southern new_york_city caused million million damage killing firefighters civilians fire great fires affected heart manhattan including fires fire destructive affected older wood frame construction confined section city proved fire resistant building practices come play surrounding areas city previous decades fire fire started saturday july story oil merchant new street manhattan known seller whale oil fire spread quickly adjoining buildings alarm bell began ring firefighters firefighters time volunteer organization arrived command chief engineer anderson fire grew personnel joined retired fire chiefs city crews brooklyn newark battling blaze aided water flowing completed fire weakened intensity subdued firefighters day half hours burned fire destroyed buildings broad street wall street stone street street fire killed firefighters civilians buildings reported destroyed broadway broad street exchange place beaver street street street told fire destroyed buildings property damage estimated time million million today currency damages million million multiple reports looting fire aftermath businesses private residences elderly women reported approached young men offered help belongings damaged buildings stolen warehouse explosion hours fire spread reached large multi story warehouse occupied broad street large quantity stored arrived ordered pump water warehouse company firefighters entered warehouse dragged staircase direct water fourth floor heavy black smoke began coming ordered evacuate trying collect trapped fled roof escaped neighboring minutes evacuated building exploded explosion flattened buildings blew fronts opposite houses broad street doors buildings distance immediate area explosion propelled bricks missiles air threw people gone far beaver street spread fire far wide neighborhood set explosion shattered windows mile away heard far away new_jersey vehicle blown broad street vehicle eventually burned members company injured hart thrown explosion rooftop received minor ankle injury engine throwing water adjacent building second explosion occurred warehouse explosion threw street killed body found company continued search body amid rubble days appears memorial new_york volunteer firefighters died line duty cause explosion debated days immediately following fire public speculation led arrest warren occupants warehouse reported explosions occurred presence gunpowder addition suspected possessing gunpowder led murder charge later inquiry released warren charges evidence gunpowder discovered speculation explosion caused gas light house chief engineer anderson released statement day fire stating explosion occurred flames reached gas house effect new york city fire code practices great new york city fire particularly devastating fires affected heart manhattan occurring destructive fire confirmed value building codes restricting wood frame construction city officials banned new construction wood frame structures areas city fire demonstrated restrictions progress fire checked spread areas rebuilt fire materials stone masonry iron roofs spite general improvements fire prompted public calls stance fire prevention strengthen city capabilities city established reserve unit called called exempt militia jury duty company led veteran helped stop great fire crossing wall street | Great New York City Fire of 1845 | History | World history | North American history |
18194_GunfightattheO.K.Corral | second outlaw group generally regarded famous shootout history american wild west took place wednesday october result long feud tom town special policeman morgan special policeman temporary policeman brothers killed repeatedly threatened kill claimed unarmed ran fight morgan wounded unharmed fight come represent period frontier virtually open range largely unopposed law enforcement officers spread thin vast territories leaving areas unprotected known american public published initially received biography frontier marshal years death book basis film directed film shootout known conflict portrayed varying degrees accuracy numerous western films books despite historic place fronted allen street rear entrance lined stalls street shootout actually took place narrow lot photographic studio doors west rear entrance members opposing parties initially feet apart shots fired seconds brother billy killed filed murder charges eventually local justice peace day preliminary hearing local grand jury end conflict december ambushed murder attempt outlaw march fired dark alley glass door saloon shot killing suspects incidents furnished supplied indicted newly appointed deputy took matters hands personal pursued county received warrant shooting background conflict near mexican border formally founded march rapidly growing frontier mining arrived december small town composed tents living quarters buildings mines hired deputy eastern offices days arrival june appointed town marshal police chief universally liked townspeople tended protect interests town business owners residents helped protect accidentally killed contrast generally sympathetic interests rural time region term cowboy generally meant outlaw legitimate referred cattle conflicting versions events supporting facts events leading details uncertain newspapers day taking sides news reporting issues reflect publisher interests publisher helped organize committee safety committee late september elected city mayor new city charter newspaper tended interests local business owners supported deputy publisher major newspaper newspaper tended time landowners rural interests known event based month long preliminary hearing held afterward generally known hearings reporters newspapers covered hearings recorded testimony hearings reporter knew testimony recorded court recorder newspapers varied greatly according version events fight self defense armed violation local ordinance aggressively threatened order hand weapons maintained raised hands offering resistance shot cold blood telling truth difficult remains usually opposing reporting events reporting initially supported version events woods publisher pro cowboy town hearings experienced reporter wrote story staff close relationship rule story printed day shootout backed version events varied widely later court testimony subsequent stories published day supported view events stories countered later view entirely supported addition deceased indicated shot hands claimed time newspaper reporter testimony hearing early 1930s federal according report friend family completed kept original document home destroyed house fire origins conflict versus conflicts feuds leading complex strong family ties brothers james morgan tight family working saloon owners western towns moved town served union_army civil war police officer arizona followed job night constable held jobs police officer cattle drive towns kansas james wives arrived december early period rapid growth associated mining residents appointed deputy area shortly arrived summer morgan moved arrived hoping leave bought find business competitive invested mining claims water rights republicans worked came conflict billy large loose association cattle horse thieves known implicated crimes prone drinking heavily threatened brothers numerous times resident wrote diary cowboy times synonym outlaw horse thief wrote editorial reckless class wild country infinitely worse ordinary time 1880s insult legitimate cowboy legal generally called teamed crimes came aid thought met charleston arizona taken oath blood drawn arm leader kill appointed deputy eastern marshal arrived december ran office city marshal police chief november lost left town june appointed replace time afterward wounded december deputy town marshal city suspended town marshal filed murder charges business efforts yielding little profit shotgun messenger guarding shipments silver appointed deputy sheriff july held position months election november resigned deputy sheriff took job shotgun messenger job job held arizona occasions temporarily appointed deputy town marshal including week prior morgan occasionally assisted time wearing deputy city marshal badge drawing pay assassination attempt appointed deputy place held position left april work welcomed outlaw viewed badge enforced business interests town direct conflict roles imposing handsome man blond feet tall weighing pounds broad long armed muscular boxer reputed expert pistol according author showed fear man developed reputation nonsense hard prior october involved prior shooting kansas summer assistant marshal policeman citizens fired pistols fleeing town shooting theater member group spelled shot arm died wound month later claimed shoot book frontier marshal best selling biography established role fearless american old west public consciousness lake wildly exaggerated role gun battle popular media embellished role central figure discovered later based interviews largely fictional book later hollywood portrayals exaggerated reputation western involved shooting real experience combat far experience brothers sheriff constable marshal served years civil war involved police shooting known experience prior fight frequently hired shotgun messenger reputation reportedly life verified killed men documented episode occurred july business partner deputy marshal seated saloon las_vegas new_mexico scout got loud argument saloon girls wanted gordon stormed saloon began firing revolver building gordon second shot killed tried murder acquitted based testimony saved life time close friend living making living late met future sheriff saloon owner late september followed interests ranch owned near charleston arizona believed local center illegal activities tom worked buying selling stolen cattle rural resented growing influence city residents county politics law enforcement largely maintained control country outside large sympathetic support favored rural grew intensely dislike tended ignore complaints horse cattle officers law known bend law favor affected gambling saloon interests earned cowboy faction silver discovered area grew rapidly founding march population years later late citizens excluding chinese women children largest southwest silver mining attendant wealth attracted professionals merchants brought wives families came churches ministers brought victorian sensibility town elite fancy restaurants bowling alley churches ice house school opera house banks newspapers ice cream gambling halls numerous situated number dirty mines horse countryside came town frequent 1880s illegal smuggling theft cattle alcohol tobacco mexico united_states border miles common mexican government assessed heavy export taxes items earned handsome profit stealing mexico smuggling border relevant law reduce crime april city council passed ordinance requiring carrying knife pistol rifle deposit weapons saloon soon entering town ordinance legal basis decision confront resulted shoot smuggling stock border area route arizona mexico passage known august carrying gold coins purchases ambushed killed month dispatched troops border killed including old knew reputed mixed robbery murder said testimony shootout naturally kept eyes open intend gang drop help loses sheriff office july county sheriff offices county seat appointed deputy sheriff october marshal fred white attempted late night shooting pistols air attempted gun discharged striking white abdomen saw shooting pistol knocking unconscious arrested later told biographer thought armed time didn pistol ground waived preliminary hearing case immediately transferred deputy took wagon day stand trial possibly saving testified thought shooting accidental demonstrated pistol fired half left statement died days later shooting intentional based evidence presented charged white death council convened appointed temporary assistant city marshal replace white salary month election held november weeks represented federal local law enforcement november election sheriff democrat ran republican expected win votes arrived late november unexpectedly reelected immediately appointed new deputy sheriff eastern job wanted controversy ensued paul uncovered ballot sued election paul finally sheriff april late deputy sheriff january eastern portion containing split new need sheriff based county largest city position filled political appointment governor wanted job sheriff position worth year today office holder county tax collector board allowed percent amounts paid utilized existing position superior political connections successfully lobby position promised position appointed withdrew political contest governor legislature appointed job sheriff february deal appointed instead said broke promise appoint threaten recovered stolen horse conflicts tensions family clans increased stolen tracked ranch july captain company 12th infantry commanding officer asked deputy marshal help track stolen camp federal matter animals property brought soldiers invited morgan agent found ranch creek north west branding iron change brand avoid promised return persuaded withdraw went nearby charleston showed days later laughing response printed distributed named specifically assisting hiding reprinted july later said asked posted said said printed frank intention kill warned follow close fight incident run march robbery murder evening march carrying silver today dollars route arizona nearest freight terminal run election lost ballot temporarily working shotgun messenger taken driver seat usual driver known popular man named ill riding shotgun near drew station outside man stepped road commanded hold attempted rob stage paul driver seat fired shotgun emptied revolver wounding cowboy later identified groin riding shotgun passenger riding rear seat shot killed horses paul wasn able bring stage control mile leaving paul said thought shot killing shotgun messenger seat meant normally seated suspects identified deputy marshal temporary federal deputies morgan agent dealing oriental saloon set find issued wanted poster offering reward capture dead alive robbery mail carrying federal crime territorial crime consisted county federal authorities deputies trailed nearby ranch found named wouldn tell lied told girlfriend shot fearful reputation confessed holding horses identified known williams escorted king suspect escapes jail king walked door jail minutes later king arranged publisher sell horse riding partner stable march king escaped woods making bill sale woods claimed deliberately unlocked secured door jail townspeople furious king easy escape williams later dismissed leaving number debts determined stealing company years pursues suspects pursued men days riding hours food hours water horse died morgan horses weak men walked miles obtain new horses pursuing miles obtain fresh horses forced chase returned april submitted bill county expenses refused costs finally later incident caused friction county federal law enforcement offers reward money passed position thought beat election late thought catching murderers help win sheriff office later said june offered wells reward money provide information leading capture death stage according initially interested plan suspects head crane killed unrelated incidents began fear word possible cooperation leaked threatening compromise standing undercover agent suspected deal said fearful learn double cross began threaten learned deal apparently revealing willingness help arrest friends cowboy fallout fallout attempt robbery involvement king escape beginning increasingly bad feelings brothers cowboy factions attracted marcus sheriff interested sheriff position shared interest woman known believed marcus married known sex prostitutes women marcus ended relationship came home found bed wife friend kicked surname end summer rented home april living common law wife listed wife census growing addiction contemporary records indicate relationship marcus certainly knew offices traveling left los_angeles march returned family san_francisco july left colorado went san_francisco sought brother seeking treatment arm february march left san_francisco ran bank received request april assistance common law wife years september stage tensions increased passenger stage sandy bob line area bound held september masked robbed passengers stage carrying robbery driver heard describe money sugar phrase known prior month deputy fired accounting irregularities rode sheriff tracked stage appointed town marshal chief police june abandoned job time continued hold position deputy marshal federal capacity continued chase stage coaches outside limits scene discovered unusual boot print left wearing custom repaired boot heel checked shoe repair shop known provide widened boot heels able link boot print arrests arrived stable partner arrested deputy friends preliminary hearing able provide witnesses supported judge dropped charges insufficient evidence earlier year released bail arrested october robbery new federal charge interfering mail carrier newspapers reported arrested different stage robbery occurred october near believed new arrest evidence illegally told expect retaliation federal hearing charges confronted told kill tried arrest reported arrest threats friends accused accuse robbery county supervisor owner oriental saloon contentious relationship october trouble named tyler hired competing gambling establishment drive customers challenged tyler fight tyler ran like continued argue ordered removed saloon return revolver returned carrying double action revolver pistol threatened shot palm shot business partner big toe hit head revolver arrested pleaded guilty assault battery mistress big nose kate fights particularly nasty drunken argument kicked saw opportunity exploited situation big nose kate suggested way signed attempted robbery murders good friend new_york men implicated robbery judge issued arrest warrant found witnesses location time murders kate revealing influenced sign document didn understand cowboy plot revealed freed district attorney threw charges labeling ridiculous gave kate money stage town conflict testified weeks prior met outside told told knew meetings providing information head crane attempted robbery stage accused telling conversations testified told told offered prove returned town month later weekend shootout concerned possible trouble brought celebration gambling return asked accusation morning tuesday october day drove miles spring wagon milk ranch foot town sell large number beef stock owned seeing saloon midnight confronted accusing lying previous conversations got heated argument wearing badge encouraged brother deputy city marshal morgan intervene morgan escorted street drinking steadily followed city marshal arrived minutes later threatened arrest stop arguing talked minutes later threatened confront morning told fighting talk going long time intended end told ready morning walked oriental saloon followed sat drink revolver plain sight told think won morning morning shoot events leading court hearing confrontation took room fly lodging house sleep drinking went home bed marshal played cards fifth man unknown history morning dawn october card game broke went home bed testified later saw shooter lap stick pants game ended having rented room place shortly spoke telegraph office drinking night encouraged sleep insisted bed later testified noticed armed covered gun later said told soon showed street ball open fight went house told threatened brothers showed street ball open said testimony afterward remembered meeting making statements day later morning picked rifle revolver west end deposited weapons wagon team entering town noon day drinking armed violation city ordinance carrying firearms city told looking morgan surprised 4th street pistol took appear judge wallace violating ordinance waited went find judge wallace court hearing held court hearing waited return judge wallace witnesses tell cattle son bitch know know cattle son bitch threatened life got fight remark fight want feet ground reported testimony afterward cursed said offered rifle fight right courthouse declined denied threatening fined plus court costs paying fine left unarmed told leave confiscated rifle revolver grand hotel favored town testified picked weapons couple days later concealed weapon outside court house fined walked year old men brought short nose nose tom arrived town day required known city ordinance deposit pistol arrived town demanded said armed testified saw revolver plain sight right hip tom pants unpaid deputy marshal carried pistol custom time witnesses reported drew revolver coat pocket pistol twice leaving bleeding street saloon keeper testified hearing afterward saw deposit revolver capital saloon confrontation witnessed said deposition afterward temporarily acting city marshal week pete trial said considered deputy city marshal later confirmed duty officer legally search arrest tom carrying revolver city offense city police deputies including possibly search required action non testified hearing went bought cigar went outside watch time hours later know tom armed early afternoon time tom seen doctors head wounds day snow ground places tom spent night gambling drinking heavily sleep doors wounded head drunk enter town tom pistol year old younger brother tom older brother arrived town heard neighbor old man stirring trouble town overnight ridden town horseback brothers arrived miles east rounding stock brothers tom day frank billy armed revolver rifle custom riders country outside warriors engaged near weeks need weapons outside town established accepted billy frank stopped grand hotel allen street greeted learned immediately brothers previous hours incidents generated lot talk town angrily frank said drink billy left saloon immediately seek tom law frank billy left firearms grand hotel instead remained fully armed reactions said saw gun hardware store 4th street filling gun belts testified afterward tom tried buy new revolver owner saw head refused sell apparently heard tell confiscated weapons grand hotel corner shop learned talking gun shop went testified afterward thought saw men buying went corner allen street office picked gauge gauge short double shotgun unusually cold day wearing long avoid public hid shotgun returned saloon moved witnesses threatening kill unknown reasons walked west stopping narrow lot boarding house initially avoided confrontation newly arrived deposited weapons hotel stable law required statute specific far recently arrived visitor good faith reasonable time travel town carrying permitted traveler firearms proceeding directly hotel saloon main west 4th street allen block saw buying later told saw earnest conversation street went street notified told opinion meant trouble duty sheriff told gone west end went saw marshal notified effect attempts friend later testified late night card game went learned armed stated quickly finished went locate found holding horse talking fourth street near corner saw near photography studio walked frank told arms said armed pulled coat open carrying weapon located narrow feet lot house fly room boarding house photography studio street later said attempted persuade weapons frank insisted guns city marshal brothers disarmed block half 2nd street tom wagon team later testified thought tom 3rd 4th thought departing leaving town later said planning leave town reported decided remain care business tom frank brother judge texas claimed letter wrote preliminary hearing shoot tom frank armed planning conduct business leaving town visit texas wrote arrived horseback frank intended came gun fight joined prosecution team attempt convict brothers murder told different story leave iowa attend wedding sister iowa tom frank especially close sarah siblings half siblings caroline married iowa end november year decides citizens reported movements threats told tom left stable entered town armed violation city ordinance told citizens gathered street decided decision action influenced cowboy repeated threats proximity room fly boarding house location route usually took homes blocks west street members citizen committee offered support arms said prior month appointed morgan special policeman appointed special policemen business called morning help spoke brothers morgan acted deputy picked short double shotgun retrieved office earlier gave shotgun hid took walking stick return usual carried coat pockets carrying caliber american revolver carrying pistol concealed long coat shotgun walked west south street past rear entrance visual range reported location near corner fourth ran left came looked backward times testified afterward told god sake don murder said told morgan disarmed testified afterward said gone purpose actually disarmed said disarmed attempted avoid fight walking stick left hand hand shooter waist pants said disarmed clean left hip changed walking stick right hand said took pistol hand coat pocket walked street came view lot testified saw standing row east building opposite vacant space west fly photograph gallery man don know standing vacant space halfway photograph gallery building west testimony stating saw men opposite house leaning small house west man holding horse standing little house preceding weeks hours repeatedly threatened tired threats butcher shop street testified party passed location outside group looked said nearest store let replied right physical proximity approached lot law men initially facing stepped away house testimony given witnesses afterward disagreed precise location men animals beginning hearing produced sketch showing standing left right facing near house roughly middle lot opposite initially feet away left end party standing feet inside vacant lot nearest feet near corner boarding house morgan standing street right anchored end line feet morgan right drew sketch september depicted near middle lot close house tom stood deeper lot frank center buildings holding horse tom closer boarding house according sketches morgan right close house opposite near house close deeper lot opposite frank left opposite tom hung step street sketches included ran fight begins expecting fight said disarmed traded short double shotgun carrying cane carried cane right hand shifted pistol right left concealed short shotgun long jacket expecting fight pistol pocket wore belts stood alongside horses rifles possibly violation city ordinance prohibiting carrying weapons town saw testified immediately commanded throw hands want guns said told throw hands come testified saw draw shooters hold don mean hold don want single action carried groups firing served historical consultant film compared testimony partisan neutral witnesses came conclusion described situation accurately started shooting certain accounts participants contradictory smoke black powder weapons added confusion narrow space loyal told conflicting stories independent know participants sight unable certain shot seven men guns fired shots seconds shots reported afterward shots went right testified leveled pistol aim knew reputation good shot dangerous man aimed said shot went shots fired shooting shooting agreed fired missed shot stomach witnesses generally agreed shots indistinguishable general firing immediately broke thought tom armed shooting started horse held jumped said saw tom throw hand right hip said tom followed horse movement hiding fired twice horse shoots tom according witness drew large bronze pistol interpreted coach gun long coat stepped horse shot short double shotgun chest close range light saw tom running westward street street away standing shooting light testified tom fell foot telegraph pole corner 3rd street lay moving duration fight shooting tom tossed shotgun aside pulled revolver continued fire runs told court afterward kill opportunity broke ran forward grabbed unarmed want fight protest said responded fighting away ran door fly boarding house escaped accounts drew hidden pistol fired disappearing ran fight shot according stood fired rapid succession cool hit fired immediately drew gun right handed morgan shot hit billy right wrist hand forced shift revolver left hand continued shooting emptied gun firing fell newly buried waterline fired ground shot abdomen frank took horse struggled street tried failed grab rifle lost control horse frank crossed street firing revolver instead frank exchanged shots frank moved street frank hit pistol pocket grazing followed son bitch shot going kill picked fired frank frank fell east street number witnesses observed man leading horse street firing near testimony thought said man horse fight man frank holding horse losing cover middle street identified frank man street leading horse wounded wounded kept shooting billy shot wound struck shoulder blades morgan went minute picking frank billy shot thought billy hit fired shot frank entirely street walking good pace according testimony fired twice shot head right ear morgan apparently thought fired shot killed frank testified hearing information second hand accounts testified having stopped help frank saw frank try speak died fell moved shot wrist chest abdomen minute sitting position near original position corner house lot house said supported window initially shot fired shots sitting pistol supported leg ran ammunition called took pistol time general shooting ended moments later carried corner house corner died speaking carried house tom taken billy considerable pain asked doctor told near murdered murdered chase crowd away door air billy air heard away let die repeatedly threatened death running testified passed allen street saw minutes later outcome battle threatening kill months including day unarmed ran fight cowboy rear lot left soon firing began believed armed testified fired shot horse exchanged gunfire bruised bullet fired frank struck hip shot thought struck shoulder blades bullet morgan thought fired brother frank killed wounded carried homes passed told arrest seconds replied forcibly won arrested today right going away treated wounds cowboy wounds examined dead late night found wounds gunshot beneath right ear horizontally penetrated head second entering abdomen inch left stated wound beneath ear base brain caused instant death sheriff testified heard got frank shot frank moved street putting frank right morgan left makes likely shot fatal round killed frank examined body found wounds single shotgun round right arm fifth ribs wound inches nature location wound indicated received tom hands coat later testified stated shot tom exam supported testified wounds hearing stated angle wrist wound indicated billy hand raised head claimed cowboy witnesses report mention billy arm wound witness examined arm closely testified later shot right arm close wrist joint bullet passed arm inside outside entering arm close base thumb exiting wrist wound larger indicated judge billy holding coat open arms raised testified found wounds billy body inches left penetrated lung abdomen beneath twelfth rib inches right fired passed completely body wound right wrist inflicted immediately outset fight billy drawing gun weapons carried armed frontier identified serial numbers hearing found revolver hand lay took armed frontier revolver recovered street feet body rounds remaining placed frank body moved house laid frank revolver floor examined billy tom cowboy witness said saw frank middle street shooting revolver trying remove winchester rifle horse model rifles frank horses found customary frank carried rounds fired shots witnesses differed carrying weapon shootout revolver rifle found near body wearing cartridge belt testified arrested tom earlier day found carrying weapon earlier violation city ordinance pistol took courthouse fined saloon keeper testified tom deposited revolver 4th street arrest fight cowboy witnesses testified tom unarmed claimed murdered man testified searched weapon prior thorough tom pistol hidden testimony significant prime witness prosecution point sympathy known trial firmly denied contributed money help defense costs documents located showed served loan hearing planned run incentive help convict story cowboy friendly newspaper stated sheriff stepped said hold boys don trouble testimony repeatedly insisted told intended actually article said standing near commanding contestants cease firing powerless prevent given close relationship owned deputy sheriff likely interviewed williams account told immediately story report newspaper altered afterward version matched story later told saloon keeper seen tom deposit pistol beating way knowing tom left revolver saloon hotel keeper albert chris father charles owned saw enter butcher shop testified tom right hand pants pocket flat went contained pistol thought emerged retired army surgeon testified saw tom pants tom pants pocket nearly cash receipts found body payment stolen mexican beef purchased butcher believed tom revolver time thought tom fired revolver horse neck believed died tom revolver removed scene eye witness stated saw shooting man horse shot man fell statement claimed man held pistol hand said saw shoot indicate armed said afterward thought tom armed later point quoted october issue said fell raised fired died testified day later time newspaper reporter testimony hearing early 1930s second testimony quoted saying shots fired ran street fell think report gave pretty near correct published known removed text decided relevant author said mutilated documents subsequently lost tom wasn armed revolver testified tom attempted grab rifle horse killed judge ruled afterward party armed making resistance arrest melee followed shot fact unarmed fact defendants sic said unarmed fled public reaction bodies dead displayed window sign murdered streets daily proclaimed 26th october marked crimson days annals day blood flowed water human life held shuttle day remembered witnessing deadliest street fight occurred place probably territory restrained language feeling best class citizens marshal entirely justified efforts men fired defend local associated_press client story version events readers united_states read age age older brother frank age attended people joined procession thousand watched buried grave buried nearby story widely printed newspapers united_states versions favored headlines story good jury convened condemned shooting frank came deaths town october effects pistol gunshot wounds inflicted commonly called initial public reaction largely favorable began change rumors began unarmed threw hands shooting days fin arrived town began claim committed murder instead enforcing law wife mining engineer correspondent california newspapers wrote residents divided justification killings referring initial testimony offered wrote opinion pretty divided justification killing meet man support declare course possible save lives man likely assert occasion warm place yesterday damaging fact armed unequal fight governor reported best law peace loving citizens confidence willingness civil officers pursue bring justice element largely disturbing sense security opinion prevalent civil officers largely league leaders disturbing dangerous element hearing days shoot filed murder charges arrested brought morgan recovering home required post bail paid attorney local owner undercover agent business owners efforts maintain order suspended town marshal pending outcome trial justice convened preliminary hearing october determine evidence trial prosecution led republican district attorney assisted joined frank tom older brother able attorney played key role prosecutor team attorney experienced trial lawyer earned reputation silver pacific took written oral testimony number witnesses month accounts participants eye witnesses contradictory loyal told conflicting stories independent know participants sight unable certain shot testified day hearing days stand gave strong testimony resisted threw hands turned coats armed views turned public opinion free bail prosecution witnesses testified unarmed hands air portrayed bullied beaten day strength prosecution case revoked bail jailed november spent days jail defense accounts contradicted testimony allen said man fired pistol allen said witnesses testified carrying shotgun morgan remained trial testify prosecution scenario required fire pistol switch shotgun shoot switch pistol continue firing witnesses gave key evidence justice hold acted capacity sheriff insufficient evidence murder engineer arrived town knew parties involved testified saw marshal speak party saw pull immediately marshal cane right hand time hand spoke hear words time fired guns prosecution virtually defense testimony residence street testified saw sides facing held hands firing general seen fall immediately testified judge offices feet shootout lucas testimony standing fight contradicted prosecution witnesses maintained went immediately shot close range belly noted powder burns found clothing witnesses testimony especially party testimony given cowboy witnesses hearing evidence justice ruled november charge day acted office evidence men described insistence weapons marshal deputies gave arms proposition monstrous startling noted prosecution claimed purpose leave town weapons noted doctor examined dead established wounds received occurred hands arms positions prosecution witnesses described actions criticized use deputies concluded laws broken said evidence indicated acted law properly popular culture public perception brothers actions especially controversial today strongly detractors sketch hand drawn sketch assistance september sold auction october map describes position number witnesses participants exception fled paintings popular painter desert scenes cowboy artist painted inches oil painting regarded accurate depiction years father uncle owned store street west entrance half block site claimed present witnessed shoot newspaper accounts painting reported interviewed residents examined existing buildings beginning plan painting studio printed sold limited edition copies painting friends secretary best friend years died flood inherited personal belongings flood turn amassed number years largest collections personal items belonging unpublished photos family opened commissioned western artist paint oil painting titled street fight feet inches feet largest work executed referred original documents collection including shootout unpublished notes create regarded accurate depiction shootout prints reproduced original signed prints sold museum closed museum painting contents museum sold auction john western gallery san_francisco estimated auction price final sale price june auction june estimated selling price failed sell origin shootout described book bringing law incident near popular book frontier marshal titled chapter conflict popular movie cemented incident erroneous location popular consciousness movie accompanying altered way public thought prior movie media criticized actions movies good guys ready stand right incident fixture american history personal nature feud brothers symbolism fight outlaw murdered morgan escaped prosecution extra legal campaign revenge captured people attention aftermath stand change overcoming america western frontier ceased exist modern nation rapidly pushing largely economy town capitalized widespread interest portions town historical district designated listed national_register_of_historic_places local company produces daily theatrical film television widespread sales world war producers spun large number western oriented shows height popularity dozen cowboy programs week directly indirectly connected life legend hugh brien portrayed namesake ran seasons episode modern technology attempt enact utilized movie set recreate space similar lot original gun fight took place confirmed wrist wound suffered occurred arm raised manner like holding pistol black powder obscured shooters view episode concluded prosecution likely offered testimony found hit shotgun round reached horse rifle horse turned away time stories written 20th century affected american culture numerous dramatic fictional documentary works produced referencing event varying degrees accuracy works include law order brien dodge city life legend series autumn doctor serial hour gun gun original star trek episode written showdown appointment destiny episode narrated real episode shootout fly photographic studio history bites episode days shook world episode rule gun print chronological novel prominently features fictionalized version known shootout volume story arc comics series french artist combines multiple plots including frontier earth sci western novel actor events leading return little big man novelist wandering protagonist witness event telegraph days novel includes representation told fictional journalist eyewitness territory july novel offers fantasy retelling events leading fight special imagining saloon version novel tells story mathematics introduced mathematical model published bulletin london mathematical society later model analyzed sir analyzed probability survival exactly gunmen given initially fair configuration | Gunfight at the O.K. Corral | History | World history | North American history |
19516_SpanishTexas | spanish texas spanish texas interior provinces spanish colonial history spain claimed ownership territory comprised present day state texas including land north attempt area locating evidence failed french colony fort saint louis escorted catholic missionaries east texas established mission texas native tribes resisted spanish invasion homeland missionaries returned mexico abandoning texas decades spanish returned southeastern texas establishing missions maintain spanish territory french colonial louisiana district new france years later civilian settlement texas san_antonio established way station missions nearest existing settlement new town quickly target raids raids continued periodically decades spanish settlers peoples peace treaty angered enemies resulted raids spanish settlements tribes fear indian attacks area rest discouraged settlers moving texas remained populated immigrants provinces threat attacks decrease spain peoples peace agreement tribe later assisted defeating tribes continued cause difficulties settlers increase number missions province allowed peaceful indian reductions tribes end 18th century nomadic hunting gathering tribes area converted france formally relinquished claim region texas french louisiana ceded inclusion spanish louisiana meant texas longer essentially province easternmost texas settlements disbanded population relocating san_antonio spain gave louisiana france france sold territory known united_states president insisted purchase included land east rocky_mountains north large southwestern dispute resolved compromise spain ceded spanish florida united_states return recognition eastern boundary spanish texas western boundary claims vast spanish territories west province new_mexico mexican war independence texas experienced turmoil governor overthrown rebels persuaded release assist organizing counter coup years later north consisting primarily indians americans texas government executed spanish response brutal fewer hispanic citizens remained texas spain forced relinquish control texas province newly formed nation mexico leading period texas history known mexican texas spanish left deep mark texas european livestock caused spread inland farmers land changing landscape forever spanish language provided names rivers towns counties currently exist spanish architectural concepts flourish texas eventually adopted anglo american legal system spanish legal practices retained including concept homestead exemption community property location spanish texas colonial province northeastern mainland region southern edge bordered province boundary provinces set line formed miles northeast east texas bordered french louisiana spain claimed formed boundary france insisted border miles west mexican independence spain initial colonization attempts claimed texas spain area largely ignored spain late seventeenth century spanish learned france established colony area florida believing french colony threat spanish mines shipping routes spanish king recommended spain needed swift action remove thrust heart america greater delay greater difficulty having idea find french colony spanish launched expeditions land sea years unable fulfill original goal locating french settlement expeditions provide spain deeper understanding geography gulf_coast region expedition discovered french living southern texas april helped guide spanish fort saint louis destroyed expedition met representatives people lived trinity expressed interest learning christianity sent report findings mexico_city created instant optimism religious spanish government convinced destruction french fort proof god divine aid favor report recommended established missions established spanish called spanish written equivalent texas future province missions approved establishment mission rejected idea primarily short funds march set soldiers missionaries group stopped burn fort saint louis ground proceeded mission san francisco los completed near village late mass conducted june missionaries refused allow soldiers remain near missions returned mexico later year initial soldiers remained assist monks father priest charge mission left june meet tribes north mission returning mexico request additional priests lay brothers january spain appointed governor texas general los ordered help establish seven new missions including indians tribes near able recruit lay brothers expedition reached existing mission august discovered priests established second mission miles east los priests died leaving operate missions indians regularly stole cattle horses provisions running low chose establish missions left texas later year missionaries chose return leaving religious people soldiers missions group left smallpox epidemic indians natural immunity disease blamed outbreak waters thousands natives succumbed survivors rose missions warned missionaries leave area killed missionaries buried church bells burned mission returned mexico spanish attempt settle texas failed provided spain increased awareness terrain rivers coastline texas convinced government indians converted combination years spain ignored texas conflict france early eighteenth century france provided impetus spain interest texas french forts established mississippi_river ending spain exclusive control gulf_coast spain refused france right louisiana warned king france ignoring year old papal giving americas spain took actions stop france expand spanish presence countries allies war spanish succession americas despite friendship spain remained unwilling allow french trade territory hearing rumors french incursions texas ordered provincial governors prevent entry foreigners goods dissuade indians accepting goods french contingent soldiers traveled texas expedition reached far turned learning chief unhappy spanish group visit area impressed land availability water believed river unnamed called realizing camped nearby years feast day given river missionary served earlier texas missions wanted missions spanish government unwilling provide funding troops project approached french governor louisiana help orders turn louisiana profitable colony believed spanish settlers closer louisiana provide new trading opportunities sent brothers children spared massacre fort saint louis find offer assistance july french delegation reached spanish frontier time located arrested questioned ultimately released spanish recognized french threat spanish areas ordered texas french settlements louisiana april expedition led left texas intending establish missions guarded soldiers party people included children women soldiers missionaries recorded female settlers spanish texas marrying spanish woman joined spanish expedition party reached land people late june greeted warmly july mission san_francisco los indians days later established main village head tribe mission established miles east main village tribe final mission los built indians north present day built opposite san_francisco los period area named new philippines missionaries twin hopes gaining royal patronage spanish efforts successful philippines century half earlier alternate persisted use years virtually disappeared use favor texas end century persisted documents especially land grants time french building fort establish westward presence spanish countered founding missions west san los los missions located disputed area france claimed western boundary louisiana spain claimed eastern boundary texas leaving overlap miles new missions miles nearest spanish settlement difficult missions missionaries dire straits appointed governor texas late wished establish way station settlements new missions built thriving community near area spanish admired led group people including families texas april brought horses livestock group created temporary mud brush straw structure serve mission chapel later known mission initially populated indians missionaries raised childhood built mile north mission chartered municipality san_antonio given status higher village lower city san_antonio villa texas colonists settled relied farming survive new settlement established continued east texas missions found evidence illicit trade france following year war quadruple alliance broke spain france england austria war fought primarily italy england france war excuse attempt spanish interests north_america june took control los sole defender know countries war french soldiers explained additional soldiers coming spanish colonists missionaries remaining soldiers abandoned area fled san_antonio volunteered texas raised army soldiers named governor texas responsibilities office delayed trip texas year late departed fighting europe halted king spain ordered invade louisiana instead find way retake force expedition brought horses sheep goats constituted large cattle drive texas greatly increased number animals texas marked beginning spanish texas july approaching expedition met returned french leading raid san_antonio realizing badly outnumbered agreed abandon east texas return louisiana ordered building new spanish fort del los located near present day louisiana miles new fort capital texas guarded cannon soldiers east texas missions reopened known los moved site near mission near built fort known site nearby established mission santo known indians ninety men left garrison returned mexico_city resigned governorship beginning expedition texas consisted san_antonio soldiers resignation province grown consist soldiers missions small civilian town san_antonio settlement difficulties shortly returned mexico new ordered cut costs defense northern territory appointed colonel inspect entire northern frontier beginning california november rivera spent years northern frontier reaching san_antonio august reports san_antonio favorable unimpressed soldiers guarding missions native population refused communities missions refused baptism brink death indians armed unable join missions frustrated missionaries finally petitioned spanish government soldiers burn indians houses worship force build homes near missions troops forthcoming rivera recommended closing los reducing number soldiers suggestions approved troops removed texas leaving soldiers divided san_antonio missions depended relocated increasing number missions san_antonio area san_antonio missions usually contained fewer indians lived mission belonged small tribes extinct spain discouraged manufacturing colonies limited trade spanish goods handled spanish merchants carried spanish vessels ports including texas closed commercial vessels hopes law goods bound texas shipped veracruz transported mountains mexico_city sent texas caused goods expensive texas settlements settlers forced turn french supplies fort stocked goods travel far goods trade remaining spanish missionaries colonists little offer indians remained loyal french traders raids tribes traded freely soon acquired french guns traded spanish horses tribes access resource left disadvantage seasonal farmers soon pressed horses guns bitter enemies transferred spanish friends discovering san_antonio began repeatedly raiding area steal livestock especially horses average died year texas result attacks approximately animals taken year retaliation spanish launched multiple attacks capturing horses hides taking captives spanish household servants san_antonio garrison begging government help negotiating peace tribes spanish government believed settlers defend property need texas prospect settlers armed nomadic tribes high costs lack precious metals spanish government people women children san_antonio time hispanic settlers lived san_antonio dispersed rest colony new immigrants began farming renamed town establishing municipal civilian government texas oldest settlers appointed settlers municipality descendants designated established settlers resented new titles exclusive privileges city government newcomers know handle horses rendering useless mounted warfare unlike established settlers relied primarily farmers refusal build fences led disagreements livestock fields early need closer economic ties helped alleviate original settlers given permission serve council members threat raids led constant state san_antonio families left area refused leave safety town tend livestock problems culminated late night raid san_antonio june retaliation spanish military campaign months attackers repelled assistance indians preyed tribes including weaker tribes requested missions hopes spanish protect attack mission established confluence january serve indians raided mission times killing soldiers indian residents resident indians fled mission threat attacks deter missionaries founded missions area following year months potential converts left missions transferred new location missions peace finally declared august group chiefs spanish officials symbolically buried trouble parties burying weapons plaza san_antonio spanish promised provide military assistance asked missions times property missions military garrison briefly protected transferred new mission santa san san river northwest san_antonio log constructed miles mission river soldiers corrupt indians hold including women children accompanied soldiers mission march band tribes angry assisting enemies burned mission killing people mission spanish mission texas completely destroyed indians rebuilt indian force members chose attack fort spanish government refused abandon area completely fear action appear weak planned response indians raided horse herd stealing horses pack killing soldiers october spain sent commander colonel expedition north avenge attack tribes led army fortified village surrounded moat natives french guns french flag skirmish killed wounded deserted spanish retreated replaced limestone fortress moat allies remained close killed soldiers ventured spain abandoned fort missionaries established unauthorized missions south valley years lived missions year left winter hunt buffalo missions closed returned hunt surviving mission closed january force natives northern tribes attacked killing taking captives livestock valley spanish troops small cannon ambushed northern tribes returned spanish forced retreat indians spanish soldiers died battle refused return mission returned raiding near san_antonio raids northern tribes decreased peace france indians confirmed french traders periodically arrived sea trade tribes lower region years later spanish learned rumors french opened trading post mouth september governor sent soldiers investigate captured living indian village dissuade french returning spain built mission near mouth trinity galveston bay conditions awful new location mission closed moved san river years new mission tribes del los built upstream mission survived years despite new missions texas populated provinces northern frontier hispanic people lived texas half san_antonio los lived area considered new_mexico texas november treaty france ceded portion louisiana west mississippi_river spain spain assisted france britain seven years war lost manila havana british louisiana colony financial liability king spain reluctantly accepted meant france finally claim texas treaty paris february great_britain recognized spain right lands west mississippi great_britain received remainder france north american territories spain exchanged holdings florida havana france longer threat spain north american interests spanish monarchy commissioned inspect northern frontier recommendations future year journey beginning early covered seven thousand miles comprehensive look frontier conducted expedition unimpressed declared worst kingdom recommended san_antonio maintained east texas totally abandoned population moving san_antonio louisiana spanish control need reside closely especially missions relocated san_antonio august acting governor baron moved headquarters garrison san_antonio san_antonio new texas capital abandoned completely new governor augmented garrison san_antonio protect town recurring indian attacks new established miles southeast san_antonio protect farmers attacks result recommendations san closed leaving texas coast july governor texas heard rumors english traders building settlement area texas coast abandoned commander sent find settlement saw sign europeans expedition discover emptied gulf_of_mexico founding hispanic settlers lived near san_antonio years inspection removal settlers immigrant population increased europeans mixture spanish french indians blacks settlers given days prepare relocate san_antonio perished month trek died soon arriving protesting permitted following year return far miles led settlers founded town trail san_antonio crossed trinity settlers helped goods louisiana san_antonio helped soldiers coastal reconnaissance king created new position general general control frontier areas northern including spanish texas served governor commander chief area prepared office predecessor baron wrote detailed report dated april settlements texas report detailed village labeled greatest importance means acquiring reports coast extensive settlers regularly performed coastal developed friendship tribe reported signs foreigners coast summer discovered group come sea stayed long plant crop near led expedition find discovered fields expedition find settlers began raiding area settlers chose east old mission founded town new town quickly settlers authorization troops assigned protect new location conflict native americans difficulties indians missions told soldiers group europeans near mouth finding remains english commercial frigate soldiers warned refrain attacking seamen soldiers continued explore coast reported foreign powers easily build small settlement barrier islands difficult access mainland ascend trinity san rivers heart texas captain commander recommended spain build small fort barrier islands provide shallow draft vessel continually coast fort tribes english spanish government fearful smuggling declined permission port boat texas coast unimpressed new province complaining villa order seven missions population scarcely persons sexes ages occupies immense desert country stretching abandoned san_antonio deserve province texas concern entailed preservation despite area increased number troops interior provinces created units light troops carry heavy gear fight foot administration attempted build alliances native troops planned work raiders plan shelved spain entered american revolution ally french american revolutionaries money troops diverted attacking florida instead soldiers aligned spain able sign peace treaty attacking repulsed hearing englishman surveyed gulf_coast way galveston bay appointed french engineer conduct similar survey spain finished survey march anchored running dangerously low provisions period days lured men time ship offers assistance killed sailor named burned ship newly created map possibly detailed spanish map texas louisiana coast months later indians living near escaped join began raiding livestock settlers governor pardoned returned mission continued cause difficulties spanish interim commandant general noted unable explore region long held spanish arranged coastline mapped september left havana chart coastline journey gave galveston bay honor sponsor later mapped coast later belonged texas peace indians raided new_mexico driven new_mexico broad assault led new_mexico governor activities weakly defended texas time period guns received returned raiding settlements texas violating peace treaty promptly declared war regained control interior provinces ordered indians encouraged use alcohol trading firearms traded poorly awkward use easy break policies implemented spain money provide gifts tribes instead spanish negotiated treaty late treaty promised annual gifts peace brought lasted years late northern western texas secure single companion safely pioneered trail san_antonio distance miles willing fight enemies new friends soon attacked years killed area drove mexico natives lived barrier islands home january helped spanish fight large battle creek west san_antonio warriors participated raids forced mountains mexico spanish officials began attempt peace years fighting declined befriended native peoples friendship allowed explore coastal areas dangerous visit indians requested build mission junction san_antonio february mission del opened near head indians lived mission initially years forced flood prone site known end eighteenth century small number hunting gathering tribes texas mission following year remaining missions san_antonio partially dominant group southwest 1830s domain ruled empire known confronted spanish mexican american outposts periphery new_mexico texas northern mexico worked increase safety prosperity power empire collapsed spanish era villages repeatedly smallpox cholera late 1840s population thousand 1870s longer able deal took control region ended operated autonomous power inside area claimed spain controlled military power obtain supplies labor indians tribute spanish little stop controlled horses region wealth mobility powered violence empire primarily economic construction rooted extensive commercial network facilitated long distance trade dealing subordinate indians spread language culture region terms governance created centralized political system based foraging market economy social organization conflict united_states second treaty paris ended american revolution established united_states_of_america treaty extended new country western boundary mississippi_river year signed american settlers crossed difficult return east mountains settlers began looking spanish colonies louisiana texas find places sell crops spain closed mouth mississippi foreigners despite threat begin anglo spanish war matter americans arrest come texas capture wild trade indians anglo american known pursue horse trading texas arrested times spain borders spanish feared spy sent troops capture party men killed ensuing battle americans trading guns ammunition especially return livestock chiefs refused trade reported movements spanish authorities bands welcomed newcomers drought scarce stopped increasing meet american demand livestock turned raiding area san_antonio spanish government believed security come larger population unable attract colonists spain colonies late 18th century texas populated regions fewer inhabitants square league population relatively having grown individuals half population classified settled indians making largest category blacks slaves population census thirds adults texas married single men outnumbered single women high percentage fairly common white men women mixed origin children unions passed whites illegitimate increased steadily century reaching despite small population spain actively discouraged immigration texas permanent garrison placed foreigners settling area immigrants united_states allowed settle louisiana florida taking oath allegiance required convert spain gave louisiana france exchange promise throne central italy agreement signed october effect following year napoleon sold louisiana united_states moved colony left texas florida spanish held lands original agreement spain france explicitly specified borders louisiana descriptions documents ambiguous contradictory territories spanish control disagreement border decided need boundary recommended united_states insisted purchase included texas claimed louisiana stretched west rocky_mountains included entire watershed mississippi tributaries southern border spain maintained louisiana extended far include texas considered province time united_states spain planned send thousands colonists increase number residents texas hispanic inhabitants plan cancelled government money relocate settlers responsibility defending texas rested held newly reopened position promoted immigration texas new town founded road san_antonio brief time allowed spanish subjects louisiana come texas americans settled texas time warned foreigners pick eyes king spain ordered data compiled determine true boundary border settled sides led armed disputed areas spain began increasing number troops stationed texas number doubled stationed end local commanders negotiated temporary agreement spanish americans venture area neutral ground quickly haven stop individuals crossing boundary mission united_states_army explore disputed areas arrested spanish camping escorted maps notes confiscated pike able recreate memory glowing comments texas lands animals americans control territory end spanish period napoleon forced king ferdinand vii spanish throne replacement napoleon elder brother joseph appointed king spain violent protests spanish citizens uprisings continued years return ferdinand vii time little oversight colonies shadow government operated joseph reign operating spanish constitution constitutional government included representatives colonies including texas new_mexico king ferdinand vii resumed throne refused recognize new constitution representative government forced change mind way military coup time turmoil unclear actually governed colonies joseph shadow government representing ferdinand vii colonial officials revolutionaries province mexican war independence began fearing revolution reach colonial texas governor ordered texas borders closed foreigners soon reversed uncle commandant general revolutionaries soon imprisoned new government established texas persuaded return royalist cause organized counter coup captured executed officially neutral war united_states allowed rebels trade american ports weaponry ammunition rebels came united_states americans provided manpower conflict serving launching point expeditions texas mexican led small force americans texas indians eastern texas quickly joined calling north group captured san_antonio assassinated governor proclaimed texas independent spain death governor caused anglo americans desert cause april members composed texas constitution provided centralized form government spanish forces recaptured province later year battle killed executed accused having republican tendencies weeks rebels executed wives daughters imprisoned months royalist soldiers chased women children fled san_antonio killing captured americans given opportunity oath loyalty spain refused escorted united_states fearing constitute threat spanish general ordered temporarily san_antonio help defend city returned months later found slaughtered livestock leaving fell spanish army looted rest texas fewer hispanic citizens remained texas spanish texas remained unprotected land feed revolutionary created government september proclaimed group french united_states attempted create colony known planned use colony base liberate free napoleon abandoned colony shortly returned galveston february spain united_states reached agreement treaty ceded florida united_states return united_states claim texas official boundary texas set river current boundary texas louisiana following red arkansas rivers 42nd parallel california current northern border years early february spain delayed ratification treaty leverage prevent united_states formally recognizing rebellious spanish colonies independent nation period americans spoke treaty claim texas essay city washington gazette denounced treaty claiming league land texas worth united_states territory west led invade texas declared texas independent republic end year rebellion colonel spanish troops following year long established new base near galveston bay free texas spanish authority annals europe basis rebellion soon gone february launched drive mexican independence texas newly independent nation shot fired legacy spanish control texas followed mexican control texas difficult separate spanish mexican influences future state obvious legacy language state comes spanish rendering indian word major river modern texas spanish state counties numerous towns bear spanish names words incorporated american english canyon ranch plaza come spanish words additional obvious legacy end spain reign texas virtually inhabitants practiced catholic religion practiced texas large number people spanish missions built san_antonio convert indians catholicism restored landscape texas changed result spanish policies early brought european livestock including cattle horses expeditions province livestock stayed spanish retreated territory allowing indian tribes begin loosely managing animals heavily native grasses allowing native lower texas coast spread inland introduced livestock able adapt changing conditions buffalo difficult time grazing new vegetation beginning decline numbers spanish farmers introduced irrigation land changing landscape spanish architectural concepts adopted texas including addition tile floors roofs arched windows carved wooden doors wrought iron texas eventually adopted anglo american legal system spanish legal practices retained spanish model keeping certain personal property safe creditors texas implemented homestead exemption united_states property exemption laws liberal state united_states furthermore spanish law maintained husband wife share equally profits marriage like spanish provinces texas retained idea community property use anglo laws property belonged husband furthermore spanish law allowed independent named cases required gain court permission act explicitly listed testament texas retained idea eventually spread states included arizona washington idaho legal matters texas kept spanish principle adoption state allow adoption | Spanish Texas | History | World history | North American history |
19648_FrémontEmancipation | emancipation emancipation military proclamation issued major general august missouri early months american civil war proclamation placed state missouri martial law decreed property bearing arms rebellion confiscated including slaves confiscated slaves subsequently declared free imposed capital punishment rebellion federal government career army officer politician command military july october claimed proclamation intended means missouri policy national repercussions potentially setting highly controversial precedent civil war war liberation president abraham_lincoln proclamation created difficult situation tried balance radical republicans favored abolition slave holding american border states support essential keeping states missouri kentucky maryland union nationwide reaction proclamation mixed enthusiastically supported measure conservatives demanded removal seeking reverse actions maintain political balance lincoln eventually ordered september lincoln sent government officials missouri build case removal founded alleged incompetence abolitionist views grounds lincoln sent order october removing command lincoln opposed method emancipation episode significant impact lincoln shaping opinions appropriate steps emancipation eventually leading sixteen months later lincoln background born savannah georgia nation leading politicians 1850s granted second lieutenant commission army primarily support secretary war young army officer took expeditions american west 1840s success mapping route rocky_mountains mexican california earned nickname attained status national hero major took command revolt american settlers mexico appointed military governor california independent actions ran cross purposes senior army officer california mexican war arrested brought washington court martial resigned army returning pacific_coast senators california granted presidential candidate new republican_party established platform advocating limitation slavery states existed percent popular vote lost democratic_party candidate onset civil war april sought resume service commissioned major general highest ranking general army according date appointment placed command included states territories mississippi_river state illinois western kentucky department headquartered missouri arrived assumed command july chief task establish control state missouri missouri commencement civil war missouri deeply divided state missouri chosen remain union initially maintained policy neutrality union confederacy missouri state slavery legal factor generated sympathy confederacy governor missouri start war favor attempted use resist build union forces state generals previously served head months war brigadier general taken diplomatic approach missouri attempting respect missouri neutrality price truce negotiated commander truce unacceptable particularly president lincoln continued neutrality missouri result state refusal supply men union army removed replaced hard line earlier subordinate raised tensions missouri fever pitch acting independently capturing portion maneuver eliminated threat caused riot commander met jackson informed state missouri single instant right government matter man woman child state dead buried open warfare commenced pro confederate militia union forces missouri jackson fled organized pro force command governor exile jackson time took command july union forces fought engagements august combined force consisting troops closed union force numbering approximately near springfield missouri ensuing battle wilson creek killed federal force routed pro sentiment missouri following creek estimates union army officials placed number armed missouri roughly alarmed increasing declared martial law state missouri august proclamation reaction dawn august finished proclamation martial law read wife trusted advisor philadelphia davis warned officials washington stand sweeping responded given power missouri war measure proclamation entirely controversial passage proclamation greatest political consequences following persons shall taken arms hands lines shall tried court martial found guilty shot property real personal persons state missouri shall arms united_states shall directly proven taken active enemies field declared confiscated public use slaves declared free extreme measures described passage threatened border states drawing line missouri kansas declared capital punishment administered bearing arms north line proclamation freed slaves took arms government issued proclamation consulting authority missouri washington proclamation freed slaves prominently slaves belonging aide jackson given papers act received significant coverage press issued papers slaves greatest significance proclamation came form political proclamation set political precedent tremendous disagreement civil war war slavery threatened tip delicate political balance border states missouri kentucky maryland pushed precedent backed federal government beginning war missouri divided reaction radical republicans favored abolition included press surrounded men faction radical republican politicians come aides advisors included illinois congressman brother journalist murdered anti abolitionist mob ohio congressman indiana congressman ardent men encouraged influenced proclamation moderate troubled proclamation pro slavery conservatives outraged important missouri alienated proclamation new governor missouri authority superseded declaring martial law feeling greatly authority began work removal neighboring kentucky widespread outrage proclamation state missouri feared similar applied state slaves kentucky belonged threatening free pushed state confederacy lincoln reaction removal president lincoln learned proclamation reading newspaper disturbed actions lincoln felt emancipation range military law necessity powers rested elected federal government lincoln recognized monumental political problem posed efforts border states union particularly worried reports heard kentucky writing think lose kentucky nearly lose game according lincoln letter supporter unit kentucky militia fighting union hearing proclamation threw weapons disbanded lincoln determined proclamation allowed remain force directly order strike modify political dangers act outrage north sensitive political sides lincoln wrote allow ask motion modify wrote reply lincoln request september sent washington hands wife met president white_house september letter stated knew situation missouri better president proclamation directly ordered angered lincoln wrote day directly ordering modify emancipation clause conform existing federal law slaves acting armed rebellion confiscated freed lincoln allow dilemma lay politics removal emancipation issue congress lincoln determined removed matters unrelated proclamation sent general general missouri evaluate management department return blair reported tremendous state existed missouri absolutely adjutant general inspection reported lincoln wholly incompetent lincoln decided leak thomas report press amidst resulting public outrage lincoln sent order october removing command aftermath personal repercussions proclamation disastrous removal command damage reputation second chance lincoln approved appointment command strategically important overseeing mountainous region surrounding virginia kentucky border forces badly defeated virginia june eventually resigned frustration passed lincoln appointed command army virginia spent rest war awaiting new appointment came lincoln immediate effects removal resulted president anticipated northern massachusetts governor andrew radical republican abolitionist wrote lincoln actions chilling influence movement outrage short term effect soon subsided significant long term consequence effect lincoln perceptions emancipation specifically accomplished historian describes lincoln determined failed proclamation emancipation matter martial law temporary measure later challenged courts ensure lincoln felt emancipation effect federal government manner constitutional equally important timing emancipation need orchestrated carefully interfere war effort lincoln espoused idea immediate emancipation hoped work state governments accomplish gradual compensated emancipation incident solidified lincoln belief emancipation president responsibility accomplished scattered union generals realization factors led lincoln september | Frémont Emancipation | History | World history | North American history |
19745_SlaverybyAnotherName | slavery slavery civil war world war book american writer published explores forced labor imprisoned black men women convict lease system states local governments white farmers corporations american_civil_war world war southern united_states argues slavery united_states end civil war instead persisted 20th century depicts tells fate slavery began article wrote wall_street_journal detailing use black forced labor seeing popular response article began research comprehensive look topic resulting book received critics awarded pulitzer prize general non fiction adapted documentary film pbs titled slavery background book author wall_street_journal reporter grew mississippi seventh encouraged teacher mother research local racist incident despite opposition citizens experience began lifelong interest history american race relations wrote story use black convict labor coal mines story generated large response later began research subject widely visiting county obtain records arrest conviction sentences later stated began research paying attention sorts things long time open alternative explanations fairly basically going county county finding criminal arrest records jail records county county county period time seeing crime waves records crimes people arrested crimes reality evidence happened fact opposite crime waves occurred large aftermath war whites coming fighting civil war settling scores people sorts activity didn involve black people blamed kind ruse incredibly brutal new legal measures began place resulting book slavery published contents introduction slavery describes experience reporter wall_street_journal asking provocative question revealed american corporations examined sharp lens historical confrontation trained german corporations relied jewish slave labor world war swiss banks robbed victims holocaust fortunes story describing corporate use black forced labor post civil war south generated response piece written inspired pursue book length study subject structures narrative young african american man named records life incomplete states absence voice rests center book born 1880s slaves arrested common pretext blacks white patron state alabama rented coal owned died context story slavery details beginnings industrial slavery convict laborers work factories mines cotton fields slaves formally thirteenth amendment united_states constitution following civil war southern states subsequently passed array laws essentially intended black life restrict economic independence blacks provide jail terms rented plantations lumber camps mines forced labor federal prosecutors attempted prosecute responsible parties early 20th century federal laws debt efforts received little support locally nationally system finally comes end advent world war focuses renewed attention racial issues need national unity book epilogue argues importance acknowledging history forced labor evidence county confront extinguished past recognize terrible record teach children truth terror american life celebrate end lift shame evade book financial instead hope formidable plea resurrection fundamental tortured chapter collective american past reception book met positive reception critics new_york_times wrote basic assumption slavery america ended civil war praised book evidence relentless fascinating stated life gives book start columnist wrote slavery astonishing book challenge change understanding americans recommend highly wrote deserves high praise deeply moving history especially deserves praise largest implications research carefully draws parallels corporate responsibility companies exploited slave labor nazi_germany bought convict labor sunday called book chilling reported researched review stated book displaying meticulous research larger story individual experiences book opens eyes gut african american studies scholar critical writing boston_globe catalogue book weaknesses departs account transition paying attention considerable presence american literature intellectual history reaching paul helped concludes book recalls horror sheer magnitude neo slavery reminds long emancipation practices persisted slavery awarded pulitzer prize general non fiction award committee called precise work examines deliberate system racial suppression rescues multitude atrocities virtual obscurity banned reading book officials deemed attempt violence based race religion sex creed filed lawsuit stating amendment rights violated stated officials actions idea book like violence absurd film slavery adapted minute documentary film premiered pbs february film executive produced executive produced directed written narrated slavery premiered competition film festival january new_york_times wrote film filling overlooked black history film understanding race issues proved hitfix viewing film wrote slavery researched stuff play airs pbs month play future classrooms film festival entry isn nearly confident harm dry history lesson hoped achieve | Slavery by Another Name | History | World history | North American history |
19777_PittstonCoalstrike | strike coal strike united_states labor union action led nationally headquartered pennsylvania strike lasted april february resulted termination health care benefits approximately disabled miners cited refusal company contribute benefit trust established miners retired refusal company bargain good faith grounds action company cited declining coal prices decreasing demand recession reason limiting health care benefits strike affected production mines virginia west_virginia kentucky workers families engaged acts civil work protests rallies peak june strike involved approximately miners daily staying camp solidarity thousands sending donations holding involved people participation women labor action hoc formation reminiscent early days union organization proved essential element successful strike events leading strike 1980s real inflation adjusted price coal declined putting economic pressure coal companies coal companies began employing non union workers work money coal company maintain profit dropped seventh largest coal operator united_states 15th coal production time low worked regulated health retirement benefits offered workers mines continued lose money terminated contract establish health retirement benefit contract collective established different retirement plans miners retired retired hopes help company gain profit felt strain providing benefits cost increasing company going debt having difficult time paying miners benefits avoid losing money doubled health lowered coverage discontinued benefits miners retired change health care plan company gain profit decided mines running hours day seven days week overtime workers away clauses meant miners job security transfer job rights mines leased sold miners working longer hours expensive health care plans losing production time closed took action new plan operation offered reach settlement coal company stayed quiet time came renew health care retirement benefit plans workers refused refusal renew contract left people health care people miners employed families disabled miners virginia area declares strike april miners worked months benefits president declared strike members worked walked mines reported picket line responded strike hiring replacement workers ensure production continue help state police escort replacement miners coal trucks picket line civil attract attention needs miners union stressed actions strike remain peaceful miners violent methods strike strike gained media attention people came country support cause people went southwest virginia course strike strike production reduced low production result strike taking place mines owned main involved virginia mines participated strike virginia coal complex refused demands operating loss strike continued unable meet financial needs started suffer strike progressed members union paid week average average salary week union members getting pay promised lose faith ability negotiate settlement efforts miners able spirit morale strike knew giving demands lead companies health care benefits august questioned local reporter new_york_times long expected strike continue responded question saying people asking long hold answer day longer strike continued february settlement agreed parties settlement reached taking demands court times miners able receive health retirement benefits strike tactics strike wanted use means protest company union members practiced method civil found creative ways message heard mass sit strike road ignored request violence express anger felt time strike ended people arrested actions violent actions majority people carried violent acts members actions included destruction mining equipment coal trucks rocks break windows stopping trucks tires usually jack rocks jack rocks sharp tools nails points facing designed tires began organize illegal members affiliated union continued organize virginia june nearly involved strike strike acts soon spread past virginia parts country coal companies additional violent acts included making car bombs placed coal trucks travel shoot employees coal company tried enter coal mines shot windows cars houses replacement miners owners different violent strike tactics carried people injured including shot deaths associated strike civil tried focus civil stepped stop union members different strike tactics acts included standing blocking roads coal trucks travel mass sit strikes large groups people outside coal mines method protesting helped gain support people country method peaceful protesting demonstrated formation located center protesting southern virginia supporters came country outrage actions place stay people local towns offer shelter provide beds food people came union member supporters found solution problem local recreational park near virginia turned supporters stay small shelter equipped beds built existing bar opened provide food people staying camp solidarity location recreational park plenty space bring tents area moss important act civil strike moss strike going months settlement expected near future union members began lose hope thousands people arrested lot money spent cause ending union members knew regain spirit strike clear plan union officers devised called moss named moss preparation plant primary coal processing plant time officials secretive planning act strike wanted know place officials selected union members virginia west_virginia kentucky participate selected miners met virginia told plan moss set unexpected mass sit strike preparation plant walked plant peacefully sat inside plant halt production thousands supporters gathered outside plant encourage inside estimated supporters height moss gathered outside production plant sit strike inside moss lasted sunday wednesday days felt point walked local miners said called national_guard state police remove miners leave hour time owners felt miners inside tipped information left avoid arrested women involvement strike involved coal miners supporters strike miners majority support union members received women pivotal aspect strike women wives daughters miners worked women supporters affiliation mining women sit middle roads causing drive slowly coal trucks cause delays famous groups women supporters arose time daughters mother jones freedom fighters peak strike women involved supporting miners daughters mother jones group women formed strike daughters mother jones group took known mother jones famous union activist group chose wanted support miners benefits follow beliefs jones daughters performed actions women supporters strike including organizing places supporters stay preparing food raising money miners action daughters mother jones best known organization ongoing strike coal state headquarters lebanon virginia women meet outside headquarters strike instruction organization outside monday wednesday hopes gain media attention support miners despite daughters feel independently constructed sit strike place headquarters union april group women went headquarters held hour sit strike women stated leave contract signed questioned police media reporters names women responded saying daughters daughters gained attention media completely halted production entire day half women involved members wanted support cause linked considered union freedom fighters women group developed strike main mission women cook provide meals people staying camp solidarity freedom fighters set phone bank inform people types food donate food needed supporters able stay camp solidarity long period fed free forming group women found way support miners freedom fighters formed strike end today freedom fighters exist group women help support benefits miners united_states aftermath strike february came settlement current miners receive health retirement benefits pay million retirement benefits plan miners return permitted operate seven days week long closed sundays miners rotating schedule days work week days hours day groups lost considerable money production cost organizing strike end strike fined million actions strike fines violence erupted road forms civil union officials personally charged day strike union charged actions moss people opposed charges petitioned dropped charges vast majority cleared return union officials hours community service compensate removal fines miners glad settlement reached receiving health retirement funds benefits long time people gone financial trouble strike costs health care paid pocket miners resources result miners accumulated debt direct result strike formation coal act act established act mandatory law mining companies provide health retirement benefits workers time strike strong coal company area protesting strike coal plants sold nation coal companies order pay health care miners strike ended moss demolished new plant built named recreational park reclaimed nature open field physical aspects area changed strike ended changed feeling miners accomplished win benefits benefits union actions strike possible thousands miners receive health care retirement funds years come miners able reach settlement early case end fines million come agreed drop charges case court system courts wanted responsible fines appealed fines case remained years | Pittston Coal strike | History | World history | North American history |
19826_HistoryofDavenport,Iowa | history iowa iowa war british military fox indian tribes fought americans near august major later president fought battle east outpost set fort armstrong george stationed established named good friend colonel settlers germans county seat dilemma neighboring town established county seat declared iowa military headquarters civil war governor november opened children left orphaned civil war city hall built school world opened experienced economic building boom 1920s early 1930s baseball stadium parker building buildings built time period standing great depression brought economic tough times city inclusion new factories 1940s 1950s helped turn economy world war hard times farm crisis 1980s closed costing jobs city 1990s present renovations building additions 19th century early 19th century general signed treaty end french served translator generous portion land given wife granddaughter sac chief stipulated build home exact spot treaty signed land finishing spring established named good friend colonel colonel arrived establishment acted supplier army fort armstrong located northwestern tip purpose monitoring fur trade traffic area keeping peace local native american tribes contributed organization mapping community known aided establishing plans railroad bridge cross mississippi_river county seat dilemma shortly formed rival neighbor campaigned county seat stated city votes february election county seat eve election secured temporary service laborers vote election won election supporters like protested elections territorial governor governor territory refused results election second election scheduled following august avoid import voters governor set day residency requirement cities proved corrupt second election drew near victor votes election set summer august election drew nearer grew tired county seat cause contribution efforts difficult challenge easily won election ensure question county seat arise built county courthouse mid late 19th century colonel arrived establishment acted supplier united_states_army garrisoned fort armstrong located northwestern tip purpose monitoring fur trade traffic area keeping peace local native american tribes contributed organization mapping community known aided establishing plans railroad bridge cross mississippi july colonel assaulted home men thought fortune safe beaten left dead survived long description criminals died night men charged murder george escaped trial hung murder men charged accessories murder man sentenced life prison escaped killed months later man served year prison charges dropped man left area june visited provided brief description journal situated iowa site river extensive flat land gently rising mile bluff rises considerable height beautiful sites improvements charming place buildings good scattered streets wide trees pretty residences great deal taste displayed fine view river population town appearance ancient town seen county seat supports lawyers doctors seven churches cholera healthy place large steam mills barrels flower week steam saw mill stores good ones drug stores regular fine college iowa college direction fine building beautifully situated rear town 1850s germans largest settlement group fifth nearly residence germans growing city need railroad bridge cross illinois bridge built privately owned transported passengers wagons cargo mississippi_river railroad bridge built mississippi_river connecting built saw nationwide railroads threat business weeks completed crashed bridge owner filed lawsuit selected abraham_lincoln trial lawyer case argued lincoln chicago judge september jury hours ended hung jury case dismissed united_states house_of_representatives conducted investigation decide navigation river committee concluded bridge hazard length pier angle bridge swift current bridge committee believed courts settle matter recommend action united_states congress ward filed suit iowa asking court declare bridge order removal restore river original capacity purposes navigation judge declared bridge ordered mississippi remove piers superstructure lay iowa judge reasoned bridge stopped bridges follow piers torn railroad company appealed case supreme_court reversed decision district court allowed bridge remain start civil war governor declared iowa military headquarters camps set war camp largest camp eastern edge city thousands iowa troops trained contained wooden barracks building headquarters buildings hospitals neighborhood named camp hundreds iowa children left homeless civil war november renamed opened children arrived iowa starting children broken homes iowa ninety counties taken home home self contained community containing residences school tailor shop chapel home separate fires course november clock morning fire started building burnt ground day morning democrat gazette pointed home set different buildings houses children time homeless survived fire years service home closed estimated children helped home operation appointed principal female principal united_states june unanimously voted position woman united_states history public school superintendent midst deep national economic depression built ornate new city hall cost astronomical sum time city constructed new building issuing municipal bonds local legend long suggested city retired debt quickly city fines levied accounted year portion financial city bulk funds came new state law tax applied city illegal amounted year tax allowed construction city hall paved streets new sewer system city eliminated property taxes altogether founded school world 20th century early 20th century july large fire erupted east fire burnt late day instead brought control blocks buildings destroyed causing million dollars damage lives lost fire 1920s brought economic building boom city skyline began form construction commercial buildings like large national department stores arrived downtown built downtown original hotel seven stories floors added 1920s giving total rooms host high profile people including richard_nixon hotel named rooms nixon suite big bands played occasions christmas day people turned opening new elegant theater featured classical interior orchestra pit scale theater organ balcony extended stories theater seats regularly filed february local broadcasting debut second radio station licensed country hired future president ronald_reagan staff announcer efforts began turn city dump landmark project construct municipal stadium called project financed bonds cost special features included reserved seats box seats night lighting stadium home football games boxing matches today stadium home baseball team thousands public relief great depression grew west end city mississippi_river sickness hunger living conditions plagued area county municipal government federal gave employment thousands men worked extend jobs created construction lock dam project hundreds state employees worked completing road bypass mid late 20th century decided build new rolling mill east iowa construction concerns postwar unemployment ended changed inclusion automobile mainstream america late 1940s parking meters installed downtown encourage rotation space different users soon cars street parking spaces handle multi story ramp completed state corner fifth street street large variety shops kept downtown retail leader opening village shopping center iowa deadliest fire history came january people killed fire elizabeth hospital mental ward operated people lost lives female patients trapped windows locked shut iron bars cause attributed patient lighting fire cigarette lighter experienced post war economic population boom world war companies built plants west brought interstate highway network local transportation planning took new design world war paved state federal highways built 1930s expanded handle new truck shipping patterns second span constructed help increased traffic iowa illinois memorial bridge segment interstate iowa highway highway opened later year segment connecting completed interstate highways east west opened traffic 1960s early 1970s homes year constructed late 1970s economic growth downtown local businesses industries farm crisis 1980s hit rest cities hard high unemployment financial hardships workers lost jobs entire cities area cities north closed causing jobs lost late 1970s city leaders began plans construct civic center downtown center focus downtown property values december following sixteen months construction civic center opened public naming contest named short time later adjacent theatre renamed placed management late 1970s large shopping mall built drawing customers away downtown leaving area economic depression 1990s brought beginnings economic turnaround city renovations building additions occurred downtown including fixing building projects neighboring illinois won city award small city category executive director conference stated award gives conference chance highlight mayoral leadership making urban areas safer cleaner award acknowledges achievements plan list | History of Davenport, Iowa | History | World history | North American history |
20045_UnitedStatesDeclarationofIndependence | united states declaration independence declaration independence statement adopted meeting philadelphia pennsylvania july announced thirteen american colonies war regarded thirteen newly independent sovereign states longer british rule instead formed new nation united_states_of_america leader pushing independence passed july opposing vote cast committee drafted formal declaration ready congress voted independence term declaration independence document persuaded committee select compose original draft document congress edit produce final version declaration ultimately formal explanation congress voted july declare independence great_britain year outbreak american revolutionary war day july wrote wife second day july memorable history america national birthday independence day celebrated july date declaration independence signed text july congress issued declaration independence forms initially published printed broadside widely distributed read public source copy printing lost copy hand jefferson original draft complete changes jefferson notes changes congress preserved best known version declaration signed copy popularly regarded official document displayed washington copy ordered congress july signed primarily august sources interpretation declaration subject scholarly inquiry declaration justified independence united_states listing colonial grievances king asserting certain natural legal rights including right revolution having served original purpose announcing independence references text declaration following years abraham_lincoln centerpiece rhetoric address policies known statement human rights particularly second sentence hold truths self evident men created equal endowed creator certain rights life liberty pursuit happiness called best known sentences english language containing potent words american history passage came represent moral standard united_states view notably promoted abraham_lincoln considered declaration foundation political philosophy argued declaration statement principles united_states constitution interpreted united_states declaration independence inspired similar documents countries 18th 19th centuries spreading low countries caribbean balkans west_africa decades background believe dear sir british empire man loves union great_britain god cease exist yield connection terms propose think speak sentiments america time declaration independence adopted july great_britain war year relations colonies mother country deteriorating parliament enacted series measures increase revenue colonies parliament believed acts stamp act legitimate means having colonies pay fair share costs colonies british_empire colonists developed different conception empire colonies directly represented parliament colonists argued parliament right levy taxes tax dispute larger divergence british american interpretations british constitution extent parliament authority colonies orthodox british view dating glorious revolution parliament supreme authority empire definition parliament constitutional colonies idea developed british constitution recognized certain fundamental rights government parliament violate acts began question parliament legitimate jurisdiction colonies anticipating arrangement american writers arguing parliament legislature great_britain colonies connected rest empire allegiance crown congress issue parliament authority colonies crisis parliament passed known acts colonies punish colonists saw acts violation british constitution threat liberties september convened philadelphia coordinate response congress organized boycott british goods petitioned king repeal acts measures unsuccessful king george ministry prime minister lord north determined retreat question parliamentary supremacy king wrote north november blows decide subject country independent fighting american revolutionary war began lexington concord april colonists hoped reconciliation great_britain convened philadelphia delegates hoped eventual independence advocated declaring colonists longer believed parliament sovereignty professed loyalty king george hoped behalf disappointed late king rejected congress second petition issued proclamation rebellion announced parliament october considering friendly offers foreign assistance suppress rebellion pro american minority parliament warned government driving colonists independence independence january clear colonies king inclined act pamphlet published recently arrived colonies england argued favor colonial independence advocating alternative monarchy hereditary rule common sense introduced new ideas probably little direct effect congress thinking independence importance public debate topic previously openly discuss public support separation great_britain steadily increased publication enormously popular pamphlet colonists held hope reconciliation developments early strengthened public support independence february colonists learned parliament passage act established blockade american ports declared american ships enemy vessels strong supporter independence believed parliament effectively declared american independence congress able adams labeled act act calling british_empire support declaring independence grew confirmed king george hired german mercenaries use american subjects despite growing popular support independence congress lacked clear authority declare delegates elected congress thirteen different governments included conventions hoc committees elected assemblies bound instructions given regardless personal opinions delegates vote declare independence instructions permitted action colonies fact prohibited delegates taking steps separation great_britain instructions ambiguous issue public sentiment separation great_britain grew advocates independence sought congressional instructions revised congress declare independence majority need authorization vote independence colonial government need specifically grant permission delegation propose declaration independence congress april july complex political war waged bring instructions campaign revise congressional instructions americans formally expressed support separation great_britain effectively state local independence identified ninety issued april july took variety forms formal written instructions congressional april north_carolina colony explicitly authorize delegates vote independence legislative acts officially ended british rule individual colonies rhode_island legislature declare independence great_britain resolutions adopted town county meetings offered support independence came form jury instructions statement issued april chief justice south_carolina law land declare george king great_britain authority owe obedience obscure having overshadowed declaration approved congress july colonies held endorsing independence resistance centered middle colonies new_york new_jersey maryland pennsylvania delaware advocates independence saw pennsylvania key colony converted pro independence cause believed follow opponents independence retained control special election focused question independence response congress passed resolution promoted calling colonies government sufficient affairs adopt new governments resolution passed unanimously supported pennsylvania leader anti independence faction congress believed apply colony custom congress appointed committee draft explain purpose resolution wrote stated king george rejected reconciliation hiring foreign mercenaries use colonies necessary exercise kind authority said crown totally suppressed adams meant encourage overthrow governments pennsylvania maryland governance congress passed days debate middle colonies voted maryland delegation walked protest adams regarded effectively american declaration independence formal declaration lee resolution final push day congress passed adams radical set stage formal congressional declaration independence convention instructed virginia congressional delegation propose respectable body declare free independent states allegiance dependence crown accordance instructions virginia presented resolution congress june motion called congress declare independence form foreign alliances prepare plan colonial confederation resolution relating declaring independence read resolved right ought free independent states allegiance political connection state great_britain ought totally dissolved lee resolution met resistance ensuing debate opponents resolution conceding reconciliation great_britain unlikely argued declaring independence premature securing foreign aid priority advocates resolution countered foreign governments intervene internal british struggle formal declaration independence needed foreign aid possible congress needed insisted declare fact exists delegates pennsylvania delaware new_jersey maryland new_york authorized vote independence threatened leave congress resolution adopted congress voted june postpone discussion lee resolution weeks congress decided committee prepare document announcing explaining independence event lee resolution approved brought july support congressional declaration independence consolidated final weeks june june instructed delegates propose independence following day new_hampshire delaware authorized delegates declare independence pennsylvania political struggles ended dissolution colonial assembly june new authorized pennsylvania delegates declare independence june governing province january resolved royal governor enemy liberties country arrested june chose new delegates congress empowered join declaration independence maryland new_york authorize independence end june previously adopted adams radical maryland delegates walked sent instructions rejected adams instructing delegates remain independence went maryland thanks local resolutions favor independence able change mind june new_york delegates unable revised instructions congress considering resolution independence june told delegates wait june evacuated new_york british forces approached july meant new_york delegates authorized declare independence congress decision draft adoption political maneuvering setting stage official declaration independence document explaining decision written june congress appointed committee consisting pennsylvania virginia new_york connecticut draft declaration committee left minutes uncertainty drafting process proceeded accounts written years later frequently cited contradictory entirely reliable certain committee discussing general outline document follow decided jefferson write draft committee general jefferson particular thought adams write document adams persuaded committee choose jefferson promised consult jefferson personally considering congress busy schedule jefferson probably limited time writing seventeen days likely wrote draft quickly consulted changes produced copy incorporating alterations committee presented copy congress june title document declaration representatives united states america assembled congress ordered draft lie table days congress edited jefferson primary document shortening fourth removing unnecessary wording improving sentence structure congress removed jefferson assertion britain forced slavery colonies order moderate document persons britain supported revolution jefferson wrote congress draft version declaration finally produced according biographer majestic document inspired contemporaries monday july having draft declaration congress resolved committee virginia presiding resumed debate lee resolution independence effort delay decision arguing congress declare independence securing foreign alliance gave speech reply case immediate declaration long day speeches vote taken colony cast single vote delegation colony numbering seven members voted determine colony vote pennsylvania south_carolina voted declaring independence new_york delegation lacking permission vote independence delaware cast vote delegation split voted yes voted remaining voted favor independence meant resolution approved committee step resolution voted congress south_carolina opposed lee resolution moved vote postponed following day july south_carolina reversed position voted independence pennsylvania delegation allowing delegation vote favor independence tie delaware delegation broken timely arrival voted independence new_york delegation authorized vote independence allowed week later resolution independence adopted votes colonies officially severed political ties great_britain famous letter written wife following day predicted july great american holiday adams thought vote independence commemorated americans including instead celebrate independence day date announcement act finalized voting favor resolution independence congress turned attention committee draft declaration days debate congress changes wording deleted nearly fourth text notably passage critical slave trade changes jefferson resented july wording declaration independence approved sent printer publication distinct change wording original broadside printing declaration final official copy word unanimous inserted result congressional resolution passed july resolved declaration passed 4th fairly title unanimous declaration thirteen united_states_of_america signed member congress text declaration declaration divided formal sections discussed consisting parts introduction indictment king george british people conclusion influences legal status historians sought identify sources influenced words political philosophy declaration independence jefferson admission declaration contained original ideas instead statement sentiments widely shared supporters american revolution explained aiming originality principle sentiment copied particular previous writing intended expression american mind expression proper tone spirit called occasion jefferson immediate sources documents written june draft constitution virginia draft virginia declaration rights ideas phrases documents appear declaration independence turn directly influenced english declaration rights formally ended reign king american revolution jefferson americans looked english declaration rights model end reign king scottish declaration dutch act offered models models accepted scholars jefferson wrote number authors exerted general influence words declaration english political theorist jefferson called greatest men lived usually cited primary influences historian wrote americans absorbed works kind political gospel declaration form follows closely certain sentences second treatise government extent influence american revolution questioned subsequent scholars declared argued dominant influence swiss jefferson opposite poles political philosophy evidenced jefferson use declaration independence phrase pursuit happiness instead property scholars emphasized influence classical argued jefferson influenced scottish enlightenment particularly interpretation strongly criticized legal historian written emphasis political philosophy declaration declaration philosophical tract natural rights argues instead legal document indictment king george violating constitutional rights colonists historian argued declaration strongly influenced law nations dominant international law treatise period book said continually hands members congress writes independence fundamental definition primary purpose declaration express international legal sovereignty united_states united_states hope recognized european powers american revolutionaries clear longer dependent great_britain declaration independence force law domestically help provide historical legal clarity constitution laws signing declaration official congress voted july signatures delegates needed official copy declaration independence signed congress dated july signatures delegates exact date person signed long subject debate jefferson franklin adams wrote declaration signed congress july disputed declaration signed july pointing present including elected congress date according record events secretary declaration paper adopted signed president congress july august paper copy declaration signed persons present original declaration adopted july new_hampshire seated november asked received privilege adding signature time signed november historians generally accepted version events arguing famous signed version declaration created july signed congress august legal historian argued historians misunderstood primary documents given present congress july according thirty delegates signed declaration july signed august historians reject july signing maintain delegates signed august eventual present added names later future presidents signatories famous signature copy president congress presumably signed large flamboyant signature iconic emerged united_states informal synonym signature commonly circulated account claims signed delegate massachusetts commented british ministry read report indicates declared guess king george able read legends signing declaration emerged years later document important national symbol famous story supposedly said congress having signed declaration hang replied yes hang shall hang separately quotation appear print years franklin death signing signing united_states constitution publication reaction congress approved final wording declaration july copy sent blocks away printing shop night printed distribution long declaration read audiences reprinted newspapers thirteen states official public reading document yard independence hall july public readings took place day new_jersey pennsylvania german translation declaration published philadelphia july president sent broadside general george_washington instructing proclaimed head army way shall think proper washington declaration read troops new_york_city july thousands british troops ships harbor washington congress hoped declaration inspire soldiers encourage join army hearing declaration crowds cities tore destroyed signs statues representing royal authority equestrian statue king george new_york_city pulled lead musket balls british officials north_america sent copies declaration great britain published british newspapers beginning mid august reached florence warsaw mid september german translation appeared switzerland october copy declaration sent france got lost second copy arrived november reached brazilian medical student met spanish american authorities banned circulation declaration widely transmitted translated distributed declaration united states constitution chile indians mexico official answer declaration instead secretly commissioned publish response entitled answer declaration american congress denounced declaration applying principles life liberty pursuit happiness african americans royal governor massachusetts published pamphlets challenged aspects declaration argued american revolution work conspirators wanted independence outset finally achieved inducing loyal colonists rebel pamphlet anonymous attack concept natural rights written argument repeat french revolution pamphlets asked american congress men created equal freeing slaves declaration independence fought war freed slave revolutionary ideals postwar decades freed slaves percentage free blacks increased percent percent black population northern states abolished slavery history documents official copy printed july jefferson supervision sent states army widely reprinted newspapers slightly different copy shown article later members sign version widely distributed 21st century note opening lines version differ copy declaration signed congress known copy probably carefully clerk poor conservation copy 19th century original basis modern custody copy declaration united_states_constitution transferred japanese attack pearl harbor documents moved kentucky kept declaration transferred permanent display charters freedom document signed congress usually regarded declaration independence historian argued declaration like single document considered printed ordered congress official texts declaration published broadside printed night july philadelphia printed known survive 26th copy discovered congress commissioned print new broadside unlike broadside listed declaration copies broadside known exist variety printed states extant early copies drafts declaration preserved jefferson kept page draft late life called original rough draught drafts jefferson wrote prior text contributed committee members unknown discovered fragment earlier draft jefferson jefferson adams sent copies rough draft slight variations friends writing process jefferson showed rough draft adams franklin members drafting committee changes franklin example responsible changing jefferson original phrase hold truths sacred hold truths self evident jefferson incorporated changes copy submitted congress committee copy submitted congress june lost destroyed printing process destroyed debates accordance congress secrecy rule legacy having served original purpose announcing independence united_states declaration initially neglected years immediately following american revolution early celebrations independence day like early histories revolution largely ignored declaration act declaring independence considered important text announcing act attracted little attention declaration rarely mentioned debates united_states_constitution language incorporated document draft virginia declaration rights influential language echoed state state bills rights jefferson words documents wrote evidence whatsoever declaration independence lived men minds classic statement american political principles influence countries leaders french revolution admired declaration independence interested new american state inspiration content french declaration rights man citizen emerged largely ideals american revolution key drafts prepared working closely paris friend borrowed language virginia declaration rights declaration influenced russian_empire document particular impact revolt russian according historian declaration independence prove internationally influential statement human rights argued declaration new genre independence announced creation new states french leaders directly influenced text declaration independence manifesto province flanders foreign declaration include declaration independence declaration independence echoed united_states declaration independence announcing independence new state necessarily endorsing political philosophy original countries declaration inspiration directly copied sections declaration january revolution argentine declaration independence chilean declaration independence costa_rica el_salvador guatemala honduras mexico nicaragua peru war independence ecuador colombia dominican_republic texas declaration independence march november hungarian declaration independence declaration independence new_zealand declaration independence drafted declaration independence ratified november based american phrases men created equal consent governed south_carolina declaration december mentions declaration independence like references men created equal consent governed revival interest interest declaration revived emergence united_states political parties americans knew cared wrote declaration decade republicans sought political advantage rival promoting importance declaration jefferson author responded casting doubt jefferson authorship originality emphasizing independence declared congress jefferson member drafting committee insisted congress act declaring independence played major role important document announcing act view like fade away long act declaring independence synonymous document partisan appreciation declaration emerged years following war thanks growing american nationalism renewed interest history revolution congress commissioned famous painting exhibited large crowds installed capitol earliest commemorative declaration appeared time offering americans view signed document collective biographies published 1820s giving birth called cult years followed stories writing signing document published time interest declaration revived sections important announcement independence united_states grievances king george longer relevant second talk self evident truths rights applicable long war ended constitution bill rights lacked sweeping statements rights equality advocates groups turned declaration support starting 1820s variations declaration issued rights workers farmers women example meeting women rights advocates declared men women created equal slavery declaration contradiction claim men created equal existence american slavery attracted comment declaration published mentioned jefferson included initial draft strongly indicted great_britain role slave trade deleted final version jefferson prominent virginia slave holder having owned hundreds slaves referring contradiction english abolitionist wrote letter object truly ridiculous nature american patriot signing resolutions hand whip slaves 19th century declaration took special significance abolitionist movement wrote tended interpret declaration independence theological political document abolitionist leaders adopted twin rocks bible declaration independence basis long remains single copy declaration independence bible land wrote garrison despair radical like garrison important declaration assertion right revolution garrison called destruction government constitution creation new state dedicated principles declaration controversial question add additional slave states united_states coincided growing stature declaration major public debate slavery declaration took place missouri controversy argued language declaration indicated founding fathers united_states opposed slavery principle new slave states added country led senator north_carolina argued declaration constitution relevance question movement gaining momentum defenders slavery found necessary argue declaration assertion men created equal false apply black people debate kansas nebraska act example senator indiana argued men created equal self evident truth self evident lie opponents kansas nebraska act including defended declaration saw principles lincoln declaration declaration relationship slavery taken abraham_lincoln little known congressman founding fathers lincoln thought declaration independence expressed highest principles american revolution founding fathers tolerated slavery expectation ultimately away united_states expansion slavery kansas nebraska act thought lincoln principles revolution october speech lincoln said nearly eighty years ago began declaring men created equal beginning run declaration men sacred right self government republican trailed dust let let adopt declaration independence practices policy shall saved union shall saved forever worthy saving meaning declaration recurring topic famed debates lincoln douglas argued men created equal declaration referred white men purpose declaration said simply justify independence united_states equality inferior degraded race lincoln thought language declaration deliberately universal setting high moral standard american republic thought declaration contemplated progressive improvement condition men said seventh joint debate illinois october lincoln said declaration think authors notable instrument intended include men mean declare men equal respects mean men equal color size intellect moral development social capacity defined consider men created equal equal certain rights life liberty pursuit happiness said meant mean assert obvious actually enjoying equality immediately fact power meant simply declare right enforcement follow fast circumstances permit meant set standard maxim free society familiar constantly looked constantly perfectly attained constantly constantly spreading deepening influence happiness value life people colors according douglas interpretation historically accurate lincoln view ultimately prevailed lincoln hands wrote declaration independence foremost living document set goals realized time like lincoln argued declaration independence founding document united_states important implications interpreting constitution ratified decade declaration constitution use word equality lincoln believed men created equal remained nation founding principles famously expressed belief opening sentence address score seven years ago fathers brought forth continent new nation conceived liberty dedicated proposition men created equal lincoln view declaration moral guide interpreting constitution influential people wrote declaration means lincoln told means way constitution lincoln praised development critics lincoln notably argued lincoln dangerously expanded scope national government violated states rights reading declaration constitution women suffrage declaration july falls convention held new_york convention organized declaration sentiments patterned declaration independence convention members demanded social political equality women motto men women created equal convention demanded suffrage women suffrage movement supported legacy adoption declaration independence winning musical play movie television miniseries text declaration chosen book available internet declaration featured alternative history novel word added document read governments derive power unanimous consent governed memorial declaration dedicated national mall washington signatures original carved stone names places residences declaration document risk novel tries steal declaration burn publicly july copy declaration central hollywood film national treasure main character steals document believes secret clues treasure hidden founding fathers signing declaration featured united_states dollar bill building new_york_city feet high symbolize year declaration independence signed | United States Declaration of Independence | History | World history | North American history |
20100_EleanorRoosevelt | october november american politician diplomat activist longest serving lady united_states having held post march april husband president terms office served united_states delegate president later called lady world tribute human rights achievements roosevelt member prominent american roosevelt families niece president unhappy childhood having suffered deaths parents brothers young age attended london deeply influenced feminist returning married fifth cousin removed marriage complicated beginning franklin controlling mother discovering affair husband roosevelt resolved seek public life persuaded franklin stay politics stricken cost use legs roosevelt began giving speeches appearing campaign events place following franklin election governor new_york remainder franklin public career government roosevelt regularly public appearances behalf lady husband served president significantly role office tenure future ladies widely respected later years roosevelt controversial lady particularly stance racial issues presidential hold press conferences write syndicated newspaper column speak national convention occasions publicly disagreed husband policies launched experimental community west_virginia families unemployed miners later widely regarded failure advocated expanded roles women workplace civil rights african americans asian americans rights world war refugees following husband death roosevelt remained active politics rest life pressed united_states join support united_nations delegate served chair oversaw drafting universal declaration human rights later chaired administration status women time death roosevelt regarded women world called object universal respect new_york_times obituary ranked ninth list widely admired people 20th century personal life early life born west 37th street manhattan new_york_city early age preferred called middle eleanor father niece president roosevelt mother niece tennis champions hall iii acted old fashioned manner child mother nicknamed eleanor younger brothers hall half brother father affair servant employed family roosevelt born world immense wealth privilege family new_york high society called swells mother died december died disease following father alcoholic confined died august jumping window fit survived fall died seizure brother hall suffer alcoholism eleanor childhood losses left prone depression life deaths parents eleanor raised household maternal grandmother family new_york pulitzer prize winning biography describes childhood insecure affection considered ugly roosevelt wrote prospects life totally dependent physical beauty matter plain woman truth loyalty stamped face attracted roosevelt privately age encouragement aunt family sent private finishing school outside london england noted feminist educator sought independent thinking young women took special interest roosevelt learned speak french gained self confidence cousin term overlapped eleanor said arrived school eleanor school beloved everybody roosevelt wished continue summoned home grandmother social debut age roosevelt returned united_states ending formal education presented ball hotel december later given coming party roosevelt active shortly founding teaching dancing east organization brought roosevelt attention friend organization founder male relative criticized group drawing young women public activity marriage family life summer eleanor encountered father fifth cousin train new_york began secret correspondence romance engaged november franklin mother opposed union promise engagement officially announced year know pain caused franklin wrote mother decision added know mind known long time know think took son caribbean cruise hoping separation romance franklin remained determined wedding date set accommodate president agreed bride away eleanor married franklin march wedding groom wedding date selected sitting president mind scheduled new_york day parade signed marriage certificate witness gave niece eleanor away father died years garnered attention press attendance ceremony page news including new_york_times asked thoughts roosevelt roosevelt union said good thing family couple spent preliminary honeymoon week park set apartment new_york summer went formal honeymoon month tour europe returning settled new_york_city house provided franklin mother family estate overlooking hudson_river new_york beginning eleanor contentious relationship controlling mother law gave eleanor franklin connected sliding doors ran households decade marriage early eleanor breakdown explained franklin like live house way represent way wanted live little changed sought control raising grandchildren eleanor reflected later franklin children mother law children eleanor eldest son james remembered telling grandchildren mother bore mother mother eleanor franklin children december december august march november september october august august march april despite pregnant giving birth times eleanor disliked sex told daughter anna ordeal borne considered ill suited later writing come naturally understand little children enjoy september franklin eleanor discovered bundle love letters social secretary contemplating leaving eleanor following pressure franklin political advisor mother threatened son divorced franklin remained married eleanor union point political partnership disillusioned eleanor active public life focused increasingly social work role wife previous decade august family new_brunswick franklin stricken permanently paralyzed legs extent disability clear eleanor fought protracted battle mother law future stay politics despite retire country gentleman proved turning point eleanor long running struggle eleanor public role grew increasingly broke control tensions eleanor new political friends rose point family constructed cottage eleanor guests lived franklin children away relationships 1930s eleanor close relationship legendary pilot time white_house went party dressed occasion roosevelt close relationship associated_press reporter covered months presidential campaign fell love period roosevelt wrote daily page letters planning write biography lady letters included want arms kiss corner mouth kiss kiss picture good night good morning franklin inauguration eleanor wore ring given fbi director despised roosevelt stance civil rights husband criticisms surveillance tactics maintained large file roosevelt filmmakers biopic indicate included evidence relationship intended blackmail roosevelt compromised reporter soon resigned position closer eleanor secured job investigator new deal program considerable debate roosevelt relationship sexual known white_house press corps time lesbian scholars including asserted physical component relationship biographer argued phrases historians stated pulitzer prize winning account eleanor went kisses determined certainty roosevelt close friends lesbian couples suggesting familiar lifestyle roosevelt childhood teacher great influence later thinking lesbian published roosevelt correspondence concluded simply unusually crush warned historians researcher criticized argument calling book case study arguing presented page page evidence growth development love affair women roosevelt biographer argued relationship fact romantic generating national attention months inauguration eleanor wrote think gossip optimistic suppose care little years washington gossip linked eleanor romantically new deal administrator worked closely roosevelt close relationship new york state police sergeant husband assigned bodyguard roosevelt years old met miller friend official escort taught different sports diving riding coached tennis biographer writes miller eleanor romantic involvement middle years concludes doubt eleanor love earl time unlikely affair eleanor friendship miller happened time husband rumored relationship secretary smith writes remarkably franklin recognized accepted encouraged arrangement eleanor franklin strong people cared greatly happiness realized inability provide eleanor miller relationship said continued death thought corresponded daily letters lost according rumor letters anonymously purchased destroyed locked away died later years eleanor said developed romantic attachment physician likely limited deep friendship public life white_house presidential election franklin nominated democratic vice presidential candidate presidential candidate eleanor joined franklin touring country making campaign appearances cox roosevelt defeated republican won sixteen million votes million following onset franklin eleanor began serving stand husband making public appearances behalf carefully coached started working raising funds support union goals hour work week minimum wage abolition child labor 1920s eleanor increasingly influential leader franklin contacts democratic women strengthen standing winning committed support future campaigned democrat successful election bid governor republican nominee cousin eleanor promoting smith candidacy president franklin nomination democratic_party candidate governor new_york succeeding smith smith lost presidential race franklin won moved governor mansion albany new_york franklin term governor eleanor traveled widely state speeches inspect state facilities behalf reporting findings end trip joined friends buying finishing school offered college preparatory courses new_york_city school roosevelt taught upper level courses american literature history emphasizing independent thought current events social engagement continued teach days week served governor forced leave teaching election president lady united_states inauguration march eleanor lady united_states having known twentieth century previous ladies seriously depressed having assume role traditionally restricted immediate predecessor ended feminist activism lady stating intention backdrop eleanor distress severe subtitled biography roosevelt reluctant lady support howe roosevelt set position process according biographer cook controversial lady united_states history husband strong support despite criticism continued active business speaking agenda begun lady era married women careers presidential hold press conferences speak national party convention wrote widely syndicated newspaper column day year tenure determined match presidential salary eleanor earned lectures writing gave charity receiving lecture fees roosevelt maintained heavy travel schedule years white house frequently making personal appearances labor meetings assure depression era workers white_house plight widely circulated cartoon time new_yorker magazine june coal dark tunnel says worker comes roosevelt early protest group world war veterans marched washington second time years calling veteran bonus certificates awarded early previous year president ordered dispersed army cavalry charged bombarded veterans tear gas time visited veterans muddy listening concerns singing army songs meeting tension veterans administration later commented sent army roosevelt sent wife roosevelt chief project husband terms establishment planned community west_virginia august urging roosevelt visited families homeless miners west_virginia following union activities deeply affected visit roosevelt proposed community miners living farming local manufacturing plant hoped project model new kind community workers better cared husband enthusiastically supported project initial disastrous experiment houses construction began roosevelt specifications time modern convenience including indoor central steam heat families occupied homes june agreed repay government thirty years time roosevelt hoped racially mixed community miners insisted limiting membership white christians losing community vote roosevelt recommended creation communities excluded black jewish miners experience motivated roosevelt outspoken issue racial discrimination roosevelt remained vigorous fundraiser community years spending income project project criticized political left right conservatives condemned socialist communist plot democratic members congress opposed government competition private enterprise secretary interior opposed project citing high family cost continued sink government spending priority federal government sold holdings community loss later commentators generally described experiment failure roosevelt sharply discouraged visit felt town excessively dependent outside assistance residents considered town compared previous circumstances returned economic self roosevelt personally considered project success later speaking improvements saw people lives stating don know think worth half million dollars civil rights activism eleanor important connection franklin administration african american population segregation era despite president desire southern sentiment eleanor vocal support african american civil rights movement experience new deal programs southern states concluded new deal programs african americans received small share relief eleanor voices roosevelt white_house insisting benefits equally extended americans races eleanor broke precedent inviting hundreds african american guests white_house black singer denied use washington constitution hall daughters american revolution eleanor resigned group protest helped arrange concert steps roosevelt later presented anderson king queen united_kingdom anderson performed white_house dinner roosevelt arranged appointment african american educator struck friendship director avoid problems staff visit white_house eleanor meet gate embrace walk arm arm significance helped reform social life involved eyes ears new deal looked future committed social reform programs helped working women receive better wages new deal placed women machine work white collar work women work factories making war supplies men coming home long days nights women working contribute war efforts roosevelt brought unprecedented activism ability role 1st lady eleanor lobbied scenes wagner bill federal crime including arranging meeting franklin president fearing lose votes southern congressional legislative agenda franklin refused publicly support bill proved unable pass senate eleanor worked activist persuade franklin appeal behalf convicted killing white farmer fight franklin sent letter virginia governor urging sentence life imprisonment executed scheduled roosevelt support african american rights unpopular figure whites south rumors spread eleanor clubs formed servants oppose employers eleanor african american men knock white women street evidence found practice race riots broke detroit june critics north south wrote roosevelt blame time grew popular african americans previously reliable republican voting consistent base support democratic_party following japanese attack pearl harbor december roosevelt spoke anti japanese prejudice warning great minority groups privately opposed husband executive order forced japanese americans areas camps widely criticized defense japanese american citizens including los_angeles_times forced retire public life stand issue use media outspoken lady roosevelt far use media predecessors holding press conferences span husband year presidency inspired relationship roosevelt placed ban male reporters attending press conferences effectively forcing newspapers female reporters staff order cover relaxed rule return pacific trip banned women annual journalists roosevelt hosted competing event female reporters white house called interviewed newspapers new_orleans journalist described roosevelt interesting february franklin assumed presidency eleanor published editorial conflicting sharply intended public spending policies published following issue entering white_house signed contract magazine provide monthly column answered mail sent readers feature canceled presidential election approached continued articles venues publishing articles national magazines tenure lady eleanor began syndicated newspaper column titled day appeared days week death column wrote daily activities humanitarian concerns argued roosevelt publications dealt women issues invited reader responses represented conscious attempt use journalism overcome social isolation women making public communication way channel world war germany invaded belgium netherlands marking end relatively conflict free war phase world war began war roosevelt found depressed fearing role fighting domestic justice nation focused foreign affairs briefly considered traveling europe work red_cross presidential advisers pointed consequences president wife captured prisoner war soon found wartime causes work beginning popular movement allow immigration european refugee children lobbied husband allow greater immigration groups persecuted nazis including jews fears fifth caused franklin restrict immigration expanding eleanor successfully secured political refugee status eighty jewish refugees august refused occasions son james later wrote deepest regret end life forced franklin accept refugees war eleanor active home beginning chaired new_york_city mayor working civilian volunteers expanded roles war preparations soon found power struggle preferred focus narrower aspects defense saw solutions broader social problems equally important war effort resigned december eleanor forced resign following anger house_of_representatives high salaries appointments including close friends october roosevelt toured england visiting american troops british forces visits drew enormous crowds received unanimously favorable press august visited american troops morale building tour admiral later said accomplished good person groups civilians passed area roosevelt left shaken deeply depressed seeing war number congressional republicans criticized scarce wartime resources trip prompting franklin suggest break traveling roosevelt supported increased roles women african americans war effort began advocate factory jobs given women year widespread practice urged women social backgrounds learn trades saying age factory factory learn skill useful learning high rate working mothers campaigned government sponsored day care notably supported airmen successful effort black combat pilots visiting alabama request flew chief flight instructor charles chief hour great symbolic value brought visibility pilot training program war eleanor strong proponent plan germany postwar period attended new_york issued statement plans economic political power germany dangerous international security years white_house franklin died april suffering cerebral georgia eleanor later learned mistress died discovery bitter learning daughter anna aware ongoing friendship president funeral eleanor packed moved white_house returning instructions left eleanor event death franklin proposed turning federal government museum spent following months estate arranging transfer death eleanor moved apartment washington square west rented west 56th street lived moved east 62nd street lease expired returned park waited house purchased east street renovated franklin roosevelt presidential library museum opened april setting precedent future presidential libraries united_nations december president appointed eleanor delegate april preliminary human rights eleanor remained commission established permanent basis january played instrumental role drafting universal declaration human rights eleanor spoke favor declaration calling international men speech night september declaration adopted general_assembly december vote unanimous countries south_africa saudi_arabia roosevelt attributed soviet nations article provided right citizens leave countries roosevelt served united_states representative human rights stayed position stepping chair commission posthumously awarded human rights prizes recognition work postwar politics late 1940s democrats new_york country courted roosevelt political office surprised think want run office fitted hold office realized people felt learned husband years public life knew stressed fact women accept responsibility citizens heard offered nomination governor united states senate state vice president particularly humorous souls wrote suggested run woman president united_states simple truth fill public life kind catholics comprised major element democratic_party new_york_city supported trying overthrow irish machine catholics called anti catholic july roosevelt bitter public disagreement cardinal archbishop new_york federal funding schools said anti catholic supporters took sides battle drew national attention remembered hostility hall boss led effort defeat eleanor son election new_york attorney general eleanor grew increasingly disgusted political conduct rest 1950s eventually join old friends form group dedicated opposing efforts eventually successful forced relinquish power president backed new_york governor close associate democratic presidential nomination roosevelt disappointed supported president urged resigned post president roosevelt reservations failure condemn supported president richard_nixon kennedy later united_nations served 1950s roosevelt international role spokesperson women led stop publicly criticizing equal rights amendment era supported president kennedy labor proposed new status women kennedy appointed roosevelt chair commission director died commission issued report concluded female equality best achieved recognition gender differences needs equal rights amendment 1950s roosevelt embarked countless national international speaking engagements continued pen newspaper column appearances television radio broadcasts averaged lectures year fifties devoted activism behalf united_nations volumes roosevelt autobiography begun writing compiled autobiography eleanor roosevelt harper brothers isbn roosevelt received thirty honorary degrees thirteen universities outside united_states speech struggle human rights listed speeches 20th century listed rank speech adoption universal declaration human rights list death tributes april roosevelt diagnosed soon struck car new_york_city given activated dormant case bone tuberculosis died resulting cardiac failure manhattan home east street november age president ordered united_states flags lowered half staff world november tribute roosevelt prominent attendees president kennedy presidents honored roosevelt funeral services november interred husband rose garden roosevelt family home services said single human touched transformed existence adding light curse darkness glow warmed world death family family vacation home governments canada created acre km2 eleanor stone cottage miles east surrounding property acres km2 home death husband residence personally owned formally designated act congress commemorate education inspiration benefit present future generations life work outstanding woman american history eleanor roosevelt monument new_york riverside park dedicated said monument american president wife centerpiece statue sculpted surrounding granite pavement contains inscriptions designed architect including achievements quote speech united_nations advocating universal human rights ancestors | Eleanor Roosevelt | History | World history | North American history |
20152_UnitedStatesInstituteofPeaceHeadquarters | houses staff offices facilities government funded think tank focused conflict avoidance building permanent home established headquarters sited prominent location near national mall river neighborhood washington environmentally friendly building noted unique roof designed architect completed critics reviews building design mixed history 1980s democratic senator west_virginia led group calling federal peace institute established congress years rented office space buildings downtown washington 17th street congress approved site national mall site chosen new headquarters permanent home corner 23rd street constitution avenue previously parking lot surgery employees adjacent land transferred charge agreement underground parking spaces built navy employees site northwest corner site available national mall overlooking street historic congress authorized million construction headquarters efforts republican senator alaska institute required raise remaining million funds raised included million donation corporate donor building fund defense contractor named founding corporate partner million criticized taking money world largest producer weapons war april issued design architects submitted proposals heard receiving design request finalists chosen associates known architects withdrew according president design chosen designs basically square buildings headquarters second building washington designed fortress like headquarters completed dominates busy intersection florida unanimously approved plans building groundbreaking ceremony took place following year june dignitaries attendance included president speaker secretary state defense secretary state ceremony speakers hinted opposing views bush use war construction headquarters certified carried maryland certified environmentally friendly building national mall headquarters managed real estate services firm dedicated october year dedicated honor ambassador israel president design according building definition physical symbol peace capital skyline needed convey spirit peace stated believes overt symbolism sense building dedicated peace sense building aggressive building light achieved designing glass curtain wall facing glass ceiling ceiling building elements common design center israel inches thick roof white glass panels supported steel frames interior roof covered translucent plastic film white day night main entrances building facing constitution avenue facing 23rd street building acid concrete resembles limestone design centered large facing national mall designed public smaller private staff larger measures features high glass curtain wall facing national mall seat interactive museum dedicated accessible roof great hall designed convey dove wings called second known measures lined offices library meeting rooms conference center roof simplified version outdoor terrace adjoining facing story underground parking garage accommodate vehicles spaces reserved navy personnel reception thought building succeeds monumental place urban frame national mall jewish daily forward described headquarters architectural gem architect professor emeritus architecture mixed feelings building said visible aesthetically dark unique form appears somewhat day meeting giving final approval building national_park_service representative said building foreign object landscape classical architecture city criticizing design compared buildings constitution avenue building highly visible interstate enter city fact lamented winning critic washington_post scathing reviews headquarters said roof building exercise architecture pierced rows identical rectangular windows institute design marks low point long descent repetitive corporate architecture | United States Institute of Peace Headquarters | History | World history | North American history |
20354_HistoryofRandolph,Tennessee | history tennessee unincorporated rural community tennessee united_states located banks mississippi_river lands inhabited indians later native american tribes culture thousands years phase people tribe populated mississippi_river valley near period spanish explorer crossed mississippi_river near french explorer built french fortification near canoe expedition mississippi_river european settlers arrived area town founded 1820s earliest european settlements location second bluff banks mississippi_river south lower mouth provided ideal harbor town early center river commerce shipped cotton annually memphis commercial success community depended use slave labor cotton fields surrounding settlement office established pastor appointed fortunes community began decline late 1840s failed railroad development unfavorable mail route unsuccessful attempt county seat unfinished project cut canal factors contributed commercial demise town fort tennessee built early american civil war second fortification constructed later year civil war town burned twice union_army forces promoted decline community dedicated park intended promote civil war history community unique views mississippi_river available wider public finished park project create scenic connects historic sites mississippi_river population consists dozen dwellings economy rural community dominated agriculture major industries businesses present indian cultures bce indians later lived communities hunter area covers modern day southern united_states approximately mississippi_river delta populated tribes culture mound building native american people developed late woodland indian period phase people local expression culture inhabited region modern day time contact europeans arrival end period land claimed populated tribe exact origins uncertain prehistoric indian settlements located vicinity later european explorers spanish explorer led european expedition deep territory modern united_states european documented discovered mississippi_river men reached mississippi_river area modern southwest tennessee northwest mississippi weeks arrival expedition built order cross river continue expedition westward later arkansas territory documented controversy exact location crossing mississippi_river report published suggests traveled built boats crossed river claim generally believed probably true crossed mississippi_river memphis french explorer led canoe expedition explore mississippi_river basin expedition landed hunt members went missing assumed captured indians decided stay search missing member built named lost man structure built french tennessee days later missing member found way lost way hunting expedition reached mouth mississippi_river april exact location unknown historians claim fort built bluff modern day suggests fort constructed second bluff near modern day research mentions bluff location fort border modern sources assume fourth bluff modern memphis location european settlement europeans began settling land east mississippi_river inhabited centuries prior arrival europeans land southwestern kentucky ceded negotiations united_states represented general governor represented chiefs warriors sides agreed transfer signing treaty united_states agreed pay return right land east mississippi_river north mississippi state line early european landowners eager secure investment land southwest tennessee years founded wealthy influential investors tried find ways return share land judge wrote general let owners property mississippi laying town damp sale winchester founded memphis tennessee winchester jackson trying secure investments property memphis area owned advantage investors north memphis mississippi_river 7th president united_states memphis located second memphis fourth early 19th century terrain provided promising locations harbor mississippi_river emerging towns area estimated population establishment early 1820s landowners investors land second bluff form years later miles north memphis water described area good landing mississippi_river joining mississippi_river north second bluff accessible miles brown chose site second bluff lay plan promising river town culture gives date official establishment reports date foundation founders named community leader united_states congress virginia spokesman old republican faction democratic republican party old republican faction wanted restrict federal government roles cotton commerce success located banks mississippi_river second bluff provided ideal harbor stages river center commerce tennessee important cotton shipping point 1830s town early rival memphis commercial superiority mississippi_river important shipping point tennessee shipped cotton mississippi_river year cotton shipments added cotton shipped memphis peak commercial success community called great depot commission warehouses dry goods stores physicians tavern families making living area early 1830s town developed quickly population approximately people time town hotels businesses private schools time 19th century bank founded 1830s newspapers published recorder whig founded newspaper paper continued business issue recorder published june publication newspaper dates september whig established late early published issue january whig long shortly establishment publication soon discontinued travel routes line established provided connection jackson located miles east line offered convenient alternative travellers towns connected villages way twice week heading west jackson stage line roughly modern route state route stage road modern state route terminates miles west mississippi_river later 1830s connected direct route memphis located miles south road segment weekly mail line jackson memphis mail carried horseback route provided link towns connected settlements banks mississippi_river trade travel purposes exact routing mail line memphis unknown slavery good commercial success attributed use slaves working cotton fields area owners slavery common time civil war landowners ran plantations lands bought slaves work fields cultivation cotton corn beans cultivated recorder early 1830s landowners announced public slaves owned capture return runaway slaves plantation owners offered monetary incentives rewards offered return stolen slave thief slave convicted theft jail published notices recorder inform owners slave abolition slavery prepared abraham_lincoln slavery united_states eventually abolished 13th amendment constitution ratified december amendment declared slavery shall exist united_states abraham_lincoln 16th president united_states decline fortunes declined later 1840s 1850s factors starting shortly establishment town years settlement founded dispute ownership land town established arose faulty land title land owner new_york pending lawsuit prevented growth population residents community bought land town founded settlement unfavorable mail line early lasting influence fortunes town mail route established went nashville jackson ended memphis left end branch route mail line received mail week failed railroad development contributed demise town residents unsuccessfully tried county seat attempt county seat defeated bare majority voters financial depression failed attempt cut canal problems negative impact future commercial prosperity early civil war march town described consisting half dozen dilapidated frame houses civil war town burned twice september residents building residences businesses second time contributed declining fortunes community civil war fortification built january memphis appeal published pro proposal build fort defend memphis invaders sent confederate states secretary war brigadier general endorsed april eligible situation battery protect memphis days late april year tennessee governor ordered establish camp complete fortification troops tennessee arkansas stationed location accomplish task took months bluff defenses artillery batteries order protect fort land naval attacks june construction fortification completely finished cannons reported ready fort wright time trained future leaders cavalry received training fort wright fort tennessee military training camp defensive position mississippi_river july abandoned confederate infantry sporadically occupied southern forces civil war powder magazine left fort second confederate stronghold area civil war constructed months fall fortification situated mississippi_river mile southwest dispatch published new_york_times march described rough incomplete feet river position fortification allowed view mississippi_river miles upstream downstream boats approaching fort river detected early strong position confederate troops garrison prepare naval attacks fort union_army supply boats passing mississippi_river attacked elevated position fort risk immediate retaliation longer existence destruction general troops assumed control defeated confederate stronghold memphis surrounding areas including region located miles north memphis land trying area union control increasingly frustrated constant guerrilla activity sector confederate area weakened union forces raiding supplies firing boats delivered cargo invading forces mississippi_river union supply ship eugene fired confederate rebels mississippi_river second bluff carrying supplies memphis september ordered colonel 46th informed subordinate officer attack eugene small force time gone find emphasis original locate determined punish helped sealing fate instructed destroy place leaving house mark place union_army soldiers colonel command burned retaliation guerrilla activities emerging area superior officer reported given public notice repetition guerrilla attacks justify measures retaliation loading boats guerrilla prisoners receive fire 18th president united_states commanding general united_states_army retribution military paramilitary attack collective punishment innocent civilians mentioned early scene terror campaign named campaign destruction subsequent union_army attacks hostage executions civilians southern communities led intended break confederate resistance south argued residents areas confederate resistance accessories presence inactivity prevent murders destruction property potentially exposed retaliation union_army actions command criticized examples war crimes committed united_states presidency abraham_lincoln burned second time federal soldiers church history town established years later early settlers reverend pastor appointed organ church developing christian leaders church leadership roles church appointment pastor community congregation formed built church years civil war ended second church built congregation construction new church building completed second bluff building serves place worship methodist congregation born grew methodist community town martin later serve bishop distinguished military service world war pacific methodist pastor later life president retired died reverend reverend appointed community located road worship attendance church reported members congregation average god god second place worship church founded congregation led pastor pastor god located road postal history post office established mail line routed nashville memphis route went jackson arlington deliver mail post offices towns times week left main route end branch route mail line mail branch route delivered weekly segment arlington mail route roughly modern day route stage road later 1830s connected memphis direct travel route road mail line started jackson routed terminated memphis mail route carried horseback delivered post offices way weekly schedule southernmost segment mail route provided direct link memphis connected villages mississippi_river way travel trade purposes exact course mail line segment memphis unknown fragment route bearing road feet length existence remaining piece old road located miles north feet east mississippi_river south mouth western terminus avenue memphis remaining fragment old road destroyed land historic mail route located industrial property owned property accessible public operation exact location post office unknown code tennessee telephone area code memphis metro area modern history agriculture dominant source income area surrounding especially cultivation cotton corn beans cultivated century abolition slavery primary means income low income families area cultivation cotton land return share crop landowner modern machines cotton manual cultivation obsolete time took work hand laborers october tennessee parks non profit organization dedicated bluff celebration politicians historians community members acres property second bluff purchased park intended promote civil war history community unique views mississippi_river available wider public additional revenue tourism expected community bluff finished project create scenic connects historic sites mississippi_river project promotes economical development preservation land wildlife tennessee counties bordering mississippi_river population consists dozen dwellings economy rural community dominated agriculture major industries businesses present historical locations historical coordinates historical historical coordinates historical old coordinates old lane coordinates graves cemetery date early 19th century present day old road coordinates | History of Randolph, Tennessee | History | World history | North American history |
21047_WilliamB.Cornwell | november april american lawyer newspaper editor publisher railroad timber executive state west_virginia older brother writer newspaper publisher west_virginia governor studied afterward began practicing law brother purchased newspapers following acquisition south branch renamed newspaper sold ownership hampshire review brother john owned newspaper served attorney addition serving attorney served commissioner school lands relocated engaged practice law brother john shareholders following incorporation shareholders white sand company green spring following incorporation served president constructed leadership beginning june continued operate purchased organized president winchester western railroad incorporated addition serving company president served board directors organized subsidiary purpose developing timber resources hampshire hardy counties west_virginia virginia served president general manager died west_virginia interred wife second wife indian mound cemetery early life family born west_virginia november eldest child son wife shortly birth parents moved family west west_virginia mother twin brother uncle residing family returned family farm known legal education career studied graduated institution commenced practicing law shortly elected attorney continued serve position addition serving attorney served commissioner school lands brother studied law law office admitted state bar association june married virginia children death june second marriage west_virginia june daughter wife relocated engaged practice law lawyer arrived entered law office later junior member law firm maintained partnership departure newspaper publishing career shortly began practicing law brother purchased newspaper review poland assured newspaper subscribers november farewell editorial new owners continue publish review following principles time purchased newspaper review utilized building second floor offices printing plant later year purchased review rival newspaper south branch following acquisition brother added hampshire newspaper included south branch smaller print underneath continued operate second floor building brother relocated newspaper office printing plant floor new brick building sold ownership hampshire review brother moved business railroad career brother shareholders following issue incorporation charter principal office located west_virginia company constructed log boom south branch collect contain floating logs nearby forests shareholders white sand company green spring west_virginia following issue incorporation charter company engaged mining preparation manufacturing distribution sand extracted minerals august incorporated facilitate construction operation rail line south branch connecting grant hardy counties baltimore west station addition company included brother law firm partner served president track laid leadership beginning june line constructed miles southern terminus baltimore south branch line west station operations began completed section april later freight passenger service commenced october remainder rail line completed operations began wife purchased property known located confluence south branch near significant improvements property including construction bridge connecting residence route building additions residence utilizing materials property mill razed built barn structures property wife sold august continued operate rail line december purchased assumed mortgage rail line son law brother served officers company transaction subsequently transferred rail line baltimore november winchester western railroad company organized president winchester western railroad company incorporated virginia august received charter august build operate rail line connecting valley west_virginia baltimore winchester virginia addition serving railroad company president served board directors lawyer businessman served company secretary residents winchester virginia purchased worth stock prior construction completed miles line winchester line serviced gasoline engine locomotives hauling freight passengers organized subsidiary purpose developing timber resources hampshire hardy counties west_virginia virginia leadership acquired acres tracts mountainous woodlands hardy hampshire frederick counties proximity winchester line served president general manager planned construction general finishing plants power stations plant operated winchester western railroad building winchester illness resigned president general manager company summer october years operation filed bankruptcy debts estimated assets worth slightly half debts winchester western railroad company unaffected bankruptcy subsidiary later life death member winchester business community founding member director served chairman club initial committee december visiting winchester residence fellow director winchester western railroad rendered unconscious large clock hallway toppled striking head knocking clock inflicted severe wound head received aid treatment physician present residence taken winchester home regained consciousness died result april west_virginia attended march death interred april wife second wife indian mound cemetery | William B. Cornwell | History | World history | North American history |
22077_HistoryofGalveston,Texas | history galveston texas history galveston texas begins archaeological record native americans island european settlements island constructed port galveston established following successful revolution spain city served main port texas revolution galveston founded served capital fought american civil war confederate forces major general attacked expelled occupying union troops city mid-19th century galveston emerged international city immigration trade world city nation busiest ports world leading port cotton exports galveston texas largest city era prime commercial center island struck devastating hurricane post hurricane katrina event holds record deadliest natural disaster 1920s 1930s city emerged major tourist destination centered vice businesses featuring venues famed city nationally known sin city gulf illegal businesses finally closed 1950s leading long economic period businesses relocated island insurance businesses medical school remained city gradually emerged tourist destination centered history historical buildings new tourist attractions established development medical school area businesses economy recent decades exploration settlement originally inhabited members tribes island expedition sailed past route florida peninsula actually seen island spain lay claim entire gulf_coast including based expedition soon afterward crew island nearby november calling isle doom began famous trek mexico spanish explorers charting region referred island white island later french explorer named island fixed time earliest known map island bay french explorer left island unnamed named bay spanish explorer charting gulf_coast referred island bay sic bay honor madrid count island continued spanish later colony permanent european settlements island constructed pirate base operations support mexico rebellion spain returned unsuccessful raid spain find island occupied pirate took residence having driven stronghold coast new_orleans louisiana organized island settlement pirate kingdom called head government remained raiders given ultimatum united_states navy leave destroyed burned settlement ground sailed cover night parts unknown following successful revolution spain issued proclamation october establishing port galveston erected customs house texas revolution galveston served main port galveston served capital interim president relocated government native canada associates purchased acres km2 land found town modern city galveston congress republic texas hired survey land completed surveys associates began selling plots april city galveston adopted charter incorporated time island abandoned galveston island exclusive city galveston important slave trade establishing largest slave market west new_orleans census records population slaves free blacks compared free persons living city proportion slaves somewhat rest texas tensions slavery eventually led american_civil_war texas joined confederacy battle galveston fought island january confederate forces major general attacked expelled occupying union troops city remained confederate hands duration war successfully evaded union blockade galveston harbor headed havana final confederate ship slip blockade southern port late 1890s fort defenses coastal artillery batteries constructed galveston oldest nationally celebrated commemoration ending slavery united_states owes origins announcement emancipation proclamation return union forces galveston galveston city texas provide secondary school public library african americans golden era end 19th century city galveston metropolis population position natural harbor galveston bay gulf_of_mexico center trade texas largest cotton ports nation competition new_orleans newspapers started serve island rapidly growing population sole survivor causeway linking island mainland finished paved way railroad expansion golden era galveston history city home number state include post office naval base texas chapter order cotton school insurance company gas lights roman catholic hospital jewish reform congregation congregation israel opera house telephone electric lights medical college branch school nurses galveston home roman catholic cathedral texas rome created texas later elevated july pope approved creation diocese galveston named state texas mid 19th century galveston large city world standards emerged international city immigration trade world island called island west primary point entry european immigrants settling western united_states german immigration period great german language commonly language city streets immigrants simply poor oppressed seeking refuge educated middle class described ship arrival carrying members wealthy class including lawyers merchants skilled workers later 19th century high point history civil rights african americans reconstruction time limited power texas leaders worked establish educational employment opportunities blacks organize black voters support republican_party main party supporting black rights south efforts led higher employment higher wages blacks city especially eventually led combined black white trade unions 1890s early 1900s rose powerful position held black american 19th century storm island struck devastating hurricane post hurricane katrina event holds record deadliest natural disaster early morning september high surf despite prevailing winds north heralded oncoming storm noon low lying areas near gulf bay city flooding winds increased near storm surge approximately feet high slammed coast wind speeds reached approximately miles hour estimate blown weather_bureau building bureau chief account events surrounding hurricane based personal records given storm city devastated estimated people island killed storm city decided shore defenses future storms constructing permanent concrete large portion beach entire grade city raised feet wall feet near rebuilding open era despite attempts draw new investment city hurricane galveston fully returned previous levels national importance prosperity development hindered construction brought port houston direct competition natural harbor port galveston sea traffic recovery rebuild population galveston actively immigration efforts congregation israel galveston focus immigration plan called diverted roughly eastern european jewish immigrants crowded cities additionally numerous immigrant groups including greeks italians russian jews came city period immigration trend substantially altered ethnic makeup island areas texas western storm stalled economic development city houston grew region principal metropolis galveston regained glory recognizing need galveston traditional port related industries member galveston leading families founded years later moody invest galveston establishing later military facility established late 1890s construction disrupted galveston hurricane completed early 1900s facility named fort world war served army artillery training center troops bound france trained use types artillery 1920s early 1930s housed ancestor time group devoted solely attack aircraft second world war focus placed defense german boats fort served prisoner war camp following war served years army recreational center galveston established ran city houston railway recognized fastest line 1920s 1930s city emerged major tourist destination influence city exploited prohibition liquor gambling clubs like offering entertainment wealthy combined prostitution existed city american civil war galveston known sin city gulf accepted supported illegal activities referring island island entered later known open era aside vice oriented entertainment city hosted legitimate entertainment venues events famous annual beauty contest event international contest attracted participants england russia turkey brazil nations demise 1930s 1940s brought change world war galveston municipal airport predecessor international airport redesignated base named funds available congress constructed foot long hard surface airport accommodate army aircraft january officially activated serving anti submarine role gulf_of_mexico later replaced 10th anti submarine squadron flying lockheed wife established purpose present future generations foundation largest united_states play prominent role galveston later decades helping fund numerous civic health oriented programs end war drastically reduced military investment island increasing enforcement gambling laws growth las_vegas pressure gaming industry island finally texas attorney general wilson texas_rangers began massive campaign raids wrecked gambling prostitution city vice industries crashed tourism taking rest galveston economy economy culture city afterward civic leaders failed attempts new ventures including failed football tournament access new industrial park key non entertainment sectors insurance banking medical school helped economy viable recent history economy island entered long period businesses relocated island city houston long paced galveston population economic growth recognizing reverend fifth bishop permitted vatican erect cathedral convenience houston naming cathedral diocese designated diocese galveston mary remained home diocese bishop easily access rapidly growing roman catholic population houston beginning began efforts preserve historic buildings book galveston helped encourage preservation movement restoration efforts financed motivated investors notably houston businessman gradually created strand historic district areas new family oriented tourism emerged city years 1960s saw expansion higher education galveston home city got boost creation predecessor galveston community college formed help provide affordable education community 2000s property values rose expensive projects completed demand second homes increased led middle class families galveston areas city population remained relatively according associated_press compiled list vulnerable places hurricanes galveston areas named reasons cited low elevation single evacuation route island blocked fourth largest city united_states houston landfall early morning september category hurricane winds miles hour produced waves rising storm surge feet went famous flooding city storm unprotected bay island winds drop rain storm left galveston electricity gas water pressure basic communications room historic nightclub notorious illegal gambling hall located foot pier extending gulf_of_mexico destroyed storm island established services population returned damage remains discussions currently way build called protect galveston bay project conceptual stage funding allocated | History of Galveston, Texas | History | World history | North American history |
22249_BattleoftheRiceBoats | battle rice boats battle rice boats called land naval battle american revolutionary war took place border province georgia march battle pitted patriot militia georgia south_carolina small fleet royal_navy december british_army besieged boston need provisions royal_navy fleet sent georgia purchase rice supplies arrival fleet prompted colonial rebels controlled georgia government arrest british royal governor resist british seizure removal supply ships anchored savannah supply ships burned prevent seizure recaptured successfully taken british governor wright escaped confinement safely reached fleet ships departure marked end british control georgia briefly restored savannah british wright ruled british troops finally withdrawn closing days war background april tensions british colonial policies thirteen colonies boiled war battles lexington concord following events patriot colonists surrounded city boston placing siege incomplete city sea news action june battle flames independence colonies managed remain relatively neutral events georgia provincial congress came power summer progressively stripped georgia royal governor powers wright requested naval presence near savannah patriots charleston south_carolina intercepted request substituted dispatch indicating need support dispute georgia reached crisis point british men war began arriving january january ships seen anchor january fleet consisted hms number smaller vessels wright opinion expressed fleet sent punish local rebels fact ships beginnings fleet assembled acquire provisions savannah british troops boston december general ordered expedition purchase rice provisions georgia early february entire fleet assembled overall command captain hms included transports carrying british army regulars 40th foot command major arrival ships january prompted order arrest wright provincial representatives crown january major georgia militia placed governor wright house arrest extracted promise governor attempt communicate british ships wright continued harassed spite confinement feared life escaped mansion night february way plantation loyalist supporter taken meantime georgia provincial assembly met elected representatives begun process raising regiments continental_army governor wright arrived aboard wrote letter remaining members council expressed frustration getting assurances safety access desired supplies patriot authorities georgia colonies adopted terms created banning trade great_britain negotiations effectively failed ordered fleet action february objective number merchant vessels docked savannah owners moving goods possible march previous constraints expired battle march sailed hole accompanying transports carrying men grant command transports sailed river transport anchored opposite port area attempt position town grounded river gunfire cleared decks suitable boats unable attempt taking vessel floated free high tide late evening march grant men landed way island march took number rice boats anchored near island success remaining quiet possibly ship captains alarm raised savannah arrival ships march prompted issue calls defense town ships forward request assistance south_carolina day alarm raised colonel took set pound cannons sent lieutenant major flag occupied ships promptly arrested second larger arrived discuss release captives ships situation turned nasty captain rogers leader party insulted fired occupied ship british responded kind wounding nearly sinking group boat following boat retreat opened fire cannons bluff beginning lasted hours met discuss situation decided supply ships burned company militia assembled accomplish task supply ship set occupied vessels causing scramble british troops abandon face arriving fire ship confusion patriot militia battery active british crews musket fire shot occupied vessels managed away downstream escaped flames going upstream forced dock crews taken prisoner ships succumbed flames burned night action assisted timely arrival south_carolina militia sent response earlier appeal aftermath colonel sent captain day offering prisoner exchange refused exchange ordered arrest remaining members wright council proved successful british held prisoners released exchange promises protection spite action british successfully sailed merchant ships river ships needed dump portion cargo order shallow channel reached desired provisions amounting barrels rice loaded british transport ships fleet remained anchored negotiations went exchange prisoners time fleet detained arriving vessels later disposed prizes march band militia savannah burned houses island deny use wright ships officers weighed anchor march sailed north leading convoy merchant ships transports british abandoned boston earlier march newport rhode_island local patriots denied assistance fired ships field artillery eventually rejoined british forces halifax nova scotia battle wright departure marked end british control georgia savannah recaptured british forces december governor wright returned savannah remained british hands | Battle of the Rice Boats | History | World history | North American history |
22621_BattleofCarillon | known battle fought july french indian war global seven years war fought near fort known shore frontier area british colony new_york french colony new france battle took place primarily rise quarters mile fort french army men general decisively defeated overwhelmingly numerically superior force british troops general assaulted entrenched french position field artillery lack left british allies vulnerable allowed french win decisive victory battle war casualties suffered french losses british american historian wrote campaign military campaign launched american soil involved greater number errors judgment positions responsibility military historians cited classic example tactical military incompetence confident quick victory ignored viable military options flanking french waiting artillery laying siege fort instead relying flawed report young military engineer ignoring engineer recommendations decided favor direct frontal assault thoroughly entrenched french benefit artillery concerned weak military position fort conducted defense spirit lack time committed strategic errors preparing area defenses competent attacker exploited tactical errors attacker job easier fort abandoned garrison captured british following year known location battle gave fort reputation effect future military operations area despite large scale military movements area french indian war american revolutionary war major battle fought near fort location geography situated point land natural point conflict french forces moving south canada lake british forces moving hudson albany fort sited east mount independence rising far immediately south fort lay mouth drains river largely non trail northern end location french built assist fort construction trail crossed twice miles miles fort north fort road going fort west low rise land lay rise commanded trail far fort pose danger geographic defect fort location known time battle lay south fort foot hill steep densely forested provided excellent firing position cannon aimed fort chief engineer said fort site entrusted siege require mortars cannon background prior french indian war gone poorly british military met objectives following string french victories north_america coupled military setbacks europe gained control direction british military efforts seven years war embarking strategy emphasized defense europe france strong offense north_america france weak resolved attack new france colonial holdings france north_america strategic campaigns large scale campaigns planned capture fort pennsylvania frontier fortress known campaign assigned general launch attack canada probably preferred skilled dynamic leader lead expedition political considerations led appoint relatively instead howe appointed brigadier general placed second command french started construction fort launching point successful siege despite successes north_america situation look good early march commanding general responsible french forces north_america governor aware british planning send large numbers troops relatively little support king france lack support france large french military risk movement significant military forces atlantic_ocean dominated britain royal_navy situation exacerbated canada poor harvest resulted food shortages winter progressed differed deal british threat fewer regular troops estimated thousand militia men limited number indian allies bring british forces reported number limited combat experience wanted divide french forces send picked force men british northwestern believed plan enable british easily divert forces fend french attack prevailed june left quebec british preparations british amassed army command general near remains lay southern end destroyed following capture french previous year army numbered fully men making largest single force deployed north_america time complement regular troops included lord 42nd 27th 44th 46th 55th regiments 1st 4th battalions 60th provinces providing militia support included connecticut massachusetts new_york new_jersey rhode_island july troops embarked boats north end july french defensive preparations colonel command prior arrival knew june major british offensive begin sent messenger bearing letter conventional exchange opposing commanders june expecting return fact british held indication messenger probably learned british camp increased scouting activities learned captured british scouts approximate size british force arrived fort june found significantly staffed garrison men food sufficient days scouts reported british troops near remains fort william henry given large force facing defects fort site opted strategy defending likely approaches fort immediately detached battalions occupy river crossing trail miles northern end miles fort took battalions occupied fortified advance camp remaining troops work preparing additional defenses outside fort sent word montreal situation requesting possible men sent reinforcement troops intended duty western frontier forts left montreal instead ordered troops departed montreal july word reached july british fleet coming sent captain men observe fleet possible prevent landing learning size british fleet reportedly large cover face lake george ordered retreat satisfied defensive situation resisted withdrawing repeated orders times aware scope movement ordered troops bridges trail destroyed isolated men main body situation worse indian guides alarmed size british fleet abandoned beginning evening july french began lay rise northwest fort miles away commanded land routes fort july constructed lengthy series trees branches pointed outward end day constructed wooden trenches hastily erected defenses proof small arms fire ineffective british cannons british army began unopposed landing north end morning july landed advance force check area forces found recently deserted supplies equipment left french hasty departure bulk army landed formed columns attempted march west stream connected trail bridges destroyed wood thick columns maintained near area enters captain troop attempting return french lines encountered connecticut regiment sparking skirmish woods general howe column near action led direction approached battle scene general howe hit instantly killed musket ball column massachusetts drawn battle cut french patrol rear desperate fighting men killed captured men including escaped swimming died day wounds suffered battle sources disagree number casualties suffered claims british casualties light dead wounded claims killed wounded including loss british frustrated difficult woods howe death exhausted overnight boat ride camped woods returned landing point early morning road july sent lieutenant colonel sizable force path reaching crossing camped rebuilt bridge proceeded crossing army followed set camp scouts prisoners reported men expecting arrive moment reinforcements ordered engineer lieutenant aides captain uncertain related french defenses ascending known reported french position appeared incomplete easily forced cannon unaware french disguised works shrubs trees fact largely complete clerk report included recommendations summit base decided attack morning hopefully supposed arrived arrived fort evening july troop regulars held war council evening options presented staff limited asking day attack ranks council opted plan attack omitted clerk recommendation summit addition frontal assault pound guns floated mounted base troops support effort early morning july clerk went base observe french defenses report indicated felt french lines taken assault battle lines form battle began morning july rogers rangers light infantry colonel regiment light armed foot pushing remaining french scouts followed new_york massachusetts columns regulars way provincial formations begin attack 27th 60th right column command 27th col 44th 55th col center 42nd 46th 42nd col formed left column column preceded regimental light infantry companies held reserve provincial regiments connecticut new_jersey organized french forces brigades reserve commanded battalions center commanded battalions right led battalions left battalion given roughly yards defend cannon protected flanks right completed low ground left flank guarded militia marines constructed help protect position reserve forces fort grounds fort portions battalion held reserve assist areas needed battle expected battle begin elements new_york regiments left began engaging french defenders sounds battle led believe french line penetrated ordered men forward regulars place given order advance result orderly coordinated advance french position entry regulars battle companies regulars came forward arranged lines instructed began advance right column shorter distance travel attacked followed center left 42nd initially held reserve insisting allowed participate joined action french position able lay fire british forces advanced word shares rapidly killing field clear wave attack failed active battlefield having removed coat moving men giving encouragement making sure needs met reported early historians like away action reported aide near rear lines battle approached french lines point early battle uncertain wave attack failed persisted ordering attacks writing defense later claimed relying clerk assessment works easily taken clearly refuted failure charge british barges carrying artillery floated contrary plan came channel island shore brought range french left fort guns fire cannons fort southwest sank barges remaining vessels retreat ordered reserves connecticut new_jersey battle clear attack failed tried recall troops significant number notably 42nd 46th regiments british left persisted attack 42nd desperate advance actually succeeded reaching base french wall actually managed scale british observer noted forces fell exceeding fast wrote cut like grass slaughter went nightfall great men retreating erected battlefield finally realizing scope disaster ordered troops muster march landing retreat dark woods somewhat panicked disorganized rumors french attacks troops dawn morning army rowing reaching base southern end sunset nature retreat immediately apparent participants lieutenant colonel wrote retreated aftermath wary british counterattack concerned fatigue troops long day battle barrels beer wine brought forward lines troops spent night alternating sleeping working defenses anticipation renewed attack news battle received england shortly news fall putting celebrations marking victory scope british victories reach english shores later year learned successes key steps completing conquest new france fallen conquest completed happened montreal point resistance surrender campaigns launched quebec captured renamed forces command victor led military campaign active lake george little provide support successful attack fort authorized war council july left men july refused engage offensive acts alleging shortage manpower british secretary state designed british military strategy received word defeat august wrote september king judged proper return england continued promoted eventually reaching rank general fact indians allied british witnessed hand complicated future relations news defeat circulated widely communities significant effect ability british agents recruit indians future operations casualties battle war casualties suffered french casualties normally considered comparatively light killed wounded main battle combined effective elimination force july casualties percent french force percentage similar losses british having lost percent general reported killed wounded missing report claimed french recovered british bodies implying actual death toll estimates number british killed died wounds main battle wounded skirmish july cost british killed wounded loss known paid loss lives severely wounded men including officers killed similar number wounded representing significant fraction total casualties suffered british king later july designated 42nd royal regiment gallantry earlier battles issued letters service adding second battalion testimony majesty satisfaction extraordinary courage loyalty conduct highland regiment king learn regiment loss half strength battle august legend long circulated concerning death major ghost campbell dead brother said appeared dream promise meet place unknown time campbell died wounds sustained battle analysis actions commanders extensively analyzed action performed battle tactical options escaped notice actions preparing defenses open question contrast questioned widely held historians incompetent commander commanders product environment european warfare generally took place open fields relatively easy mobility uncomfortable woodland warfare liked irregular warfare practiced indians british counterparts like saw necessary evil given operating environment french depended indian support increase comparatively small numbers war indian forces low battle generally disliked practices particular benefited practicing irregular form warfare apparently inspected landing area north end location contest british landing furthermore french confined woodlands blunt numerical advantage british contested entire road fact fortifications built road abandoned french indication failure strategic thinking estimates crossing road gained additional day defensive preparations writing noted american british writers contemporary historical words like old woman describe battle criticisms begin reliance relatively poor intelligence reports reached french strength expected reports french captives investigated sending scouts light infantry reports accurate army significantly outnumbered sources reported shortage provisions fort sign siege ended quickly error apparent reliance analysis lack experienced engineers caused state french defences repeatedly clear stated desire want act clerk recommendation sought blame clerk claiming merely acting engineer advice clerk battle casualties unavailable defend assignment blame captain 44th foot wrote prospect cannon hill particular offer ally immediately commanded lines small cannon planted drove french short time breast work thought imagine occur absolutely far sunk wear bells tactical decision bring cannons forward probably significant errors use cannon french works cleared paths breached option avoid pitched battle instead beginning siege operations french position force large fully invested french position arriving reinforcements tactics notable errors judgment battle failure recognize wave attacks chosen method attack unlikely work instead ordering additional waves troops slaughter retreated safe distance considered alternative actions second failure apparently considered ordering flanking maneuver french right minimum stretched french defenses allowing attackers find weak points fact french twice battle sent companies militia works right british attackers battle disorganized nature british retreat demonstrated loss effective command experienced commander easily landing taken stock situation begun siege operations french surprise army ordered retreat way south end unable find rational reasons claims general panicked legacy fort endangered british assault fort effectively handed british retreating french army future defenders fort superior officers familiar site shortcomings fell spell idea general advanced beginning campaign general george_washington seen fort thought highly defensive value preparing defenses arrival wrote washington fort carried loss blood surrendered americans fight july modern flag quebec based banner carried victorious french forces banner known flag dates 17th century confirmed textile expert flag doubt exceptional piece document 17th century coat arm madonna erased probably charles governor new france silver governor right personal crest banner arms france eagles support crest flag probably fabricated date arrival date flown order motto historian opinion stories flag presence battlefield appear 19th century evidence large religious banner meters feet flag design based actually standard battle | Battle of Carillon | History | World history | North American history |
23286_ConclusionoftheAmericanCivilWar | conclusion american civil war timeline conclusion american_civil_war includes important battles skirmishes raids events led additional confederate key confederate captures confederate military units occurred surrender april fighting lieutenant general grant army lee reported considerably newspapers battles reporting skirmishes largely dominated newspapers developed army fought series battles grant ultimately stretched thin lines defense lee extended lines small sections thirty miles strongholds richmond virginia troops ultimately exhausted defending line grant took advantage situation launched attacks thirty mile long poorly defended ultimately led surrender lee surrendered april noon followed troops hours later raiders disbanded april general armies surrendered april confederate departments alabama mississippi east louisiana surrendered gulf commanded surrendered confederate president captured florida commanded surrendered day surrendered confederate forces surrendered surrendered officially signed june battle american_civil_war battle texas significant confederate active force surrender confederate allied brigadier general indian soldiers june confederate surrender occurred november confederate warship surrendered president formally declared end war august april general commanded major general commanded early morning april gordon attacked aiming break federal lines battle court house failed surrounded morning lee requested meeting grant discuss surrendering shortly clock grant reply reached lee grant said accept surrender certain conditions lee rode little hamlet county court house stood waited grant arrival surrender army troops april lost city alabama battle spanish fort took place march april losing went lose union forces battle fort april considered major battle american_civil_war involving large numbers happened hours lee surrender grant course battle brigadier general captured surrendered men soldiers originally lost captured battle killed men escaped successful union assault attributed large african american forces georgia easter sunday april unaware lee surrender april assassination president lincoln april general raiders continued march alabama georgia april georgia fought battle erroneously argued battle civil war equally erroneously asserted widely regarded columbus fell wilson raiders midnight april manufacturing capacity destroyed 17th confederate colonel inventor wounded battle resulted obsession pain killing ultimately ending recipe celebrated drink disbanding raiders april known 43rd special force confederate military troops opposed union control area command general formed battalion june rector cross roads near virginia practiced psychological guerrilla warfare techniques disrupt union stronghold men formally surrendered disbanded april weeks lee surrendered grant day striking force letter read aloud men soldiers summoned time vision free independent country vanished country organization preference surrendering enemies longer commander association years pride fame achievements grateful generous kindness moment bidding final accept assurance confidence regard farewell col formal surrender offered reward capture later raised june surrendered major general virginia surrender general armies april major stage peace making process concluding american_civil_war surrender general armies april bennett place nearly thousand confederate soldiers surrendered north_carolina south_carolina georgia florida conditions surrender document called terms military convention signed grant north_carolina major stage peace making process lee surrender occurred april coupled lincoln assassination induced act believing odds means ammunition repairing arms money credit provide food impossible continue war april met following day armistice arranged terms discussed agreed grant authorized surrender forces exceeded orders providing generous terms included states immediately recognized leaders signed loyalty property personal rights returned federal court system general amnesty given april authorities washington rejected proposed terms days later agreed terms lee received previously april general surrendered following commands direction april georgia georgia florida surrendered men april adjutant announced terms general orders issued farewell address remaining parts florida brigade west surrendered rest forces north_carolina historical marker farm house durham north_carolina surrendered departments armies surrender confederate departments alabama mississippi east louisiana regiments documentation surrender lieutenant general small force alabama stage process concluding american civil war son president commanded confederate troops east louisiana thousand troops taylor subordinate col surrendered officer col mobile alabama fallen union control april reports reached taylor meeting terms surrender armies taylor agreed meet conference north mobile settled hour truce april taylor agreed surrender time alabama lieutenant general surrendered alabama troops included taylor terms stated taylor retain control railway river able men near possible homes taylor stayed mississippi man sent way went mobile join took home new_orleans boat gulf gulf commanded april retreated troops major confederate forts lost union forces declared mobile alabama open city battles went mississippi remaining men wanted join remains north_carolina hearing surrender april soon ran options ultimately surrendered mobile thousand men union army alabama declaration despite fact small pockets resistance south president declared armed resistance virtually ended nations ships denied entry ports persons found aboard vessels longer given immunity prosecution crimes capture president davis union major general captured confederate president fled richmond virginia following evacuation early april washington georgia davis held meeting cabinet time declared dissolved sequence events led davis capture began early 4th set tents georgia military unit battalions commanded lieutenant colonel given orders join units searching confederate president troops scouted country day come georgia miles south continued river georgia learned lieutenant colonel hot davis trail meeting men headed miles south position received word local residents night party probably including confederate president crossed north roads taken men decided capture davis took men horses balance stayed near seven hours later arrived evidence men learned local residents mile half north military camp knowing davis group 1st approached soon identified camp davis dawn charged camp surprised overwhelmed offered resistance yielded immediately minutes surrender heard rapid gunfire north left davis captured men hands year old adjutant approached gunfire realized 4th michigan 1st wisconsin shooting repeating realizing shooting immediately ordered men stop shouted 1st wisconsin identify parties minute skirmish 1st suffered men wounded 4th lost men killed wounded camp adjutant letting davis escape ruse davis wife persuaded adjutant let old mother water adjutant allowed walked away tent davis person dressed old woman left tent water ranking officers noticed old woman wearing men riding boots spurs immediately stopped woman black head removed reveal davis plan escape failed confederate president subsequently held prisoner years virginia florida commanded departments florida south_carolina headquarters pensacola florida primary orders guard coastal areas states destroy union destroyed machinery beneficial union armies early jones transferred soon savannah fallen union forces december jones headquartered district florida surrendered thousand troops brigadier general military action east mississippi_river city confederate state capital captured civil war jeff thompson commanded arkansas county seat witness final acts american civil war happened collapse confederate forces east mississippi major general sent lieutenant colonel 51st april arkansas seek surrender thompson commander confederate troops northeast portion arkansas davis arriving chalk bluff non extant arkansas francis river sent communications thompson asking conference officers met negotiate surrender thompson requested davis days work details surrender officers command thompson agreed surrender troops area picked arkansas sites thompson thousand military troops gather receive ultimately thompson surrendered seventy men total command consisting enlisted men officers enlisted men officers june forces surrender soldiers brigadier general command took place kingston georgia received brig letters generals involved negotiation surrender including colonel kept cumberland nashville tennessee informed according letter wrote soldiers command paper consisted confederate troops northwestern georgia actually collected rest group number soldiers resisted general efforts follow commands georgia historical marker kingston georgia intersection church street denote surrender took place explains confederate soldiers given rations release disbandment battle land battle civil war took place near texas won held city early january february major general sent union government texas march wallace meeting major confederate commanders region brigadier general colonel premise official purpose rendition criminals real reason agree fighting region pointless negotiate unofficial indefinite cease fire slaughter ford point time occupied fort brown near colonel temporary command union troops island little military field experience desired establish notoriety war closed knew attack fort brown violation orders headquarters surrendered lee april confederate forces surrendered disbanded spite known facts decided ahead plans instructed colonel 34th indiana veteran attack confederate near fort brown commanded 62nd 2nd advanced fort brown intention union forces thinking encounter problems assuming surely heard lee surrender time surprise encountered know lee surrender ferocious battle erupted miles outside battle lost union regiments mainly overrun original union troops fought lost capture killed seriously injured surrender general tried send reinforcements mississippi_river relieve mississippi spring following union naval control mississippi_river smith instead dispatched cavalry invasion missouri ultimately successful war west mississippi_river principally small raids representative smith negotiated signed surrender documents representative louisiana took custody smith force soldiers surrendered significant confederate forces left west mississippi_river ended organized southern military resistance union forces smith signed surrender papers june board fort jackson outside galveston harbor chief june brigadier general commanded surrendered june significant confederate active force formed guerrilla fighter commanding creek indian soldiers earned notorious reputation bold brave fighting yearly federal troops western united_states hunted captured surrendered june fort nations area village ghost town confederate general surrender american_civil_war surrender november commissioned commerce confederacy interfere union shipping hinder efforts american civil war scottish built merchant ship originally called secretly purchased confederate agents september captain renamed ship converted warship coast spain october shortly leaving england right hand man ship executive officer sailing south east indian_ocean island called time surrender union forces april captured disposed thirteen union destroyed prize north japan continued crossing june continuing south coast alaska came fleet union ships june opened continuous fire destroying major portion union fleet took aim fleeing signal gunner wrist fired shots american_civil_war far captured burned ships american fleet arctic waters finally learned lee surrender june captain prize produced newspaper san_francisco paper contained confederate president proclamation war carried proceeded capture following seven hours steered south intending raid port san_francisco believed poorly defended route encountered english barque august learned final collapse confederacy including armies capture president davis long log entry august begins day life captain realized grief taken innocent unarmed union ships prizes rest country ended hostilities immediately converted warship merchant ship storing cannon hull point wanted surrender proper place mind european port surrendering american port carried certainty facing court union point view real risk trial piracy crew hanged sailing south staying shore avoid shipping report position saw land miles arrived england having logged total miles world year travel confederate ship globe confederate surrender occur november notorious ship command surrendered commander british_royal_navy surrendered letter british prime minister ultimately investigation british admiralty court crew violated laws war released sold renamed great dismal swamp according source detachment confederate soldiers posted defend great dismal swamp virginia didn surrender summer presidential proclamation ending war august president signed proclamation declaring peace order united_states_of_america cited end insurrection texas declared insurrection existed state texas end henceforth regarded state states named said insurrection proclaimed end proclamation day april said insurrection end peace order civil authority exist united_states_of_america | Conclusion of the American Civil War | History | World history | North American history |
24109_2008Georgiasugarrefineryexplosion | georgia sugar explosion georgia sugar explosion industrial disaster occurred february georgia united_states people killed injured dust explosion occurred sugar owned dust explosions issue concern united_states authorities fatal accidents efforts improve safety reduce risk large old featuring outdated construction methods factors believed contributed fire severity origin explosion narrowed center factory believed occurred basement beneath storage investigations conducted ruled deliberate criminal activity result disaster new safety legislation proposed local economy declined factory closed imperial intended rebuild return production end replacement buildings completed summer following year victims filed legal suits damages owner company hired clean imperial said explosion main reason major loss quarter released report incident september saying explosion entirely investigations concluded sugar dust fuel explosion prevented september suits filed cleaning contractor eighteen settled background sugar story structure bank based texas bought brand previous local owner known construction crystals main employer town prior disaster constructed people moved louisiana specifically purpose opened following year imperial bought form national supply distribution network meet demand businesses sat acres km2 site spread square feet network second largest workers described factory machinery dating years said site kept operating good access rail shipping links transport fiscal year disaster ended september facility refined million sugar nation requirements compared imperial louisiana refined million sugar time period raw sugar supplied facility came overseas year company expected vast majority come abroad year explosion time leading explosion run financial difficulties fiscal year ending september sales fell profits year fourth quarter stock half april annual reports imperial explosion said damage facility port material effect company business financial condition results operations cash flows conducted study risks presented dust explosions fatal accidents year explosion killed persons manufacturing plant explosion killed seven automotive parts plant explosion killed prompting report report showed explosions involving dust resulting deaths injuries board found dust explosions posed severe risk number recommendations partly implemented board continued concerned potential fatal accidents imperial scene explosion explosion emergency response explosion occurred local time initially believed room sugar workers witnesses south_carolina reported seeing flames shoot stories high employees site time explosion occurred center storage facilities fed completed product network elevators belts buildings stories high narrow gaps responded scene counties firefighters united_states_coast_guard closed river area boat resulting fire river helicopter search river thrown blast workers brought assist search rescue operations emergency services personnel unfamiliar plant layout red_cross worker arrive scene reported like walking hell men treated having skin skin alerted local hospitals prepare casualties doctor nearby memorial health hospital described patients arriving emergency varying condition suffering minor burns hands having received burns critical condition burns victims ages ranged victims placed artificial life support systems transported helicopter specialized georgia hour away injured later died receiving treatment church close point families seeking information relatives employed facility people turned police requested family send representative close day explosion people missing confirmed deaths overnight deep seated fires uncovered continued day mile stretch river previously closed reopened restriction patrol remained place enforce safety zone river restrictions delayed outgoing vessel incoming ones minor oil spill originating equipment rarely dock explosion seriously weakened structure facility leaving highly unstable extensive smoke damage packaging area totally destroyed demolished explosion removal debris began day accident assistance structural engineers missing persons found dead day tunnels running beneath factory final death toll thirteen major sugar shut plant louisiana aftermath hurricane katrina february worst fire extinguished foot sugar storage remained despite attempts fire thousands gallons water helicopter specialist crews equipment called complete work sugar time seven bodies recovered eighth person died hospital investigation location explosion quickly established building store refined sugar prior packaging foot tall inches thick reinforced concrete storage adjacent pictured according ceo accumulated sugar dust likely acted like gunpowder plant time explosion survived protected heavy equipment shore partially collapsed structure firefighters enter search victims hours explosive substance identified sugar dust federal investigations launched interviewed witnesses checked documentation conducted scene examination plant arrived hours hours brief investigations conducted state firefighters police explosives ended quickly confirming evidence explosion fire having deliberately started press conference held february members team said explosion showed ongoing risk dust explosions despite report highlighting matter investigators unable enter ruled hazardous explosion able access area demolished time took place months disaster investigators believed explosion started basement area beneath sugar fed packaging building belts factory outdated construction materials methods believed contributed severity blaze ceiling wooden tongue groove design known fat lighter fire risk posed interviews employees conducted uncovered lack training workers reported receiving training exit building emergency employees recalled having fire drill aftermath initial response imperial louisiana shut company weeks port disaster fears similar explosion occur kept operating week fined imperial safety legislation violations plant georgia plant workers continued receive payment imperial assist cleanup demolition parts salvaged work began april imperial board confirmed intention rebuild plan plant return sugar end demolition sugar conducted june ball replacement packaging building new sugar intended completed summer demolition pounds fire hardened sugar recovered pounds second company hoped product production quarter imperial posted million loss said primarily explosion port suffered economic depression accident local businesses losing customers purchased reports month accident fearing relevant employers unaware facilities presented risk dust explosions sent letter employees alert danger similar explosion occurring proposed new bill aimed introducing regulations reduce risk dust explosions bill passed united states house_of_representatives passed united_states senate began developing federal standard dust congress introduced bill require issue interim standard based voluntary standard set march female worker arms burnt sued savannah company contract clean factory april widow sued wholly owned subsidiary imperial bought factory owned august succumbed injuries bringing total number deaths fourteen suffered burns percent body died joseph burn center remained explosion february monument honoring people lost explosion dedicated legacy park grounds port plant fined imperial million citing company violations port plant plant louisiana settlement negotiations company agreed pay million admitting fault released report september saying explosion entirely noted sugar industry aware risk dust explosions specifically internal company managers expressed concern potential explosions sugar dust recently construction changes enabled accumulation sugar dust practiced evacuation procedures lack emergency lighting meant people confined dark tunnels time explosions legal issues victims disaster continued file claims cleaning contractor september civil suits filed relation explosion eighteen settled state appeals court rejected effort defendants attorneys pre trial appeal related cases effort limit damages worker underwent burns covering body plant explosion settled lawsuit company undisclosed victim leave hospital burn unit requested attorney georgia pursue criminal prosecution executives cited imperial safety violations finding company acted plain indifference intentional disregard employee safety health said evidence intentional disregard plain indifference bring criminal charges imperial cited lack federal criminal laws specifically related safety sugar industry reason decision | 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion | History | World history | North American history |
24206_Philadelphiatransitstrikeof1944 | philadelphia transit strike philadelphia transit strike strike white transit workers philadelphia lasted august august strike triggered decision prolonged pressure federal government view significant labor shortages allow black employees hold non jobs previously reserved white workers august black employees trained trial run fact white workers start massive strike strike paralyzed public transport system philadelphia days bringing city war production favor allowing promotions black workers positions qualified opposed strike union unable persuade white employees return work august provisions president authorized secretary war control charge operations days unsuccessful negotiations strike leaders issued order striking workers return work august refusing comply fired stripped military draft denied job availability certificates duration war ultimatum proved effective august strike ended returned work black workers pending promotions non jobs triggered strike allowed assume jobs strike despite considerable tensions city philadelphia remained calm major violence city newspapers strike public large opposed strike strike leaders including arrested violating anti strike act played active role federal government institute fair hiring practices years strike maintaining calm strike strike received considerable attention national media philadelphia transit strike high profile instances federal government act passed president roosevelt veto background union official entry united_states world war december philadelphia major industrial war production centers philadelphia regarded second largest war production center country period black population city grew substantially tensions predominantly white population began increase ran city huge public transportation system including buses time strike carried million people day thousand strong workforce included black employees black workers restricted holding jobs allowed serve positions reserved white employees early august black employees started employment practices allow upgrading black workers prestigious jobs hitherto reserved whites efforts rebuffed management claimed current union contract contained clause prohibiting significant change employment practices customs union approval contract said race leader proved equally claimed authorized union members consider request allow promotions black employees federal involvement black employees enlisted help started lobbying federal authorities particularly intervene created executive order president charged ensuring non discrimination employment practices government contractors initially fairly weak agency authority significantly strengthened new executive order required government contracts non discrimination clause war progressed manpower shortages getting severe january requested white uses aware pool black employees seeking upgrading asked allow hiring black employees vacant positions refused citing customs clause union contract complaint matter landed headed time series unsuccessful attempts convince management union leadership change stance allow promotions black employees non jobs eventually conceded willing government request employ provided acceptable fellow workers leadership particularly resisted november issued directive requiring end employment practices allow blacks hold non jobs directive required review job applications june earlier employment abuses based racial discrimination union immediately protested requested public hearing took place december hearing union tried argument hiring blacks applied non positions june denied adversely affect rights presently employed white workers rejected argument pointing rights begin employee actually hired particular job december issued second directive reinforcing attempt pressure contacted virginia congressman time chair smith known views eager possibly destroy quickly scheduled hearing meantime union informed refused comply order management told ross given union position comply directive hearing smith committee took place january hearing inconclusive ross position union representatives falling customs clause claims issues white workers hearing predicted trouble unrest promotions black employees allowed going accept blacks fellow workers going work anybody believe let try petition signed workers presented hearing read gentlemen white employees refuse work operators station inter union struggle january congressional hearing ross delayed enforcement directive await outcome upcoming union elections contract february union election called march apart opposed promotions black employees unions competing right represent workers affiliate motor coach employees america affiliate said allow promotions black employees stayed silent matter leadership tried campaign race issue union elections topic overshadowed issues details new contract bitter campaign won union elections receiving votes unions combined time elections white workers perceived contract issue important promising attractive terms consider promotions black employees realistic possibility despite victory white workers black employees remained largely negotiations new contract dragged absence contract company continued resist implementing immediate run strike view growing labor shortages july war manpower commission important decision ruling hiring male employees country uses time uses followed strict anti discrimination employment practices management finally gave week posted notices available skilled positions open applicants regardless race company accepted black applicants uses ranks train training place late july start taking lines august impending trial run black finally triggered strike news spread resentment white workers began grow bulletin boards urging non compliance new policy petition circulated calling strike protest job upgrades black employees meetings called strike discuss plan action played active role meetings meeting july announced day white workers arrived representatives warned impending trouble company management ignored warnings maintaining fear events strike start strike august buses philadelphia stopped running strike blocked access vehicles advised arriving workers strike noon august entire transportation system paralyzed veteran white organized member strike steering committee main leaders strike ousted union boss key strike leader end day held large meeting attended employees outside street racial rhetoric escalating meeting declared driving white man job said belong roadway declared strike strictly black white issue response strike interpreted contemporary observers later historians supporting strike chairman company stopped asked workers return work subsequently suggested temporarily suspend non discrimination order brought pile printed suspension announcement offices officials refused approve suspension order suspension distributed morning august officials immediately shut high speed lines strike spread instructed company stop selling tickets left open allowed use rallying points coordinating centers activities company cancelled regularly scheduled meeting executive committee response strike discussed refused join radio broadcast urging return work officials denounced strike pleaded employees resume work success city mayor closed alcohol selling establishments effort prevent drunken crowds governor followed suit closed state liquor stores area city deployed police force extra police officers posted major intersections vital points black civic groups worked maintain calm black people philadelphia distributed posters black sections city read heads treat people treated strike continued august members initiated work movement quickly forced strike leaders supporters end day head wrote president roosevelt jurisdiction situation president intervene representatives reached similar conclusion need president intervention day military takeover roosevelt administration felt needed act quickly stop strike war plants philadelphia reported rates workforce strike causing significant damage city war production military reported delays delivery fighter planes radar equipment numerous items rear admiral complained strike significantly slowed war production area delay day victory strike negatively affecting america image abroad particularly europe fighting nazi_germany freedom racial justice germany japan use instance racial unrest propaganda purposes official reaction white_house somewhat delayed president roosevelt absence time warship way hawaii islands august fifth seizure order president roosevelt authorized secretary war control major general head army charge operations acted quickly control situation posted president order announced army hoped avoid troops try rely local state police extent possible announced intention hiring order august mistakenly believing government agreed demands declared end strike mistake quickly discovered voted early hours august continue strike august limited transportation service resumed largely day progressed staff warned severe penalties provided disruption war production subject fine year prison prospect real united_states attorney general started inquiry possible violations federal laws strike organizers august strike committee voted continue strike view possible smith act penalties told workers minds follow committee chose maneuver worked strike continued saturday august patience exhausted moved army troops city announced operate idle vehicles ride guards active vehicles plea support war effort kill germans troops drive transit vehicles philadelphia later august issued ultimatum posted workers given deadline august resume work refused fired refused job availability certificates duration war ages lose military draft obtained federal strike leaders quickly arrested finally told followers return work monday august government demanded expressed regret actions strike strike essentially sunday august workers signed cards return work monday monday august normal operations resumed rate significantly lower typical work day strike strike ended dropped rolls immediately drafted military actions local government enhanced police presence city strike helped calm restrained approach police officers generally won praise sides policemen seen sympathetic striking white workers administration philadelphia republican mayor seen quietly sympathetic strike mayor samuel member board directors avoided attempts refused meeting board directors discuss crisis leaders mayor denied police protection officials willing travel city advocate end strike samuel refused grant air time representatives wanted radio plea end strike august mayor declined explanation request permission send sound trucks black neighborhoods broadcast appeals calm city black population felt disappointed actions local administration public reaction incidents city philadelphia remained calm strike despite considerable fears race riots major violence start strike incidents vandalism store window smashing police arrested people blacks episode white motorists drove car black neighborhood stopping warning shot year old black boy received non critical injuries visible episode unrest came black war factory worker brother army threw shouting liberty lot arrested sent magistrate psychiatric evaluation large calm prevailed major violence deaths critical injuries public public opinion media city overwhelmingly city newspapers ran editorials denouncing strike perceived harmful war effort number editorials racial nature strike letters editor condemned strike radio stations city denounced strike national press new_york_times wrote hard find history american labor strike damage base purpose wall_street_journal editorial condemned strike stated powers exercised government ending strike justified war time conditions los_angeles_times chicago_tribune denouncing strike tried blame causing affiliated accused roosevelt administration acting slowly support critical strike public necessarily support cause equal employment opportunities black workers public opinion poll conducted philadelphia strike showed slim majority city population felt blacks hired significant majority opposed having strike issue directed anger federal government accused refusing listen legitimate complaints white workers view white conservative politicians nationally august senator georgia leaders conservative coalition congress gave seventy minute speech senate floor blaming causing strike russell finished speech calling dangerous force existence united_states today newspapers south blamed incident roosevelt administration lady savannah news claiming episode caused persistent efforts force social equality american people aftermath starting august resumed normal schedule troops remained philadelphia week half rode guards vehicles encountered problems seven black resumed training withdrew voluntarily duties witness minister conflicted work schedule august finally agreed favorable contact approved june august returned control public transportation network subsequent integration black employees workforce proceeded trouble december black operators attractive new union contract helped quell remaining discontent white workers year company black employees working variety positions including drivers later blamed management intentionally dragging feet contract approved late june claimed management hoped undermine position workers possibly favor aware forbade strikes war production contract initiated contract strike union tossed analysis situation shared later historians particularly historian largely negative view company role conflict concluded management overtly reacted strike tried exploit situation racist attitudes white workers purposes leaders strike including charged federal court thirty indicted later federal grand jury convened august heard testimony months grand jury returned inconclusive findings report stated striking workers knew strike start blamed escalating situation detail activities report critical response strike inadequate ineffective government dropped charges defendants march pleading receiving fine labor historian observed strike demonstrated profound racial divided working class south nation brief philadelphia transit strike significant negative impact war effort resulting loss million work hours war plants estimated philadelphia strike cost nation war production equivalent flying fortresses destroyers later characterized strike expensive racial dispute world war strike exposed limitations power possess final authority enforce decisions executive intervention president resolution dispute possible strike demonstrated combination black activism particularly federal policies able break long standing racial barriers employment | Philadelphia transit strike of 1944 | History | World history | North American history |
24881_XYZAffair | political diplomatic episode early administration involving confrontation united_states republican france led war called quasi war derives letters names french diplomats documents released adams administration american diplomatic commission sent france july negotiate problems threatening break war diplomats approached informal channels agents french foreign minister demanded bribes loan formal negotiations begin demands uncommon mainland european diplomacy time americans offended eventually left france engaging formal negotiations seeking avoid war remained months commissioners left exchanges laid eventual end diplomatic military hostilities failure commission caused political united_states commission dispatches published led quasi war controlled government took advantage national anger build nation military attacked republicans pro french stance time saw role commission failure background wake french revolution relations new american administration president george_washington strained france rest europe went war conflict washington declared american neutrality france great_britain major naval powers war seized ships neutral powers including united_states traded enemies jay treaty ratified united_states reached agreement matter britain angered members governed france french_navy consequently stepped efforts american trade britain time assumed presidency early matter reaching crisis proportions march long assuming office president adams learned refused minister escalating crisis american merchant ships seized caribbean popular opinion united_states relations france divided largely political lines took hard line favoring defensive buildup necessarily advocating war republicans expressed solidarity republican ideals french revolutionaries want seen adams administration jefferson looked linked britain hostile american values commission france late adams cabinet met discuss french relations choose special commission france adams initially proposed join commission cabinet objected choice strong chosen instead declined serve adams considered men america submitted united_states senate consulting cabinet adams introducing matter congress somewhat speech called vigorous defense nation neutrality expansion united_states_navy stopped short calling war france congress approved choice commissioners adams instructed negotiate similar terms granted britain commissioners instructed refuse loans flexible arrangement payment terms financial matters marshall left europe mid july join following weeks later political divisions commission makeup reflected attitudes negotiations marshall french opposed political parties willing flexible dealing established height french revolution governed legislative assembly member acting national executive undergoing internal power struggles struggles council lower chamber legislature ministerial changes took place half including selection july foreign minister recently spent years united_states openly concerned establishment closer ties britain generally disposed american interests notably hostile september internal coup propelled anti americans power leaders viewed president adams hostile interests think significant danger war based advice french diplomats decided adopt measured slow pace negotiations american commission arrived paris early october immediately requested meeting initial brief meeting accepted commissioners credentials longer meeting held week later sought commissioners explanation speech adams angered members motivation determine favorably commissioners disposed negotiations responded unfavorable manner refuse accept credentials commissioners learned expected demand october indirect channel decided explanation given adams speech initial meetings followed series meetings took place outside formal diplomatic channels october englishman working dutch bank americans came identified published papers notified baron described man honor wished meet agreed men met evening later identified relayed series french demands included large loan french government payment bribe relayed demands commissioners repeated entire commission refused demands widely known diplomats nations paid bribes deal introduced commission represented member inner circle detail demands including expectation pay great deal money proposed series purchases inflated prices currency means money exchanged commissioners offered send number united_states instructions french suspend american shipping french refused long sent meet men knew having met boston assured sincerity seeking peace encouraged informal negotiations open reiterated demands loan bribe week later notably signing treaty ended year war coalition france european powers met commission repeated original demands accompanied threats potential war france momentarily peace europe response famous commissioners decided november refuse negotiations informal channels publication dispatches describing series meetings form basis later political debates united_states later negotiations commissioners soon discovered unofficial channels open months sent series informal meet influence commissioners informal avenues closed instance informed longer meet formal authority finally appeared november dinner primarily americans demand bribe late november began maneuvering separate commissioners extended social dinner invitation seeking maintain communications planned attend matter heightened distrust marshall sought guarantees limit representations agreements consider despite seeking refuse informal negotiations commissioners ended having private meetings commissioners eventually divided issue continue informal negotiations marshall opposed favor division eventually clear told january longer deal february gained approval new position exclude marshall negotiations change strategy alarmed number american residents paris reported growing possibility war time insistence began keeping secret commissioners substance meetings commissioners met informally march clear parties appeared case despite agreement drop demand loan sides prepared statements sent atlantic stating positions marshall frozen talks conduct left france april departure delayed series negotiations return order obtain diplomatic advantage sought force marshall formally request return allow later claim broke negotiations eventually gave formally requesting departure sought maintain unity told left declare war remained protesting permitting foreign government choose person negotiate remained optimistic war unrealistic writing american minister netherlands madness cause french declare war refused engage substantive negotiations agreeing stay authority replace wrote president adams requesting assistance securing departure paris eventually sent representatives reopen negotiations finally returned home october reaction united_states american diplomats europe president adams considered options event commission failure cabinet urged nation military strengthened including raising man army acquisition construction ships line navy substantive word commissioners march dispatches revealing french demands negotiating tactics arrived commission apparent failure duly reported congress adams kept secret lack recognition demand bribe diplomats seeking minimize reaction cabinet divided react general tenor hostility france attorney general secretary state arguing declaration war democratic republican leaders congress believing adams exaggerated french position sought war united demand release commissioners dispatches march adams turned names french actors replaced letters use letters led business immediately known affair release dispatches produced exactly response adams feared called war democratic republicans left effective argument having reason adams secrecy congress authorized acquisition frigates increase military readiness despite calls formal war declaration adams refused ask congress july congress treaty alliance days later authorized attacks french warships partisan responses dispatches question loyalty pro french democratic republicans attitude contributed passage restricting movements actions foreigners limiting speech critical government divided question war democratic republicans painted seeking undermine republic military means placed difficult position return united_states spurred accounts disagreements criticized breakdown negotiations harsh partisan comments turned eventually ended joining democratic republicans political reaction france news reached france publication dispatches ensuing hostile reaction response fury called account role affair denied association informal enlisted assistance exposing agents names agreed participate exchange confirmed privately agents fact employ contrary statements interested pursuing reconciliation president adams later wrote confession significant decision continue efforts maintain peace private report affair adams claimed credit maintaining peace influencing significant changes french policy hostilities eventually brought peace treaty attitude united_states start quasi war naval war countries fought primarily caribbean convinced dealings commissioners response diplomatic president adams sent france eventually negotiated end hostilities treaty negotiations managed marshall secretary state september agreement overthrown coup november ratified united states senate december | XYZ Affair | History | World history | North American history |
24999_Nashvillesit-ins | nashville sit ins nashville sit ins lasted february direct action campaign end racial segregation lunch downtown nashville tennessee sit campaign coordinated notable early success emphasis disciplined course campaign sit ins staged numerous stores nashville central business district sit participants consisted mainly black college students verbally physically attacked white despite refusal students eventually arrested refusing vacate store lunch ordered police trial students represented group lawyers headed april home bombed wife injured later day nearly people marched city hall confront mayor escalating violence asked believed lunch nashville west agreed subsequent negotiations store owners protest leaders agreement reached week downtown stores began serving black customers lunch time initial campaign successfully downtown lunch sit ins protests segregated facilities continued nashville passage civil rights act ended overt legally sanctioned segregation nationwide organizers nashville sit ins went important leaders historical context united_states supreme_court decision upheld racial segregation doctrine separate equal decision led laws united_states laws mandated segregation virtually spheres public life allowed racial discrimination flourish country especially nashville like southern cities african americans severely system segregation relegated schools barred numerous public accommodations african americans prospects skilled employment subject constant discrimination white majority efforts oppose laws nashville early formation nashville african american community lay foundation racial segregation organization nashville christian leadership council founded reverend pastor organization affiliate southern christian leadership conference established promote civil rights african americans civil smith believed americans sympathetic african americans obtained rights peaceful demonstration judicial system march march held workshops tactics challenge segregation workshops led studied principles resistance working missionary india workshops mainly attended students later american baptist theological seminary later attending sessions students significant leaders workshops decided target group actions downtown lunch time african americans allowed shop downtown stores allowed eat stores restaurants group felt lunch good objective highly visible easily accessible provided stark example black faced day late members projects committee met department store owners asked voluntarily serve african americans lunch men declined saying lose business gain students began reconnaissance sit demonstrations test took place downtown nashville november followed store december small groups students purchased items stores sat lunch attempted order food goal try sense mood degree resistance store refused service lunch reactions varied significantly received surprisingly responses treated contempt reconnaissance actions low key city newspapers notified scale demonstrations students nashville chance plans events brought renewed urgency effort week february small sit demonstration north_carolina grew significant protest eighty students participating day similar demonstrations occurred previously cities attract substantial media attention public notice group met subsequent friday night new volunteers showed join cause adult organizers argued delay student leaders insisted time come action large scale organized sit saturday february students black walked downtown stores asked served lunch staff refused serve sat stores hours left incident monday following sit baptist minister conference nashville representing congregations unanimously voted support student movement throwing weight nashville black religious community students local religious leaders called people good boycott downtown merchants practiced segregation nashville black community strongly supported boycott causing economic merchants second sit occurred thursday february students entered grants lunch immediately closed students remained half hour left incident sit occurred february students entered previous stores downtown students sat crowds white youths gathered stores police kept eye locations incidents violence occurred students remained nearly hours mass meeting tensions mounted following week sit demonstrations spread cities race riots broke nearby february nashville student activists held fourth sit stores crowds white youths gathered stores harass time police present eventually sit attacked stores pulled seats beaten pushed flight stairs police arrived white attackers fled arrested police ordered locations leave stores refused leave arrested loaded police vehicles applauded eighty students arrested charged conduct arrests brought surge media coverage sit campaign including national television news coverage page stories nashville daily newspapers associated_press story students generally viewed media coverage helpful cause especially illustrated commitment sit ins took place following months resulting arrests attacks sit participants students arrested demonstrations student activists maintained policy disciplined written code conduct model followed cities strike curse abused laugh hold conversations floor walker leave seat leader given permission block entrances stores outside inside friendly times sit straight face counter report incidents leader refer information leader manner remember teachings jesus love way trials expulsion trials sit participants attracted widespread interest nashville surrounding region february day trials crowd people lined streets surrounding city courthouse support defendants group lawyers headed represented students initially trial presided city judge dismissed charges students stepped bench turning trial judge despite strong support black community students arrested convicted conduct fined students refused pay fines chose instead serve thirty days county issued statement behalf students explaining decision feel pay fines contributing supporting injustice immoral practices performed arrest conviction defendants day trials began group black ministers including met mayor discuss sit ins coverage meeting local press including scathing editorial denouncing mouth brought activities attention enrolled student confronted executive committee told end involvement sit ins refused immediately expelled university march effort racial tensions caused sit ins mayor west announced formation seek solution city racial strife committee included presidents city black universities include representatives student movement committee met times month delivered recommendations report april committee recommended partially integrate city lunch store section whites section whites blacks solution rejected student leaders considered recommendations morally unacceptable based policy segregation week issued report sit ins resumed boycott downtown businesses intensified residence bombing april dynamite thrown window home north nashville apparently retaliation support explosion destroyed house wife asleep bedroom injured windows nearby dormitory broken blast protesters event served catalyst movement hours news bombing spread community noon nearly people marched city hall confront mayor mayor west met courthouse steps reverend read prepared statement accusing mayor ignoring moral issues involved segregation turning blind eye violence injustice asked mayor felt wrong person based solely race skin color west answered agreed wrong nash asked believed lunch city west answered yes added store managers course coverage event varied significantly nashville major newspapers emphasized mayor agreement lunch emphasized mayor statement city merchants decide largely indicative papers opposing issue regardless mayor response later cited important turning point activists nashville business owners day bombing came nashville speak speech praised nashville sit movement best organized disciplined stated came nashville bring inspiration gain inspiration great movement taken place community weeks secret negotiations merchants protest leaders agreement finally reached week according agreement small selected groups african americans order food downtown lunch day known advance merchants merchants prepare employees event serve customers trouble arrangement continue controlled manner couple weeks controls taken point merchants protest leaders evaluate results agreement media informed settlement requested provide accurate non sensational coverage downtown stores opened lunch black customers time customers arrived groups afternoon served incident time african americans ended week old boycott downtown stores plan continued successfully lunch integrated incidents violence nashville major city south begin public facilities end sit campaign brought brief respite civil rights activists nashville racism remained problem city years sit ins actions place restaurants movie theaters public swimming pools segregated facilities nashville actions continued congress passed civil rights act prohibited segregation public places united_states year key figures sit ins including interviewed book speaks negro reflected experiences anniversary events held mark anniversary nashville sit ins january hosted panel discussion entitled veterans nashville sit ins struggle continues featured speakers hosted exhibition february entitled shall moved 50th anniversary tennessee february 29th annual conference african american history culture held special commemoration sit ins featured guest speaker february hosted panel discussion media coverage nashville sit ins featured speakers downtown nashville library hosted photography exhibit entitled visions voices february author commentator led forum discuss civil rights issues downtown nashville library auditorium february | Nashville sit-ins | History | World history | North American history |
26133_ConstitutionalConvention(UnitedStates) | united states known grand convention philadelphia took place september philadelphia pennsylvania convention intended revise intention outset proponents chief create new government fix existing delegates elected george_washington convention result convention creation united_states_constitution placing convention significant events history united_states contentious disputes revolved composition election senate proportional representation defined include slaves property divide executive power persons invest power single president elect president long term run reelection offenses nature fugitive slave clause allow abolition slave trade judges chosen legislature executive time convention spent deciding issues powers legislature executive judiciary heavily disputed convention began delegates agreed principles convention agreed madison virginia plan began modify assembled july produced rough draft rough draft remained place found final version constitution final issues resolved produced final version voted sent states historical context constitution drafted nearly million inhabitants newly independent states governed created soon evident nearly confederation government originally organized inadequate managing conflicts arose states amended unanimous vote states state effective veto power proposed change addition articles gave weak federal government power wholly dependent states money power force states pay immediate task winning american revolutionary war passed states began look interests disputes arose included dispute maryland virginia opposition rhode_island imposing taxes traffic passing post road linked states suggested state governments appoint commissioners consideration trade united_states examine relative situation trade said states consider far uniform system commercial regulations necessary common interests permanent harmony september convention delegates states called order discuss possible improvements took place philadelphia rhode_island fearing convention work disadvantage convention constitution states initially refused convention difficulty travel late 18th century selected delegates present designated day seven states secured new_hampshire delegates join convention halfway proceedings july arrived soon virginia delegation arrived waiting delegates virginia delegation produced designed written convened george_washington unanimously elected president convention agreed discussions votes kept secret conclusion meeting elected secretary records brief included little detail madison notes debates supplemented notes remain complete record convention debate delegates constantly referred history support position commonly referred history england particular glorious revolution simply called revolution classical history mainly leagues recent holland germany outside convention philadelphia national washington said embarrassed old republican delegates like found military hereditary new_york convention meeting confession dropping faith requirement civil authority prohibit false worship protestant washington attended roman catholic mass dinner revolution veteran petitioned convention avoid national oath including belief old new merchants providence rhode_island petitioned consideration assembly sent delegation came directly new_york found frequent dinner guest delegates carried grants million acres parcel found attending convention philadelphia guest write pamphlet citizen america immediately signing leading principles advocated adoption constitution published earlier widely circulated today better known papers blueprint waiting convention formally begin initial draft known reflected views strong nationalist time rest virginia delegation arrived pennsylvania delegation arrived agreed madison plan formed came predominant coalition time convention started assembled madison virginia plan plan didn coalition plan madison plan starting point convention agreed principles importantly agreed convention mandate merely amend instead produce new constitution outright delegates thought illegal closer treaty sovereign states national constitution genuine legal problems limited principle agreed new government powers plus additional powers states agreeing principles convention voted virginia plan signaled approval began modifying madison plan operated assumptions seriously challenged raised objections planned congress separate executive function separate judicial function english law typically recognized government having separate functions law making embodied legislature law executing embodied king courts division legislature executive judiciary natural point division legislature upper lower house wasn questioned despite obscure origins role representative hereditary nobility americans seldom known britain state governments main exceptions dysfunctional confederation congress pennsylvania legislature seen quickly partisan extremes election experience convinced delegates upper house necessary lower classes interests wealthy merchants landowners america native hereditary aristocracy character upper house designed protect interests wealthy elite minority interests lower classes constituted majority population thursday june proposed senators chosen directly state instead popular vote method likely preserve power upper classes convention delegate massachusetts observed great interest provided mode election better represented state choose second branch proposal carried unanimously delegates agreed madison executive function independent legislature power american created state governments executive legislature late widely seen source confederation government ultimate example furthermore english tradition judges seen agents king court represented realm madison believed american states direct link state executives judges source corruption patronage thought link severed creating branch judiciary direct precedent point madison believe judiciary truly independent legislature executive convention sided madison legislature choose judges believed president choose judges compromise eventually reached president choose judges senate confirm areas madison plan included provisions little support delegates agreed madison legislature able state laws idea dropped thought mechanism bad laws congress agreed madison board executive judges decide instead power given solely executive form veto thought useful protect executive worried imperial legislature new jersey plan introduced protest excessive national character virginia plan seriously considered office vice president included later mainly provide president successor unable complete term early debate state allowed cast single vote proposal debates accordance majority opinion state delegates convention delegates regularly come present typical day consequently state delegates equally divided views given proposal state delegates attendance establish delegation votes cast particular proposal state delegation essentially effect outcome vote proposal example new_york delegates abandoned convention mid july intention returning new_york left unable vote proposals convention hamilton continue periodically attend occasionally speak debates area major dispute manner lower house minority wanted states equal weight seriously considered wanted accordance mixture property population discussion property purpose issue property later dropped difficulty assumption property closely population accepted desire slave states count slaves population status raised major objection compromise assessing population adding number free persons persons slaves agreed dispute attempting assess national taxation system considered ratio achieve compromise resulted large coalition states including small slave states south_carolina georgia backing virginia plan expanding power primary coalition lower house elected directly voters accepted major dispute contentious lower house question upper house agreed madison members elected lower house suggested election popular vote versus election state legislature proposal shot delegates delegates didn question intelligence voters concerned information spread late 18th century time convention noted local newspapers said little current events little dated local papers said little meeting convention proposed extending term office senators life considering earlier proposals seven years inefficient enable rich born distinct permanent share government check democracy hamilton proposed senators elected directly general public chosen purpose problems direct election new constitution seen radical break old system delegates elected state convention agreed retain method senators constitutional change radical difficult problem issue connecticut delegation offered compromise number representatives state lower house based relative size state population number representatives upper house states size large states fearing influence legislature plan opposed proposal unable reach agreement delegates decided leave issue consideration later meeting delegates couldn agree executive single person board wished limit power executive supported proposal divide executive power persons possible problems system addition knowledge george_washington probably president fears proponents singular executive accumulate large coalition issue came occasionally matter settled seriously doubted issue concerned election president agreed madison executive elected legislature widespread concern direct election information slowly late 18th century concerns people vote candidates state region vocal minority wanted national executive chosen governors states issue major issues resolved electoral college time formation modern political parties widespread concern candidates routinely fail secure majority electoral college method resolving problem contested issue thought house choose president closely reflected people caused delegates smaller states realized states disadvantage resolve dispute convention agreed house elect president candidate electoral college majority state delegation vote individually convention entering second month decided consideration question representatives national legislature referred committee composed delegate states present time convention members come known included report convention july committee offered compromise large states opposed felt gave power smaller states proposal important modifications added requirement revenue bills originate lower house subject modification upper house clause later modified revenue bills amended upper house senate proposal specified senator state delegation vote state multiple senators meant senators voting individually state delegates senators free agents presumably acting behalf state large mere agents state senate bring federal character government senators elected state state equally represented senate main aim smaller states simply madison earlier agreement replace word national word federal convinced delegates constitution federal character final document mixture madison original national constitution desired federal constitution delegates sought draft convention july august await report produce draft constitution chaired members including committee record minutes proceedings key surviving documents offer clues committee outline edits extensive notes second draft wilson edits committee final report convention evidence thought committee original decisions convention modifications plan sources provisions state plan produce draft author called remarkable copy paste job adopted rules preparing initial outline constitution include essential principles avoiding minor provisions change time stated simple precise language included committee report consisted numerous details convention discussed committee correctly viewed unlikely challenged committee proposal ultimately incorporated final version constitution debate examples details included grants members congress immunity comments jobs rules organizing house_of_representatives senate state governor determined new national government stronger confederation government national government power states urging committee went convention proposed stewart describes committee remade constitution altering critical agreements convention delegates enhancing powers states expense national government adding far reaching provisions convention discussed major change insisted meant sharply essentially unlimited powers cases general interests union convention weeks earlier agreed grant congress worried broad powers implied language agreed convention given national government power expense states outline committee replaced language list specific powers adopted strictly limit congress authority measures imposing taxes making treaties going war establishing post offices able completely convince members committee accept change course series drafts provision necessary proper clause eventually added likely wilson nationalist little concerned sovereignty individual states giving congress broad power laws shall necessary proper carrying execution powers powers constitution government united_states department officer thereof revision wilson draft placed specific limits states barring independently entering treaties printing money providing certain degree balance limits national government intended list powers addition wilson draft modified language supremacy clause adopted convention ensure national law precedence inconsistent state laws changes set final balance national state governments entered final document convention challenged dual sovereignty nation state fashioned wilson set radical changes introduced proved far contentious committee report presented convention day convention agreed appoint committee south_carolina warned dire consequences committee fail include slavery southern states allow southern agricultural exports fellow southern delegates delighted committee included provisions explicitly restricted congress authority ways favorable southern interests proposed language bar congress interfering slave trade prohibit taxation exports require legislation concerning regulation foreign commerce laws akin england navigation acts pass thirds houses congress rest committee report accepted challenge convention floor proposals provoke outrage northern delegates slavery opponents final report committee draft constitution constitutional plan madison virginia plan simply outline goals broad structure issued report committee continued meet early september modifications concluding debate month discussion relatively minor followed attempts alter draft successful wanted add property qualifications people hold office wanted prevent national government issuing paper money madison particular wanted push constitution direction virginia plan important change final version included agreement northern southern delegates congress end slave trade starting southern northern delegates agreed strengthen exchange removing requirement thirds congress agree navigation acts regulations commerce states foreign governments thirds requirement favored southern delegates thought congress pass navigation acts economically harmful convention finished draft new set unresolved questions sent different committees resolution considering questions related corpus freedom press executive council advise president committees addressed questions related slave trade assumption war debts new committee created address questions postponed members madison delegates shown greater desire compromise chosen reason convention wanted finish work home committee dealt questions related taxes war making patents relations indian tribes franklin compromise require money bills originate house biggest issue addressed presidency final compromise written madison committee input adopted wilson earlier plan choosing president electoral college settled method choosing president candidate electoral college majority madison thought nineteen times committee shortened president term seven years years freed president seek election initial term moved trials courts senate created office vice president roles succeed president unable complete term office senate committee transferred important powers senate president example power treaties appoint ambassadors controversial issue convention length president term president term limited problem resulted understanding president chosen congress decision president chosen instead electoral college reduced chance president congress shorter term eligibility election viable option near end convention mason emerged main force opposition fears increased convention moved madison vague virginia plan concrete plan argued attacks constitution motivated political ambition particular anticipation possibly facing rival future election main objection compromise allow congress pass navigation acts simple majority exchange strengthened slave provisions objections opposition office vice president complaints result changes couple mason succeeded adding high crimes clause convinced convention include second method ratification amendments report included mechanism constitutional amendment thirds states ask congress convention consideration amendments urging convention added virginia plan original method congress propose amendments states amendments constitution method despite successes grew increasingly unpopular delegates wanted bring convention business end return home convention drawing conclusion delegates prepared refer constitution committee style pen final version delegate raised objection civil trials wanted guarantee right jury trial civil matters mason saw larger opportunity mason told convention constitution include bill rights thought prepared hours agreed rest committee overruled wanted home thought delaying tactic time realized important issue absence bill rights main argument anti ratification convention delegates thought states protected individual rights constitution authorize national government away rights need include rights convention moved point delegates addressed couple minute issues importantly modified language required spending bills originate house_of_representatives accepted rejected senate new language empowered senate modify spending bills proposed house drafting signing final modifications appointed revise style arrange articles agreed house unlike committees members named committees included members different regions final committee included champions small states members favor strong national government calls states rights connecticut new_york pennsylvania virginia massachusetts wednesday september report committee style ordered printed convenience delegates days convention compared final version proceedings convention constitution ordered saturday september submitted signing september important change convention agreed king wanted prevent states interfering contracts convention took matter language inserted creating contract clause credited chief final document including stirring delegates pleased results thirteen left ceremony remaining refused sign virginia george mason virginia massachusetts demanded bill rights support constitution bill rights included constitution submitted states ratification states ratified constitution understanding bill rights soon follow shortly document signed proposed lower size congressional districts citizens similar measure proposed earlier failed vote george_washington spoke making substantive contribution text constitution supporting convention adopted debate sign document openly doubted united_states remain single unified nation years ultimately original delegates ended signing likely completely satisfied views summed said confess parts constitution present approve sure shall approve doubt convention obtain able better constitution sir find system approaching near perfection think enemies rhode_island sent delegates new_york delegates stay convention long george_washington stated document executed states colonel hamilton washington signed document moving state delegation north south custom convention delegates filed room sign names time document signed franklin gave speech involving sun painted washington chair recounted madison notes whilst members signing doctor franklin looking presidents chair rising sun happened painted observed members near painters found difficult distinguish art rising setting sun said course session hopes fears issue looked president able tell rising setting length happiness know rising setting sun constitution submitted states ratification article vii proposed plans plans introduced important plan virginia plan convention work matter modifying plan introduced plan wasn considered exact character lost history convention way new jersey plan introduced seriously considered mainly protest delegates thought excessively radical change offered plan convention way included executive serving life delegates felt closely resembled monarchy historians unsure speculated madison plan look moderate comparison connecticut compromise wasn plan offered connecticut delegation key ultimate ratification constitution included modified order appealing larger states virginia plan prior start convention delegates met drawing largely madison suggestions came came known known large state plan reason called father constitution presented virginia governor virginia plan proposed powerful legislature houses legislature determined lower house elected people upper house elected lower house executive exist solely ensure legislature carried selected legislature virginia plan created judiciary gave executive judiciary power veto subject new_jersey plan virginia plan introduced new_jersey delegate asked plan state equal representation congress exercising vote virginia plan threatened limit smaller states power making houses legislature population june small state caucus met create response virginia plan result new jersey plan known ultimately closer initial convention drafting amendments fix problems new jersey plan existing remain granted new powers power levy taxes force collection executive branch created elected congress plan allowed multi person executive executives serve single term subject recall request state governors plan created judiciary serve life appointed executives lastly laws set congress precedence state laws reported plan convention june ultimately rejected gave smaller states rallying point interests hamilton plan new jersey plan proposed plan known british plan resemblance british system strong centralized government plan hamilton advocated virtually away state sovereignty consolidating states single nation plan featured legislature lower house elected people years upper house elected chosen people serve life plan gave governor executive elected life term service absolute veto bills state governors appointed national legislature national legislature veto power state legislation hamilton presented plan convention june plan perceived thought plan considered resembled british system closely contemplated loss state authority states unwilling allow plan immediately finished laying south_carolina presented plan convention reduce writing evidence madison notes details somewhat vague confederation treaty thirteen states legislature senate house delegates house member thousand inhabitants house elect senators serve rotation years represent regions congress meet joint session elect president appoint members cabinet congress joint session serve court appeal resort disputes states provide plan debated referred connecticut compromise connecticut compromise forged connecticut proposed june sense blended virginia large state new_jersey small state proposals ultimately main contribution determining senate retaining federal character constitution sided house national legislature proposed proportion suffrage 1st branch house according respective numbers free inhabitants second branch senate state vote plan failed july question finally settled ultimately included constitution modified form plan added requirement revenue bills originate house state voting instructed state franklin modification free agents senate bring federal character government senators elected state state equally represented slavery controversial issues confronting delegates slavery slavery widespread states time convention convention delegates owned slaves including delegates virginia south_carolina slaves comprised approximately fifth population states apart northernmost new_england slavery largely eliminated slaves lived regions country majority slaves lived south approximately families owned slaves largest wealthiest state virginia figure nearly families entire economy south based slave labor southern delegates convention unwilling accept proposals believed threaten institution slavery regulated new constitution matter intense conflict north south southern states refused join union slavery allowed delegates opposed slavery forced yield demands slavery practiced confines new nation completely outlawed continued argue constitution prohibit states participating international slave trade including new slaves africa export slaves countries convention postponed making final decision international slave trade late contentious nature issue convention late july inserted language prohibit federal government attempting ban international slave trading imposing taxes purchase sale slaves convention agree provisions subject came late august referred matter member committee discussion committee helped work compromise congress power ban international slave trade years exchange concession federal government power regulate foreign commerce strengthened provisions allowed taxation slave trades international market reduced requirement passage navigation acts thirds houses congress simple contentious slavery related question slaves counted population determining representation states congress instead considered property considered purposes representation delegates states large population slaves argued slaves considered persons determining representation property new government levy taxes states basis population delegates states slavery rare argued slaves included taxation determining representation finally delegate proposed compromise eventually adopted convention delegates states originally appointed seventy representatives convention number accept attend leaving delegates ultimately craft constitution delegates taken revolution having served continental forces positions command served colonial state government careers vast majority delegates members members revolution state governors delegates signatories nation founding documents declaration independence constitution half delegates trained lawyers judges quarter practiced law principal means business merchants manufacturers land physicians minister small farmers owned slaves sixteen depended slave labor run plantations businesses formed income delegates landowners substantial holdings possible exception william comfortably wealthy george_washington wealthiest men entire country sign final draft constitution mason present philadelphia time refused sign names prominent founders notable having participated abroad serving minister france nonetheless jefferson letter describe delegates gathering gods britain serving minister country wrote home encourage delegates refused participate rat philadelphia tending monarchy absent states older experienced leaders simply busy local affairs states attend convention originally planned strengthen existing write constitution completely new national government | Constitutional Convention (United States) | History | World history | North American history |
26302_UnitedStatesInstituteofPeaceHeadquarters | houses staff offices facilities government funded think tank focused conflict avoidance building permanent home established headquarters sited prominent location near national mall river neighborhood washington environmentally friendly building noted unique roof designed architect completed critics reviews building design mixed history 1980s democratic senator west_virginia led group calling federal peace institute established congress years rented office space buildings downtown washington 17th street congress approved site national mall site chosen new headquarters permanent home corner 23rd street constitution avenue previously parking lot surgery employees adjacent land transferred charge agreement underground parking spaces built navy employees site northwest corner site available national mall overlooking street historic congress authorized million construction headquarters efforts republican senator alaska institute required raise remaining million funds raised included million donation corporate donor building fund defense contractor named founding corporate partner million criticized taking money world largest producer weapons war april issued design architects submitted proposals heard receiving design request finalists chosen associates known architects withdrew according president design chosen designs basically square buildings headquarters second building washington designed fortress like headquarters completed dominates busy intersection florida unanimously approved plans building groundbreaking ceremony took place following year june dignitaries attendance included president speaker secretary state defense secretary state ceremony speakers hinted opposing views bush use war construction headquarters certified carried maryland certified environmentally friendly building national mall headquarters managed real estate services firm dedicated october year dedicated honor ambassador israel president design according building definition physical symbol peace capital skyline needed convey spirit peace stated believes overt symbolism sense building dedicated peace sense building aggressive building light achieved designing glass curtain wall facing glass ceiling ceiling building elements common design center israel inches thick roof white glass panels supported steel frames interior roof covered translucent plastic film white day night main entrances building facing constitution avenue facing 23rd street building acid concrete resembles limestone design centered large facing national mall designed public smaller private staff larger measures features high glass curtain wall facing national mall seat interactive museum dedicated accessible roof great hall designed convey dove wings called second known measures lined offices library meeting rooms conference center roof simplified version outdoor terrace adjoining facing story underground parking garage accommodate vehicles spaces reserved navy personnel reception thought building succeeds monumental place urban frame national mall jewish daily forward described headquarters architectural gem architect professor emeritus architecture mixed feelings building said visible aesthetically dark unique form appears somewhat day meeting giving final approval building national_park_service representative said building foreign object landscape classical architecture city criticizing design compared buildings constitution avenue building highly visible interstate enter city fact lamented winning critic washington_post scathing reviews headquarters said roof building exercise architecture pierced rows identical rectangular windows institute design marks low point long descent repetitive corporate architecture | United States Institute of Peace Headquarters | History | World history | North American history |
27266_2003Chicagobalconycollapse | chicago balcony collapse june deadliest porch collapse united_states history occurred chicago balcony collapsed party apartment building killing thirteen people seriously injuring seven ensuing investigation highly critical way balcony built finding large number errors construction ultimately resulted collapse building owner continues blame balcony complete structural failure taken steps strengthen properties prevent disaster accident resulted sweeping similar structures chicago cases city authorities background porch attached rear apartment building located lincoln park neighborhood city north second floors party venue time collapse party early knew days suburbs witness says warned people building unsafe later said looked like newly built looked collapse people wooden balcony time collapse according witness sound wood heard immediately collapse occurred shortly midnight local time collapse started floor pulling second floor collapsed basement carrying total approximately people people trapped basement survivors helped pull victims debris rescue workers use free survivors nurse started rescue effort emergency services arrived supplied main rescue effort people killed collapse subsequently dying hospitalized seven people injured investigation initial inquiries suggested collapse probably backed neighbors told authorities designed hold thirty people chicago fire chief said appears case people small space reyes city building commissioner said indication problems porch time buildings large assemblies parties ultimately determined poor construction blame permit issued owner install air water building build balcony balcony feet building foot permitted city codes area square feet square feet larger permitted balcony inadequate supports lengths wood attached walls screws short visited site times noticed cited code violations noted aftermath days disaster city sued owners managers building number building regulations named complaint included company president contractor built balcony city reportedly seeking violation day structure existence totaling hundreds thousands dollars court order replacement balcony apartment block legally replaced provided mandatory emergency exits city inspected buildings owned managed similar violations city claimed buildings owned similar problems note fact dramatic improvements aftermath disaster chicago inspected huge number similar structures ensure safe cases turned city court action cases referred administrative hearing officers continued blame disaster undercover press investigation discovered properties display notices forbidding parties claims police report says unnamed witnesses informed saw people jumping shortly prior collapse city chicago filed lawsuit survivors city alleged balcony collapse occurred defendants intentionally began jumping porch brother killed collapse charges later dropped criminal charges filed fined total result collapse seven families sued city accident balcony rebuilt time metal popular culture disaster inspired season finale television titled | 2003 Chicago balcony collapse | History | World history | North American history |
27595_GuatemalanRevolution | revolution revolution spanish period history popular uprising dictator united_states orchestrated coup état president known years spring highlighting years representative democracy guatemala end civil war included program reform enormously influential latin_america late 19th century guatemala governed series authoritarian rulers sought strengthen economy supporting export coffee granted significant concessions american corporation traded tropical fruit indigenous people communal lands ruled dictator process intensified institution harsh labor regulations police state june popular pro democracy movement led university students labor organizations forced resign appointed person military place led continued oppressive policies toppled military coup led october event known october revolution coup leaders formed swiftly called open elections elections won landslide progressive professor philosophy face popular movement implemented moderate program social reform including widely successful literacy campaign largely free election process women given vote communist parties banned following end presidency elected presidency landslide progressive military leader continued reforms began ambitious land reform program known portions large land holdings return compensation poverty stricken agricultural laborers approximately people benefited decree majority indigenous people spanish invasion policies ran lost land company lobbied government overthrow responded engineering coup pretext communist took power head military provoking war lasted saw backed military commit genocide indigenous maya peoples widespread human rights violations civilians background early 20th century prior spanish invasion population guatemala exclusively maya spanish conquest created system wealthy european landowners overseeing labor force composed slaves laborers community lands indigenous population remained control late 19th century point rising global demand coffee export significant source income government result state supported coffee passing legislation took land away indian population labor laws labor plantations based foreign companies acquired large tracts state land indigenous land president guatemala permitted limited rural guatemala concessions created significant influence urban laborers little reach rural indian populations great depression led collapse economy rise unemployment leading unrest workers laborers fearing possibility revolution landed elite lent support built reputation efficiency provincial governor won election followed candidate dictatorship statements supporting labor movement campaigning presidency election policy quickly authoritarian abolished system debt replaced law required men working age land perform minimum days hard labor addition state use unpaid indian labor work public infrastructure like roads railroads wages low levels passed law allowing land owners complete immunity prosecution action took defend property action described historians murder greatly strengthened police force turning efficient ruthless latin_america police given greater authority shoot people suspected breaking labor laws result laws create tremendous resentment agricultural laborers highly country indigenous people stating resembled great admiration fascist leaders europe saw united_states ally supposed communist threat mexico effort gain american support declared war germany japan followed suit acting american instructions arrested people german descent guatemala permitted establish air base guatemala stated aim protecting panama canal like predecessors large concessions granting hectares acres hectares public land exchange promise build port later released company obligation citing economic crisis entry guatemala expanded land holdings displacing converting farmland banana plantations process accelerated government stop october revolution june general strike onset world war increased economic unrest guatemala responded cracking fiercely form protest dissent popular revolt broke neighboring el_salvador briefly toppled dictator quickly returned power leading flood exiled revolutionaries moving guatemala coincided series protests university responded constitution june protesters point included middle class members addition students workers called general strike presented ultimatum day demanding constitution presented petition signed prominent citizens sent police disrupt protests firing declared martial law clashes protesters military continued week revolt gained momentum end june submitted resignation leading huge celebrations streets resignation restore democracy appointed generals lead provisional government days later persuaded congress appoint interim president pledged hold free elections soon time suppressing protests press freedom suspended arbitrary continued memorial services slain revolutionaries prohibited protests grown point government stamp rural areas began organizing dictatorship government began police indigenous population power forthcoming election resulted growing support armed revolution sections populace army disillusioned begun plot coup interim presidency october editor main opposition newspaper assassinated led military coup reaching leaders protests attempt turn coup popular uprising announced elections pro democracy forces denounced fraud citing attempts rig sought stabilize regime playing inter racial tension population vocal support revolution come people mixed racial descent sought exploit fear indians paying thousands indigenous peasants march support promising land supported begun dictatorship mid october different plans overthrow set motion factions pro democracy movement including teachers students progressive factions army october government learned day small group army officers launched coup led joined day factions army civilian population initially battle went revolutionaries appeal support ranks students eventually subdued police army factions loyal october day surrendered allowed leave country safely military replaced person consisting upper class youth named played significant role protests come military conspiracy relatively late brought powerful honor revolutionaries crucial role rewarded place promised free open elections presidency congress constituent assembly resignation creation considered scholars beginning revolution revolutionary immediately threaten interests landed elite days resignation violent protest erupted small indian hamlet responded swift brutality protest dead civilians included women children election born middle class family primary school teacher brief earned scholarship university argentina earned doctorate philosophy education returned guatemala sought position denied position wished felt uncomfortable dictatorship left country held faculty position argentina returned guatemala july teachers party formed named candidate unexpected surge support candidacy endorsed leading organizations protesters including student federation lack connection dictatorship academic background worked favor students teachers time fact chosen exile conservative argentina revolutionary mexico landowners worried socialist communist reform subsequent elections took place december broadly considered free fair men given vote unlike similar historical situations members stood election closest challenger campaign included number individuals identified regime ballots tallied december won landslide receiving times ballots candidates combined presidency took office march country numerous social economic issues despite policy unpaid labor build public roads internal transport severely inadequate population poor health widespread wealthiest landowners owned nearly quarters agricultural land result cultivated indigenous peasants land far little sustain quarters labor force agriculture industry essentially ideology identified ideology spiritual socialism held belief way alleviate government strongly opposed classical believed capitalist society regulated ensure benefits went entire population ideology reflected new constitution assembly ratified soon inauguration progressive latin_america mandated suffrage women power provisions system communist parties forbidden constitution socialist ideology basis reform enacted later government later portray ideology revolution radical communist fact represent major shift anti communist economic vision country centered private enterprise labor movement revolution left biggest opponents organized labor unaffected landed elite revolution election nonetheless marked significant shift fortunes labor unions protests strengthened labor movement point stopped enforcing law abolished constitution speech celebrating organized labor positive reception freedom press guaranteed new constitution drew attention brutal working conditions beginning new unions formed fell camps communist policies government driven factions underground emerged revolution communist movement strengthened release leaders imprisoned unusual woman movement women discouraged participating communists began organize capital established school workers known taught reading writing helped organize unions months school established president closed school deported leaders movement communist movement survived dominance teacher union response non communist unions mixed rural labor unions fewer workers included plantations unions big survive law banana workers employed union organized strike provoked strikes new labor code passed led efforts employers stall labor code exploit workers far possible passed unions damaged government persuaded found union took anti communist stance despite powerful opposition labor unions managed organize support force congress pass new labor code law revolutionary ways forbade discrimination salary levels basis age race sex religious beliefs political affiliation created set health safety standards workplace standardized hour working day hour working week congress succumbed pressure plantation lobby plantations provision code required plantation owners construct primary schools children workers expressed general commitment position workers provisions enforced creation administrative mechanisms law allowed provisions systematically enforced law huge positive impact worker rights country including raising average wages factor foreign relations government attempted support democratic ideals abroad actions break diplomatic relations government spain dictator inter american conferences year election recommended latin_america recognize support authoritarian regimes initiative defeated supported united_states regime nicaragua response broke diplomatic ties government government dominican_republic frustrated lack results working latin american governments began support sought replace latin_america force necessary led administration labelled communist governments region government floated idea way democratic government survive region approached leaders democratic central american countries rejected president el_salvador leaders began talks build union set commissions look issue late announced formation union process got delayed internal troubles countries government toppled military coup led coup attempt highest ranking military officer october revolution led man formed interim government coup opposed handing power civilian government seeking postpone election return allowing president granted newly created position chief armed forces ranked minister defense position year term controlled military appointments december involved accident left seriously injured fearing military coup leaders par pact party agreed support candidacy elections return promise refrain coup support began landed elite felt threatened reforms initially inclined involved politics began occasional statements government parliamentary election backed number opposition candidates defeated par openly hostile small fragment split support leftist parties decided instead believed military officer defeat july delivered ultimatum demanding expulsion supporters cabinet military threatened coup demands met informed progressive leaders ultimatum agreed exiled days later meeting way convoy intercepted small force led shootout ensued killing men including supporters military rose revolt day rebels asked negotiations coup attempt left approximately dead wounded supporters including exiled details incident public presidency election role defense minister strong candidate presidency firm support government uprising increased prestige economically moderate pin announced presidential candidate upcoming election announcement quickly followed endorsements parties left including influential par labor unions couple significant election field candidates supported members upper middle class felt revolution gone far general support opponents revolution campaign promised continue expand reforms begun election held november won vote elections free fair exception female voters inaugurated president march personal background born middle class family swiss heritage graduated guatemala national military academy excellent grades subsequently officer army officer required escort chain gangs prisoners process begun form links labor movement met married interested social reform significant influence national figure right strong influence known communist main advisers government disgusted authoritarian regime fellow officers begun plotting government resigned witnessed congress naming president highly offended plotted military leaders coup toppled addition having officers revolution formed maintained connections popular civilian movement reform biggest component project modernization reform bill drafted bill help advisers included leaders communist party non communist sought advice numerous latin_america bill passed june program went effect immediately focus program transferring land large landowners poverty stricken laborers able begin viable farm motivated pass bill needed generate capital public infrastructure projects country behest united_states refused grant guatemala loan shortage capital acute official title reform bill land larger acres estates acres acres size land thirds use owners compensated government bonds value equal land value land value owners declared tax returns organized local committees included representatives landowners laborers government nearly private land holdings affected law cast moderate capitalist framework implemented great speed resulted occasional arbitrary land violence directed land owners peasants minor june million acres land distributed approximately individuals sixth population received land point decree included provision financial credit people received land created july june million small loans applicants received average dollars twice capita income developed reputation highly efficient government bureaucracy united_states government biggest negative loans high rate handed march november june law included provisions roads passed land greatly increased rural communities contrary predictions detractors government law resulted slight increase agricultural productivity increase cultivated area purchases farm machinery increased overall law resulted significant improvement living standards thousands peasant families majority indigenous people stated corrected law far greater injustice relatively arbitrary land stated law flawed respects things cautious created communal divisions peasants nonetheless represented fundamental power shift favor history formed merger large american corporations new company major holdings land railroads central_america support business world largest operating capital million dollars largest landowner employer guatemala years presidents company obtained series concessions country allowed massively expand business concessions frequently came cost tax revenue government company supported leadership struggle occurred assuming power expressed willingness create new contract new contract immensely favorable company included year lease massive tracts land virtually taxes guarantee company receive competing contract company paid virtually taxes hurt government ability deal effects great depression asked company pay workers cents day prevent workers demanding higher wages company virtually owned guatemala port atlantic ocean allowing company profits flow goods port company annual profits million dollars twice revenue government impact revolution long association government seen progress revolutionaries image worsened company policies colored workers thanks position country largest landowner employer reforms government affected companies things labor code passed government allowed workers strike demands higher wages job security met company saw specifically targeted reforms refused negotiate numerous sets despite frequently violation new laws company labor troubles compounded passed reform law acres company owned cultivated rest land idle came scope reform law lobbying efforts responded intensive lobbying members united_states government leading senators criticize government protecting interests company government responded saying company main obstacle progress country american historians observed appeared country exploited foreign interests took huge profits making contributions nation welfare acres land government offered company compensation rate dollars acre twice company paid bought property occurred soon bringing total acres government offered compensation company rate valued property tax purposes resulted lobbying washington particularly secretary state close ties company company begun public relations campaign discredit government hired public relations expert ran effort portray company victim government years company stepped efforts elected included commissioning research study guatemala firm known produced page report highly critical government historians stated report descriptions bizarre historical theories report nonetheless significant impact sent overall company spent half million dollars influence members public government needed overthrown cia instigated coup état political motivations addition lobbying factors led united_states launch coup toppled years revolution military occurred central american countries brought firmly anti communist governments power army officer major won staged elections el_salvador cuban dictator took power honduras land holdings extensive ruled anti communist government sympathetic united_states developments created tension governments exacerbated support support worried united_states newly formed according historian beginning cold war cia tended assume everybody opposed communist despite ban communist party important figures government believe revolutionary government communists danger years revolution reports circulated government agencies belief operation administration convinced government penetrated communists relied purely diplomatic economic means try reduce communist influence end term united_states refused sell arms government began block weapons purchases guatemala countries sufficiently convinced threat posed start planning covert overthrow titled plan originally suggested supported dictator nicaragua said given weapons overthrow government gave cia permission ahead plan informing state department cia placed shipment weapons vessel owned operation paid right wing anti communist dominican_republic venezuela respectively operation led state department discovered conspiracy secretary state persuaded plan operation november elected president campaign included pledge active anti communist policy figures administration including secretary state brother cia director close ties factors supporting overthrow cia operation overthrow code named operation authorized august operation granted budget million dollars warfare political action total budget estimated million dollars planning employed cia agents cia planning included drawing lists people government assassinated coup carried assassination techniques compiled lists people dispose considering candidates lead coup including cia settled state department embarked campaign ensure countries government linking communism soviet_union desperate weapons decided acquire secretly czechoslovakia time soviet country shipped weapons americas shipment weapons acted final spur cia launch coup invasion june led convoy trucks carrying men border honduras guatemala weapons come cia trained men camps nicaragua honduras army badly outnumbered army cia plan required camp border mounted psychological campaign convince people government victory campaign included catholic priests anti communist towns cia aircraft placing naval blockade country involved dropping airplane country carrying radio broadcast entitled voice liberation announced led shortly liberate country military force led attempted towns puerto beaten army propaganda broadcast cia far effect succeeded leading pilot defect led grounding entire air force fearing cia planes flown american pilots bomb towns psychological effect old planes invasion force found inadequate cia persuaded authorize use additional planes guatemala appeal united_nations vetoed investigation incident stating internal matter guatemala june cia plane bombed destroying government main oil reserves frightened ordered army distribute weapons local peasants workers army refused instead demanding resign come terms knowing fight support army resigned june handing power colonel ambassador negotiations held el_salvador army leadership led included ruling military july named provisional president days later recognized new government july elections held early october political parties barred participating candidate winning election vote outcomes meeting el_salvador planned new constitution progressive reform brought revolution aftermath following coup hundreds peasant leaders rounded executed stated general consensus today academics intellectuals signaled beginning state hemisphere state responsible torture murder thousand citizens following coup establishment military dictatorship series leftist began countryside frequently large degree popular support triggered lasted largest movements led poor largest point members civilians killed war numerous human rights violations committed including civilian populations rape aerial bombardment forced historians estimate violations committed united_states backed military included earth campaign indigenous maya population 1980s | Guatemalan Revolution | History | World history | North American history |
27615_SinsinawaMoundraid | mound raid raid occurred june near mining settlement present day wisconsin united_states incident resulted deaths men man survived seeking cover nearby aftermath raid captain set pursue attackers band native americans lost trail mississippi_river attack occurred week skirmishes raids result helped contribute growing fear region raid caused residents nearby consider fleeing settlement background consequence treaty governor group fox leaders land settlement tribes vacated lands illinois moved west mississippi chief black hawk disputed treaty claiming tribal councils consulted representing tribes authorization lands angered loss birthplace led number incursions mississippi_river illinois persuaded time return west april encouraged promises alliance tribes british moved called british band warriors non combatants illinois finding allies attempted return mississippi present day iowa illinois militia actions led number engagements followed militia state illinois mobilized hunt band conflict known period run raid filled war related activity series attacks settlement fort blue war famous incident massacre took place mid late june week june important turning point settlers june key battles grove played role changing public perception militia defeat battle apple river fort occurred days mound raid fight minute gun battle defenders garrisoned inside apple river fort fox warriors led chief prelude later senator iowa arrived mound area established mining settlement structure settlement jones log cabin built spring days cabin measured feet feet room door window began years later built small fort site remains fort constructed region protect local residents said stand entrance dominican complex men assisted jones building fort soldier later helped bury victims mound raid time attack jones militia volunteers way meet overall commander general marsh region attack june probably small band attacked men working jones mining settlement near took position directly settlers weapons men killed raiding party badly mutilated bodies later recovered unidentified man run jones survived attack raiders likely group main body moving chief aftermath news raid reached illinois captain set thirty soldiers pursue raiding party arriving mound buried mutilated settlers thompson thompson heart removed followed trail mississippi_river went cold raiders having apparently crossed river party returned handed ordered elements militia rendezvous fort hamilton eventually join general near present day madison wisconsin word attack mound reached left volunteers command dodge returned settlement mound attack compounded incidents region helped contribute fear gripping settlers people present day wisconsin contemplated fleeing miles south direct result mound raid colonel dodge dispatched men nervous residents time arrived settlers informed local native american friendly subsequent delivery promised supplies residents threatened exodus called | Sinsinawa Mound raid | History | World history | North American history |
27779_SuquamishMuseum | museum located port madison indian reservation washington state preserves displays relics records related tribe including artifacts old man house site founded museum currently occupies facility opened history opened second tribal museum state washington tribe launched capital campaign construct new facility enlisting senator washington secretary state help lead effort new facility opened triple size original building constructed cost million square foot purpose built structure set small botanical garden port madison indian reservation consists galleries gift shop seat auditorium climate controlled storage room house artifacts display facility designed seattle architectural firm certified building received citation operations collection addition large photographs documenting tribal life 1860s present museum collection includes archaeological artifacts recovered site old man house massive meters long served capitol destruction late nineteenth century originally custody artifacts include points smoking pipes jewelry transferred tribe port seattle transferred additional artifacts museum including glass bottles discovered archaeological excavations 1970s site pre contact village located seattle neighborhood controversial transfer contested tribe historic rival claim ownership artifacts exhibitions museum main gallery features permanent exhibit titled ancient shores changing tides showcases drawings documents historic photographs related tribe contemporary historic crafts panels elements centerpiece exhibit year old carved canoe seattle annual series canoe journeys undertaken tribal members second gallery house rotating exhibits museum permanent collection items loan museums including traveling exhibits sites exhibits included sites display native words native warriors history native americans armed forces management governed member board directors appointed galleries auditorium museum open daily summer days week rest year museum storage vault open tribal members researchers weekly | Suquamish Museum | History | World history | North American history |
27900_BostonSocietyforMedicalImprovement | elite medical society based boston massachusetts established purposes cultivation confidence good feeling members profession information different branches medical science establishment museum library anatomy continued hold regular meetings founding organization society established february laws established founding meeting members regular meeting held march year society grown members meetings held second fourth month originally home usually member reading paper followed discussion recent cases special interest attending physician wished opinion colleagues frequent presentations remarkable tissues organs obtained post unusual specimens found nature particular interest added cabinet society society original officers committee secretary librarian cabinet keeper offices filled year vote meeting january members admitted twice year april october practicing physicians boston eligible history year society cabinet established members collaborated combine surgery boston medical society expenses year resolving publish transactions standing committee society moved room rented annual fee published piece praising society encouraging formation similar organizations society limited membership boston medical elite number ineligible physicians younger established members profession formed competing organization society incorporated membership grown approximately attending given meeting society relocated row society held anniversary celebrations frequently including presentation original poem member holmes date increasingly rare summer asked opinion society fever probability physicians communicating patient following death physician treated infected woman subsequent infection patients treated interim interest holmes period research presented essay fever society february later published society request april issue surgery november presented society cases remarkable singular resemblance child cured swollen ankle strong number members grown society medical collections donated library absorbed membership grown reaching regular members society moved building street home purchased society total membership begun period slight decline office president instituted attempt stem decline president november society held special meeting honor recently died merged published story boston society medical improvement march issue members society proposal proposal rejected library vote meeting time society reduced meetings annual occurrence generally viewed undesirable fact begun hold joint sessions record society comes collection society expansive cabinet begun year founding included number specimens war acquired society included number chinese paintings medical cases donated cabinet estimated contain specimens beginning cabinet curator merged jackson continued work death curator tasked keeping catalog case history specimen cabinet jackson published descriptions collection descriptive catalogue later year descriptive catalogue cabinet focused solely cabinet books versions complete catalog volume specimens cabinet divided sections healthy bones bones soft parts bones heart blood vessels organs sense vocal respiratory organs canal organs canal organs female organs generation male organs generation gestation parasites locations formed society held meetings houses members set regular establishment chemist shop washington street years later relocated row chemist shop moving temple place library moved society relocated moved notable members jacob henry thomas dwight john fisher oliver holmes jackson | Boston Society for Medical Improvement | History | World history | North American history |
28364_BattleofTrois-Rivières | battle battle rivers english fought june american revolutionary war british army quebec governor defeated attempt units continental_army command brigadier general stop british advance saint lawrence river valley battle occurred american colonists invasion quebec begun september goal removing province british rule crossing saint lawrence american troops observed quebec militia alerted british troops local farmer led americans swamp enabling british land additional forces village establish positions american army brief exchange established british line american troops emerging swamp americans broke somewhat disorganized retreat avenues retreat cut british took sizable number prisoners including general thompson staff major battle fought quebec soil following defeat remainder american forces command retreated fort saint jean background continental_army invaded quebec september suffered severe blow disastrous attack new year eve following loss remnants army besieged quebec early royal_navy ships sailed troops ships immediately sent city long general formed marched american siege camp general command american forces making arrangements retreat british arrival threw troops panic led disorganized retreat eventually reached british forces month early june ships carrying troops war supplies continued arrive quebec june added 9th 20th 29th 53rd 60th regiments foot general command arriving fleet troops commanded americans flight early took significant offensive steps sent ships carrying elements 47th 29th foot command brigadier general led forces june june forces ground grown nearly ships carrying additional troops supplies anchored river near village miles american arrangements thomas retreat instigated early arrival ships fleet carrying troops unaware true size british army war council included representatives decision reached stand quebec decision reached based reports rumors british troop strengths dominated non military congressional representatives thomas contracted smallpox died june briefly replaced relinquished command general arrived june reinforcements june hours sullivan arrival thompson sent troops command colonel goal surprising beating small british force believed sullivan arrival immediately dispatched thompson additional men follow forces caught defenses troop movements river erected day night june thompson men crossed river landing miles battle american crossing seen local militia captain rushed british camp reported general thompson left men guard landing headed rest unfamiliar local terrain convinced local farmer guide men proceeded apparently intentionally lead american army took hours meantime british having alerted american presence proceeded land troops fleet formed battle lines road outside village ships sent drove american guards flee river boats americans led thompson way swamp confronted drove swamp column men colonel fared little better arriving swamp face formation brief exchange fire took place americans clearly forces broke ran leaving arms supplies portions american force retreated edge woods gave cover attempted engage british troops fire troops kept road fire ships river kept shore number men landing site find occupied british troops returning woods continuing flee men escape capture time wayne eventually managed form rear guard men attempted attack british position driven woods wayne led retreat companies men slipped away woods giving cover hide true numbers general arrived late action detachment british forces led major grant taken control bridge critical crossing americans retreating north shore saint lawrence ordered grant withdraw allowing americans escape want deal large numbers prisoners wanted americans significant number americans far captured included general thompson seventeen officers june british finished rounding captives taken says americans killed battle gives figure americans killed aftermath scattered fragments american army way overland northern shore crossed return june sullivan counted effective troops command wanted stand smallpox word british fleet sail come convinced time retreat june continental_army left province attempted burn montreal destroying fort saint jean boats military value capable navigating ordered british army sail june actually leave joined june detachment men marched northern shore montreal british fleet arrived late 14th americans left morning elements british army entered montreal june arrived fort saint jean time americans reported push away burning remnants captives treated conditions imprisonment good provided clothing eventually officers transported new_york released legacy site near bridge designated national historic site canada order commemorate battle plaques city commemorating aspects battle plaque british participants placed historic sites monuments board canada plaque american dead placed daughters american revolution august plaque honours role misleading american troops american retreat quebec battle wounded soldiers treated convent congress authorized payment services convent retained bill bill time estimated million dollars july festivities marking town anniversary symbolically debt payment | Battle of Trois-Rivières | History | World history | North American history |
27_ZagrebSynagogue | croatian main place worship jewish community modern day croatia constructed demolished fascist authorities axis aligned croatia revival designed vienna located modern day street purpose built jewish house worship history city city prominent public buildings examples architecture region 1980s plans rebuild original location political circumstances limited progress major disagreements exist government jewish organizations involved decisions reconstruction project including proposed design character new building history encouraged tolerance emperor jews permanently settled late eighteenth century founded jewish community jewish community cemetery early community permitted buy land construction sufficient money finance time community grown members october year decision build new jewish construction committee appointed selected purchased parcel land corner street central town square new urban planning scheme reduced area available construction community decided buy parcel square metres approximately metres south original location design construction vienna born architect commissioned build representative romantic modeled building revival temple designed prototype design developed round arch style adopt early oriental motifs composition main facade dominant drawn elevated projection symmetrical lower lateral parts reflects internal division ground floor level distinguished arch entrance floor level high elevated arch occupied greater plot facing west street regulation line accordance rule enforced austria hungary prohibiting non catholic places worship having public entrance street wider slightly higher central nave narrower unlike vienna plan construction began completed following year officially consecrated september ceremony attended representatives city regional authorities public figures citizens prominent public building lower town architecture scale aroused general admiration praise 19th early 20th century new organ introduced religious service small minority orthodox jews found change began hold services separately rented rooms earthquake suffered minor damage repaired following year largely immigration hungary jewish population quickly grew size members members members small accommodate needs growing community renovation undertaken increase number available seats plan increase capacity seats ultimately abandoned central heating system installed demolition world war collapse axis invasion april war croatia created ruled extreme nationalist regime quickly started systematic persecution jews modeled nazi germany approach times brutal racial laws introduced jewish property confiscated jews subjected mass arrests death camps croatia abroad october newly installed mayor issued decree ordering demolition street ostensibly fit city master plan demolition began october proceeding slowly damage adjacent buildings finished april process photographed propaganda purposes photographs shown public exhibition held shown illustration solution jewish question croatia fragment film footage demolition discovered decades later film director research documentary feature decline century testimony seconds film survives footage shown wolf documentary produced valuable saved intervention entrepreneur industrialist lived door minister government close ambassador croatia significant political role croatia considered october learned regime plan start demolition following morning evening secretly relayed information chief night moved safety shortly destruction catholic archbishop delivered said house god faith holy thing pay lives world punished surviving fragments building wash basin memorial tables parts column saved pulled rubble shortly end world war wash basin memorial tables city museum column fragments kept reconstruction efforts croatian jews survived holocaust world war nearly half surviving members opted emigration israel community dropped tenth pre war membership yugoslav communist regime virtually real estate owned including plot street combined new regime general hostility religion reconstruction nearly impossible world war vacant site makeshift court court way department store building constructed department store completely destroyed fire december subsequently dismantled despite earlier ideas permanent department store building spot architecture competition design construction took place instead parcel turned parking lot remains day began consider jewish cultural center memorial architects participated failed department store competition came forward accord contributed ideas new jewish center street vision ultimately accepted jewish community instead plans construction cultural center following international architecture competition despite support project yugoslavia abroad issuance necessary permits stalled denied municipal government project developed present autumn democratic elections croatia municipal government finally approved project architectural competition planned january political turmoil country followed breakup yugoslavia croatian war independence caused project hold president said council member jewish community build new site funded croatian government declined offer believing inappropriate catholic churches left destroyed time croatian war independence meantime sought legally property croatian law enacted street parcel finally returned community december reconstruction activities investment study submitted government croatia july revised october architecture competition planned rift resulted formation splinter jewish community led september government croatia formed construction decided project estimated time million million partially financed government croatia jewish organizations represented involvement deemed unacceptable sole owner street property sees sole legal representative jewish community consequence community president refused participation project set conditions disagreements existed design character new building reconstruction feasible seriously contemplated general agreement new building cultural commercial purpose envisioned modern design reminiscent original advocated building replica original facade having powerful symbolism opinions architects urban planners art historians divided similar lines presented new plans multi purpose jewish center street | Zagreb Synagogue | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
57_SaintLeonardCatholicChurch(Madison,Nebraska) | madison nebraska roman catholic church city madison state nebraska built described outstanding example style architecture parish named port organized wood frame church built outskirts madison moved city basement current church built congregation moved converting old church school funds allowed basement extended current brick church completed church garage listed national_register_of_historic_places work noted nebraska architect pupil designed number catholic churches buildings state listed history white settlers occupy site madison party led settled near junction union growth new settlement rapid particular influx german families wisconsin town madison officially barnes county seat incorporated reached madison town population christian services held madison presbyterian taking place barnes homes presbyterian congregation organized church built methodist circuit encompassing madison counties organized built madison church begun lutheran congregation formed madison early records incomplete congregation initially served pastor lutheran church green garden located seven miles southwest madison formally organized church built madison catholic settlers near present day northwest madison late 1860s organized parish built county catholic church wrote asking priest assigned visit church intervals permanent priest assigned parish apparent response missionaries based columbus given responsibility providing group catholic residents madison area met plan building church meeting total additional contributions obtained citizens madison january church trustees spent acres hill southeastern edge town spring party drove teams miles northeast madison load lumber new church foot frame structure capacity completed november total cost leaving owed carpenter new church dedicated port 18th century priest preacher writer patron saint parish missions parcel land southeast church purchased cemetery year old child buried september year cemetery church enlarged room priest added east end west end madison population grew church small expanding congregation addition location outside city tract land inside madison bought building new church time parish elected old new site church moved parts reconstructed section added increasing building seating capacity church new site dedicated november early 20th century parish decided old church school convent teachers new church built brother architect drew plans church financial constraints construction instead temporary basement church built west old church building known design basement plans construction basement church began july services held beginning september dedicated february school opened september classrooms staffed members sisters presentation iowa students enrolled including number non catholics owing public schools space available basement dug classroom added turned management parish diocese october year pastor embarked extensive building campaign retained architect born germany immigrated united_states family initially working served city worked architect time designed city cathedral opened architectural office story room brick designed begun completed furnished cost fall church basement extended percent revival church designed built existing basement cornerstone laid construction begun church completed end november formally dedicated december cost construction church construction catholic services held madison new church seating capacity foot tower clock foot bells contributed citizens madison mass quarter hours marking time residents city surrounding rural areas urban united_states experienced economic boom 1920s agricultural sector country experienced depression disruption european agriculture world war produced high prices farm thought europe recovery slow high prices persist gave rise bubble farmland prices burst rapid postwar recovery european agriculture drove prices time increasing reduced need farm labor pushing agricultural wages downward rural unemployment upward madison parish suffered agricultural depression great depression 1930s time parish population remained stable consisted individuals parish forced close school presentation sisters longer able staff school opened pupils taught missionary sisters based norfolk onset world war brought prosperity rural nebraska persisted 1950s paid remaining debt held mortgage burning ceremony began raising funds new school present cornerstone new school laid november property adjoining new school site bought house standing converted convent school new building completed opened classes august old school begun life church demolished fall site parking lot withdrew school prompting closing seventh eighth grades school continued offer grades taught lay instructors beginning early 1990s madison experienced large influx population hispanic number increased city madison single largest employer plant employees operated increase far greater hispanic fraction population rose spanish speaking population increased white non hispanic population fell estimated thirds hispanic beginning assigned spanish speaking priests parish spanish language services offered centennial church building celebrated december bilingual mass conducted archbishop emeritus architecture parish buildings church garage added national_register_of_historic_places work distinguished nebraska architect designed number notable buildings nebraska catholic include dwight father house boys town church church oriented east west main entrance facing westward feet long east west feet wide north south walls mosaic gray pressed brick trimmed stone rising rock faced limestone foundation feet high peak roof feet ground level west end church foot rises main entrance tower topped copper dome capped cross contains bells weighing pounds tower clock foot tower flight seventeen steps church main entrance set double doors church north south walls supported series buttresses seven windows run wall line brick runs walls near east end church short extends short distance outward church east end conical roof topped conical interior interior plan church consists nave short west end nave center leading church main entrance church northwest corner reconciliation room southwest corner short passage staircase descends basement rises choir church organ model manufactured organ originally built nave measures feet entrance communion rail aisle passes center narrower follow north south walls rows seven circular columns run nave columns wood conceal material decorated capitals rib vaulted ceiling rises feet floor fourteen stained glass windows depicting scenes life christ occupy nave walls foot windows produced art studio chicago windows sculpted stations cross columns paintings marble steps rise nave chancel steps hand carved white wood communion rail decorated miniature columns topped marble northwest southwest corners chancel north altar south altar original image altar depicts lady recently image lady added altar includes bone gospel chancel large hand carved wood pulpit decorated carved figures chancel dominated high altar stands feet tall cost donors like communion rail pulpit hand carved wood decorated small columns base relief sculpture supper marble altar table sculpted angel kneeling holding sanctuary lamps sculpted virgin mary john cross separate scene statues representing german irish ethnicity parish early 20th century figures angels blowing altar statue half ceiling large oil painted mural depicting scene heaven center god father jesus cloud stained glass dome depicting holy spirit completes trinity flanking father son virgin mary cloud left right scene catholic saints angels fourteen large windows nave stained glass windows church depicting saints symbols catholic_church include patron saint pair windows depicting form national_register_of_historic_places noted church undergone minor alterations including interior replacement roof asphalt addition concrete ramp access handicapped located south church designed style elements rectangular house measuring feet wide feet long rooms stories like church mosaic gray brick open porch occupies west frontage facing street cover half south supported circular columns capitals base porch brick small enclosed porch doorway east arches windows floor west facing windows second floor arches second floor windows rectangular circular window openings attic facing west south sloping roof wood south wall filled siding garage original garage located southeast rectangular structure facing westward measuring feet inches north south feet inches east west interior single room west garage mosaic gray brick construction church north south walls different materials western thirds red brick possibly operated madison easternmost layer cement painted red match bricks rear east wall red cement speculated garage lengthened fit longer car eastern rebuilt building hip roof shows signs having lengthened garage doors windows doors windows brick arches car entrance west passage door north clear glass window east west north car entrance window lead glass appear clear outside red inside building speculated window parish church | Saint Leonard Catholic Church (Madison, Nebraska) | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
181_StMary'sChurch,NetherAlderley | anglican church end lane south village dates 14th century later additions major restoration century church recorded designated grade listed building church built gothic style historically associated stanley family major features include fine tower stanley entered outside staircase 14th century font western gallery monuments grounds contain 17th century parish hall medieval church cross dates ancient tree stands churchyard active parish church diocese chester combined history oldest parts church date likely timber framed church existed site church original dedication later changed added 15th century tower built stanley added west gallery contained organ installed chancel completely rebuilt design paid stanley family constructed church restored austin nave floor lowered pulpit replaced plaster removed roof walls box replaced new oak tower clock renovated 16th century wooden bell frame strengthened addition steel frame stanley restored architecture exterior built buff red sandstone locally roof stone plan consists tower west end bay nave north south chancel north south porch north aisle window tower diagonal buttresses west door 14th century door light window stage contains windows north west faces diamond shaped clock south face windows faces lights tower contains bases string course large west end nave roof stanley projects east south porch porch grooves cut arrows interior barrel shaped nave roof dates possibly early 16th century early 17th century stanley eastern end south aisle level upper storey entered flight steps outside church richly carved displays panels coats arms richards states finest kind country unique west end church century musicians gallery panel painted coats arms gallery contains organ replaces earlier organ presented cost equivalent oak document chest tower dated 14th century font buried churchyard commonwealth dug restored use church consists plain circular bowl short cylindrical columns bases richards considers finest examples 14th century work church old bible bible chancel contains memorials memorial 1st baron stanley contains dressed peer robes lying canopy hand book dated chancel memorial son holding hand dog feet engraved brass memorial figures widow children seated middle surviving sons right surviving daughters left children died young age knee lap memorial tablet died chancel contains monument rector church stained glass east window dated glass south window chancel east window north aisle dated stained glass window left pulpit donated family stained glass window west end north aisle memory wife rector bell tower holds ring bells hung change ringing cast sixth charles seventh unused bell dates noted historical importance parish registers begin accounts external features sandstone churchyard built school room ground floor accommodation large room added rear building restored presented parish lord stanley parish hall listed grade medieval church cross churchyard churchyard walls gate piers gates grade listed built 4th lord stanley died contains ashes wife died built buff red sandstone stone slate roof designed neo style rectangular shape storeys bay north central bay contains door stanley crest light window date plaque sides upper storey light windows inside white marble tree churchyard years old known church vault containing remains members stanley family whereabouts known discovered architect stone slab removed exposing steps leading chancel contained contained bodies second wives details recorded present activities holds variety anglican services sundays offers range church activities church open visitors advertised times guided tours available parish magazine published monthly | St Mary's Church, Nether Alderley | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
215_StPeulan'sChurch,Llanbeulan | disused medieval church north wales nave oldest building dates 12th century chancel chapel added 14th century church font early date possibly half 11th century historian said initially altar altar pre norman period unique survivor wales britain church redundant care charity grade listed building designation given particularly important buildings special interest medieval church typical type retained simple character despite 19th century alterations history location date foundation church known certain said church founded site disciple earliest parts building date 12th century parish church area chapel ease mary church closed november records priest serving number died time affecting 19th century significant church rebuilding restoration work took place given new roof new internal fittings time redundant church hands churches charity responsibility charity holds year lease effect june church gave parish welsh word originally meant enclosure church modified form saint populated rural kilometres south west village kilometres south east track runs road church east church churchyard contains war grave soldier world war architecture fittings church built rubble masonry dressed nave measures feet inches feet inches chancel feet inches feet inches south chapel feet inches feet building slate roof stone west end bell crosses iron fixed roofs chancel south chapel nave church bays probably built 12th century entrance west end nave blocked outside chancel smaller nave chapel south building attached nave added 14th century arches dividing nave chapel chancel date entrance door 19th century positioned east chapel pointed alongside doorway stone inscribed year round headed small window dating 12th century reset chapel wall later date suggested window reused blocked nave entrance east window chancel 15th century lights topped decorated carved heads blocked 14th century window chancel north wall early 16th century window south wall windows church date 17th century chapel south window 19th century nave date 17th century stall chancel bears inscribed panel wood dated recording seat number memorials inside church 17th 18th early 19th centuries church 19th century fittings pulpit altar rail plain notable feature church font dates late 12th century possibly 11th century measures feet inch feet inches external measurements inches deep rectangular decorated sides shorter sides cross arms equal length imposed ring base small design framed bands plain decorated twisted rope pattern suggested bee longer sides row arches forming arcade pattern shorter pattern noted number area little carving anticipated plain font seen font carved position church similar style rectangular shape unique according cross finds parallels period writer historian suggested initially altar accepting 11th century dating lord stated altar pre norman period unique survivor wales britain considers unlikely suggesting originally describes font building chief glory called best remarkable series similarities design style churches church church stone crosses assessment church grade listed building second highest grade listing designating particularly important buildings special interest given status april listed rural medieval church retaining simple character described body responsible built heritage wales church typical type 19th century restoration work retained simplicity design construction church medieval character 19th century writer said small rude curious features font valuable antiquarian writing described small structure situated little barren valley south bearing evidence great antiquity stated windows later english style good design especially east window chancel superior composition | St Peulan's Church, Llanbeulan | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
250_StMary'sChurch,Rhodogeidio | mary church small medieval church dating 15th century near north wales served chapel ease church area restoration work carried 19th century fallen largely ruins grade listed building national designation given buildings special interest warrant effort preserve particular late medieval church exceptionally simple character virtually despite poor condition writer said distinction probably isolated church history location mary church countryside north wales miles north north reached farm accessible foot surrounded churchyard built 15th century chapel ease serve miles east restoration work carried 19th century church later fell ruins survey ancient historical monuments wales recorded condition fair given listed building status poor condition noted architecture fittings small church measuring feet feet inches dates late medieval period constructed rubble masonry large stones slate roof roof gone west end original later addition physical division nave chancel account 19th century said originally screen separating traces remained time entrance church doorway square head north wall west end dates 19th century inscribed stone near doorway date initials suggested marked date renovation work windows south wall fully blocked partially blocked small window east end church dates 15th century inside little remains ruins original roof west end church replacement slate memorial walls dating middle 19th century plain 12th century circular font survey noted bell dating portions 17th century seating near pulpit recorded church given listed status assessment national recognition statutory protection alteration designated grade listed building lowest grades listing designating buildings special interest warrant effort preserve given status listed late medieval church exceptionally simple character welsh government body responsible built heritage wales inclusion welsh buildings statutory lists notes despite poor condition virtually late medieval building retaining original roof isolation characteristic churches island writing clergyman antiquarian called small plain single chapel said small south windows good specimen kind guide churches says ruin distinction probably isolated church | St Mary's Church, Rhodogeidio | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
252_MexicoCityMetropolitanCathedral | heaven spanish los largest cathedral americas seat mexico situated atop sacred near mayor northern plaza downtown mexico_city cathedral built sections original church constructed soon spanish conquest eventually replacing entirely spanish architect planned construction drawing inspiration gothic spain cathedral contain flanked columns statues bell towers contain total bells adjacent cathedral contains serves register large ornate choir cathedral fourteen cathedral sixteen open public chapel dedicated different saint saints sponsored religious guild contain ornate paintings furniture sculptures cathedral home largest 18th century organs americas underneath cathedral holds remains centuries cathedral suffered damage fire destroyed significant cathedral interior restoration work followed uncovered number important documents artwork previously hidden solid foundation built cathedral soft clay soil built threat structural integrity dropping water tables accelerated sinking caused structure added list endangered sites reconstruction work beginning 1990s stabilized cathedral removed endangered list spanish conquest decided build church site mayor city consolidate spanish power newly conquered domain stones destroyed temple god war principal deity build church ordered original church construction returned exploring honduras architect director project bishop new world established promoted church completion located northeast portion cathedral separated columns central roof intricate carvings main door probably renaissance style choir area seats wood crafted church soon considered inadequate growing importance capital ecclesiastical authorities ordered creation new cathedral agreement reached cost new cathedral shared spanish crown indians direct authority archbishop cathedral begun built existing church cathedral built house basic functions original church demolished enable construction continue construction cathedral constructed period centuries design mixture architectural styles colonial period renaissance baroque neo classic initial plans new cathedral drawn work foundation began decision cathedral face south instead east year construction commenced working gothic designs models created inspired found spanish cities muddy site work foundation continued past work walls work cathedral began cathedral walls reached half final height construction interior current cathedral began mass conducted church finally torn work interrupted flooding metres depth parts city damaged especially main plaza damage site abandoned new cathedral project begun hills area west despite problems project continued current location direction interior finished consecrated cathedral lacked bell towers complete facade features beginning 18th century charge finishing work cathedral work bell towers putting roofs shape bells death live cathedral completed finished cathedral adding central facade statues faith hope charity facade work major construction cathedral appearance finished basic look cathedral today cathedral faces south approximately metres wide metres long consists bell towers central dome main arches columns inside cathedral large sixteen choir area corridor room cathedral approximately windows exterior main facade cathedral faces south main portal centered main facade highest cathedral statues saint peter paul stand columns portal james depicted secondary doorway center doorway high relief cathedral dedicated image flanked images saint andrew coat arms mexico doorway eagle wings clock tower portal statues representing faith hope charity created sculptor west facade constructed rebuilt section portal images west portal high depicting jesus handing keys heaven saint peter east facade similar west facade east portal ship carrying helm title relief ship church sailing seas northern facade built 16th century renaissance style oldest cathedral named architect monastery spain eastern western older rest building level columns associated baroque period high cathedral inspired work flemish painter bell towers bell towers work artist capped bell shaped roofs covered white stone charge cathedral construction half 18th century died unexpectedly built notable buildings mexico_city hired finish cathedral point cathedral years making added neo classic structure housing clock statues theological virtues faith hope charity high surrounding building dome rises cathedral bells eighteen hang east bell tower seven west tower largest bell named santa maria weighs kilograms major bells named maria weighs kilograms named harsh tone maria placed largest bell placed later statues west tower work represent vii francis statues east tower depict rose mary mother jesus philip jesus rome bell died accident tried bells standing bell swung hit head killing instantly bell punished removing following years bell known punished mute bell october time capsule found inside stone ball base cross southern bell tower cathedral placed supposedly protect building harm lead box filled religious artifacts coins hidden hollow stone ball ball marked date building stone laid new time capsule placed stone ball closed situated right main cathedral spanish built height baroque period house archives archbishop functioned continues function place receive register church built cathedral site exact location unknown construction cathedral housed lady 18th century decided build structure separate connected main cathedral constructed reddish volcanic rock white stone shape greek cross southern facade faces connected main cathedral interiors wing separate uses west wing north main altar main entrance area separated inside corner walls stone white stone covers walls floors frames doors windows crossing structure octagonal dome framed arches form curved meet dome principal altar ornate style crafted indigenous artist inaugurated exterior baroque styled entirely adorned decorations shaped niche shelves floating carvings fruits created shape ritual offerings blood christ church floral elements roses types flowers found including indigenous main outside entrances south facing facing east street southern façade richly decorated east façade theme images saints founded religious orders scenes bible found including lion eagle coat arms mexico east facade ambitious contains figures images construction dates phases inscribed interior located central nave aspect interior seen entering cathedral work spanish architect represents use column inverted triangle shaped americas stories altar came states condemned brought altar ask forgiveness world execution second relates painter despite author works cathedral accused according story jail painted beautiful image virgin mary crime altar damaged fire january completely restored altar kings altar kings work style begun cedar finished debuting located cathedral choir altar metres wide metres tall metres deep size depth gave rise nickname golden cave takes statues royalty form decoration oldest work style mexico taking years complete left right female royal saints scotland constantinople hungary portugal empress middle altar kings martyr henry_ii holy roman emperor poland france kings oil painting shows jesus king kings portion features painting queen flanked oval carrying infant jesus hand holy spirit inspiring write figures jesus mary sculptures angels crowned image god father altar restoration door opens oldest cathedral mixture renaissance gothic styles walls hold large painted triumph church triumphant virgin apocalypse virgin apocalypse depicts vision painted additional painting attributed hangs north wall niche holds statue christ image sculpted ivory mural depicts lady house virgin image appears massive flooding removed better protect cabinet west wall virgin apocalypse painting held golden cups trimmed precious stones wooden floor platform perimeter replaced stone cathedral sixteen assigned religious guild dedicated saint contain seven created later eastern western sides cathedral open public fourteen east west listed seven east nave listed north south seven west nave chapel lady chapel lady spanish las built half 17th century originally served medieval style chapel vault relatively simple narrow contains oval painting young 16th century painting attributed flemish painter painting lady mount painting supper chapel painting lady chapel saint chapel saint spanish san originally built annex vault contains plaster casts representing faith hope charity justice considered basic values catholic religion built converted chapel door reworked style chapel conception chapel conception spanish built lack columns likely dates 18th century altar framed instead columns painting conception altar surrounded paintings relating passion christ saints chapel contains canvas painted painted right dedicated conception donated peter paul chapel holds remains north mexico chapel lady chapel lady spanish built cathedral long time site powerful decorated 19th century neo classic style architect director main dedicated virgin sides dedicated john baptist respectively chapel lady antigua chapel lady antigua spanish antigua sponsored built brotherhood musicians promoted devotion virgin contains painting virgin copy found copy brought merchant paintings birth virgin presentation painted chapel saint peter chapel saint peter spanish san built contains highly decorated baroque 17th century altar dedicated sculpture altar surrounded early 17th century paintings relating life painted right dedicated holy family paintings florence called holy family workshop birth left main dedicated jesus image appears chapel window includes paintings sheets metal depict scenes birth jesus oil paintings illustrate scenes life semi circular painting coronation mary works created 17th century chapel home child jesus figure brought mexico spain sculpted 16th century spain purchased cathedral way veracruz pirates attacked ship sacked image large ransom paid today image chapel san traditionally image petitioned seeking release restrictions traps especially financial problems drug addiction alcoholism cult considered inactive particular image comeback petition family member abducted held ransom chapel christ chapel christ spanish del santo built designed ultra baroque details difficult poorly lit interior originally known christ came image christ supposedly donated cathedral emperor left main altar eventually changed 17th century ornamentation main carvings rich foliage small heads columns main portion small sculptures angels secondary portion hold sculptures saints framing main body 17th century finished sculptures angels contains small 17th paintings saints paintings hidden compartments contain numerous left main painting dated surrounding altar series paintings canvas depicting passion christ painted 17th century right hand wall altar dedicated virgin confidence decorated numerous away columns pieces chapel holy angels chapel holy angels spanish los finished baroque decorated columns dedicated depicted medieval knight contains large main smaller decorated main dedicated seven represented sculptures surrounding images mary christ scene holy spirit god father left hand similar design dedicated guardian angel sculpture surrounded pictures arranged hierarchy left scene shows released prison right later knocked horse painted right hand dedicated guardian angel mexico chapel saints spanish san built saints commonly invoked time suffered diseases brought main baroque probably built 17th century oil paintings wood contain scenes physician saints attributed painter second half 17th century chapel contains small came church west mexico_city dedicated birth jesus chapel chapel saint joseph spanish san built contains image lord image christ likely 16th century inspired time indigenous form beans style containing statue patron saint main baroque 18th century belonged church lady altar contains statues containing contains paintings chapel lady chapel lady spanish originally built honor workers built cathedral contains baroque main supported small angels uphold base main body dedicated image appears center surrounding 16th century paintings depict scenes life christ chapel saint chapel saint spanish san known chapel lord safe expeditions spanish del del built guild donated images conception saint chapel dedicated chapel 19th century image lord good sending placed named reported having prayers answered quickly image thought 16th century sent gift chapel lady chapel lady spanish los known chapel lord supper spanish santa built originally dedicated supper painting event kept later neo classical style added main contains image virgin sculpted wood painted request emperor mexico left hand wall ladder leads series hold remains past mexico largest contains remains archbishop mexico chapel saint philip jesus chapel saint philip jesus spanish san completed earliest stages construction cathedral dedicated philip jesus martyr japan chapel topped gothic style dome baroque 17th century statue saint located large niche altar left dedicated considered protector mexico_city right holds remains briefly ruled mexico 19th century chapel font believed philip jesus baptised organs cathedral dozen organs course history earliest mentioned report written king spain details survive earliest organs builders names begin appear end sixteenth century earliest disposition survives organ built large organ built madrid installed mexico spain completed incorporating elements 17th century organ largest 18th century organs americas situated walls choir east gospel west organs damaged fire restored organs fallen disrepair gospel organ restored restoration organ completed organs playable choir choir priest choral group sings located central nave main door high altar built fashion like spanish built sides contain saints cedar native wood called surrounds choir china placed cathedral located floor cathedral beneath altar kings entrance cathedral guarded large wooden door descends winding yellow staircase past inner entrance style stone skull incorporated offering base archbishop mexico considered indians protecting abuses spanish natural sized sculpture archbishop atop walls dozens bronze plaques indicate locations remains mexico_city including cardinal floor covered small marble covering containing remains people cathedral contains religious figures buried including restoration sinking ground seismic activity area effect cathedral construction current appearance years required simply lay foundation built recognized danger constructing huge monument soft soil political reasons cathedral built remains pre hispanic structures leading uneven foundation beginning january fire caused electrical short circuit caused extensive damage cathedral structure decoration damaged including loss paintings holy face choir section lost seats painting stored books cathedral organs severely damaged partial melting pipes paintings damaged parts cathedral fire authorities recorded damage try restore damaged heated discussions ensued historians architects investigations moving eliminating choir area ecclesiastical authorities initiated demolition choir area authorization federal government stopped government saved named director project restore cathedral original condition restoration work focused repairing damage archived records photographs included work deteriorating foundation uneven sinking ground problems towers forgiveness kings subject extensive cleaning work replace lost portions paintings added escape egypt organs dismantled pipes inner workings sent netherlands repair cases restored mexican work lasting reconstruction choir area began materials existed fire addition statues towers received damage city pollution taken created replace damage repaired interesting discoveries restoration work occurred 1970s early 1980s paintings found rescued including works juan inside organs copy nomination governor general found lastly wall central arch cathedral found burial place governor veracruz late 20th century work cathedral rest city sinking day built fact city million people drawing water underground sources caused water tables drop sinking accelerate half 20th century sections complex cathedral sinking different rates bell towers dangerously despite work 1970s reason cathedral included world monuments watch major restoration foundation work began 1990s stabilize building engineers excavated cathedral dug shafts cathedral placed shafts concrete soft ground solid base rest efforts stopped sinking complex corrected towers ensured cathedral sink uniformly cultural value cathedral focus mexican cultural identity testament colonial history researcher rivera reported cathedral built site sacred stones temples lay claim land people supposedly laid stone original church personally important religious center exclusively prominent families second mexican empire emperor empress charlotte belgium later known crowned cathedral magnificent arrival head city reign located time focus social cultural activities occurred 20th 21st centuries cathedral closed years president attempted enforce mexico anti religious laws pope closed church ordering priests cease public religious duties mexican churches mexican government came terms major renovations performed cathedral reopened cathedral scene protests church church including protest women church women wear mini skirts provocative clothing avoid rape protest mexico cathedral protest social issues bells express opposition supreme_court mexico_city abortion probably recent event occurred november attacked cathedral protesters stormed sunday mass chanting knocking caused church officials close lock cathedral number days cathedral reopened new security measures bag searches place gallery | Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
264_StCaffo'sChurch,Llangaffo | church 19th century church south north wales miles county town constructed replace previous medieval church village new building includes number monuments old church prominent local landmark churchyard stone cross dating 9th 10th century 9th 11th centuries dedicated 6th century martyr killed vicinity church use churches combined parish grade listed building designation given buildings special interest warrant effort preserve particular regarded mid 19th century rural church consistently articulated detailed early english style history location date construction church village miles south county town uncertain village takes church welsh word originally meant enclosure church modified form saint 6th century christian companion vicinity revenge brother insulting local ruler thought point monastery location known welsh word martyr place names means building erected near saint grave present building north eastern village south eastern road erected alongside churchyard design sheffield based architects replaced older church stood adjoining rock demolished described clergyman antiquarian writing new church constructed small noted medieval building remaining parish 19th century church use belongs churches combined church diocese vicar churches assisted williams appointed position vacant years despite attempts church wales fill services welsh held sunday holy communion services rector later chancellor buried church son rector succeeded father resigned later chancellor architecture fittings built rubble masonry dressed limestone early english style style architecture typically narrow pointed windows arches roof slate tower west end buttresses corners topped prominent local landmark entrance arched doorway north tower chancel east end church smaller nave height width north chancel nave windows window south chancel church east window set pointed arch lights sections window separated inside church sanctuary east end raised chancel step floor sanctuary altar tiles fittings include circular decorated 12th century font 17th century pulpit carved decorative panels survey ancient historical monuments wales recorded church owned silver cup dated number memorials dating 17th century including stone early 7th century inscribed stone set wall originally came church porch houses cross head shape wheel dating 9th 10th century rest cross churchyard suffered significant weather damage patterns worn away oldest graves north church unusual southern churchyard northern remaining extra space graves required path road church sunken partly explained medieval custom burying dead author suggested mound alongside path indicate church located site bronze age settlement churchyard seven discovered walls previous church date 9th 11th centuries seventh 12th 13th century doorway old church dating 15th century reused entrance churchyard carved stone human head 12th century inserted north wall churchyard war memorial shape celtic cross remembers died second world wars assessment church grade listed building lowest grades listing designating buildings special interest warrant effort preserve given status january body responsible built heritage wales states listed mid 19th century rural church consistently articulated detailed early english style 19th century writer said rebuilt church forms good specimen early english style architecture adding effective simplicity absence added interior fitted neat appropriate manner details appear carefully studied guide churches says impressive tower form landmark visible miles comments rendering tower south wall makes attractive north wall guide buildings region notes exceptional number inscribed fragments showing place early christian worship considers church similarly guide wales describes nineteenth century church outside says remarkable collection memorial stones | St Caffo's Church, Llangaffo | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
468_ChurchofChristPantocrator,Nesebar | church christ bulgarian medieval eastern orthodox church eastern bulgarian town medieval black_sea coast constructed 13th 14th century best known lavish exterior decoration church today art gallery survives largely intact bulgaria best preserved churches middle ages history usually dated late 13th early 14th century scholar places construction century rough guides author attributes building rule bulgaria time control changed times second bulgarian empire byzantium church dedicated christ god ruler greek church located street near entrance old town houses art gallery exhibits works bulgarian artists belongs old town forms bulgaria state protection national antiquity listed bulgaria monuments culture national importance architecture church designed late byzantine cross square style constructed stones construction technique known measures metres metres metres depending source walls church metres thick colour bricks gives church appearance church features essentially rectangular elongated plan small medieval tomb underneath entrances church south west west north church small parts overlap form single larger unit church located dome octagonal shape stands prominently centre supported destroyed columns located directly beneath integrated bell tower built customary contemporary byzantine church architecture extends rectangular main structure bell tower originally rectangular partially ruined reached south means stone staircase decoration best known feature rich colourful decoration exterior walls decorated church east sides church exhibit different ornamentation strips rows bricks carved stones create optical pattern basic type decoration rows blind arches floral motifs triangular ornaments circular brick run east wall appearance church superimposed arcades earlier example configuration observed church near turkey inclusion decoration considered unusual curious tourists explained medieval use symbol sun decoration elongated north south walls includes brick blind arches large arch wall adjacent dome window middle windows lower arches north south facade dome exhibits large number ornamental details features windows sides medieval painted interior walls church preserved | Church of Christ Pantocrator, Nesebar | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
1168_LobocChurch | san parish church spanish san commonly known roman catholic church municipality philippines jurisdiction established christian community moved established second christian settlement parish established present coral stone church completed strategic location center jesuit mission expulsion town transferred church classified philippines national cultural treasure considered philippines member categories philippines extension philippines severely damaged magnitude earthquake struck parts central october church history establishment jesuit mission father moved community late establish second mission station church wood built people area site called near location present day church dedicated patronage officially catholic parish pirate attacks strategic position chose center mission jesuit superior later resided expulsion boarding school boys los established fire destroyed original wooden church later reconstructed jesuit priest larger church built site present day convent present coral stone church finished expelled country assumed administration parish church november historical cultural designations declared philippines listed national cultural treasure church complex candidate philippines distinct categories philippines nomination includes churches eastern philippines extension nomination churches eastern total destruction removed roster nominated sites architecture church built banks coral stone church follows plan sunken roof crossing church built exterior walls church jesuit insignia icons angel wing head major renovations undertaken priest father including addition façade tiles father added stone buttresses walls frequent flooding wooden changed cement tiles elevated interior interior church adorned ceiling paintings sons created july mural lady secondary patron painted center nave depicts virgin saving floods church separate organ hosting large pipe organ believed connected father maker organ façade inner baroque façade church built decorated capitals blind patterned levels triangular narrow octagonal bell towers houses wooden relief iron papal crossed keys symbol center carrying icons ends church central mayor altar houses images patron paired niche lowest level images lady secondary patron center lowest level statues patron patron floods elected patrons walls mayor remains jesuit relief saint dressed right altar larger altar right currently houses image francis preacher level middle level images center left right respectively lowest level contains images center right originally left smaller altar levels baroque style respectively images christ lower level holy infant upper tomb father priests served church remains jesuit priest interred area transfer remains account tells fire church stopping foot tomb story spread people nearby towns drew pilgrims light candles memory gospel left altar larger altar twin altar opposite houses image unidentified saint level presumably christ originally madonna child center middle left middle right original images lowest level replaced smaller style houses images child jesus lower upper level respectively central niche depicting mary child jesus holding book convent built central residence jesuit missionaries built parallel unusual storey structure storey outdoor gallery called thick walls convent philippines storeys extension perpendicular convent built middle 19th century convent adorned paintings walls ceilings colored glass windows kitchen roof replaced iron floor convent ecclesiastical museum known containing religious artifacts silver 18th century wooden santo detached storey bell tower built near priest seven bells bell oldest bell named father largest large wooden installed holy week clock installed chapel located left façade built father inside baroque similar inside church chapel earthquake island experienced strong earthquake october center earthquake near centuries old churches including churches designated heavily damaged church suffered major damage structure particularly façade tower partially collapsed earthquake diocese plans restore church churches destroyed earthquake waiting complete restoration rehabilitation old church people inaugurated alternate church october | Loboc Church | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
1277_CleeveAbbey | medieval monastery located near village somerset england grade listed building scheduled ancient monument abbey founded late twelfth century house monks order year monastic history order frequently ill governed financially troubled sole member community achieve prominence bishop reformation closed henry_viii course abbey converted country house subsequently status site declined abbey farm buildings half nineteenth century steps taken conserve remains twentieth century taken state care abbey looked english_heritage open public today best preserved medieval monastic sites britain church longer standing buildings contain features particular interest including angel roof wall paintings painted chamber foundation abbey founded earl lincoln grant land given king june colony monks led arrived site lincolnshire official abbey florida latin flowering valley history generally known nearby village initial funding foundation increased land money family 1st earl somerset family addition produced rent abbey held right wreck meant claim washed shore lands abbey buildings work immediately began constructing abbey church task took decades conservative design heavily influenced thoughts bernard order early churches homeland shape nave seven bays short square east end eastern parts church built likely finished point abbey received royal donation oak build choir stalls remainder probably completed mid century south church laid surrounded domestic buildings house east range completed probably held chapter house monks dormitory day room metres long south range built contained warming house projected south main body building following usual plan suggested floors finished end thirteenth century tiles centimetres square include arms richard 1st earl cornwall family believed produced celebrate marriage 2nd earl cornwall final finished small west range storage quarters lay brothers east core buildings linked second monastic monastery surrounded gardens stables industrial buildings abbey grounds defended water filled moat gatehouse excavation revealed large stone cross like market cross stood west main building means wealthy house monks able significant investment home match rising living standards later period fourteenth century elaborate floors expensive high status product laid abbey mid fifteenth century radical works undertaken wooden shelter constructed floor abbot commissioned complete redesign south range monastery demolished old built new parallel floor grand chamber wooden vaulted ceiling carved angels equal hall contemporary secular lord beneath built self contained apartments probably abbey responsible abbey wall paintings religious subjects wall paintings survive depicting arrangement facing man standing bridge bridge water fish man angel head attacked lion left bridge dragon right work continued successors eve dissolution building work completed gatehouse performed late monks engaged major project walks latest fashion neighbouring house completed dissolution abbey monastic history like smaller houses comparatively little known internal history abbey early years received grants land property local lords crown supplement initial prosperous years thirteenth century grew steadily reaching monks abbey held local churches including holding abbey responsible chapel lady old disappeared inn pilgrims attending chapel expanded present major source income export wool fourteenth century saw change fortunes economic climate poor administration left abbey like order sharply declining numbers monks major debt internal discipline morals community declined reported government abbot monks leading group attacking travellers region things improved fifteenth century despite vast expense caused extravagant building projects better management access new resources instance profits right hold markets granted crown general improvement circumstances facing house meant prior dissolution enjoying indian summer comfortable stability dissolution abbey income assessed henry_viii great survey church finances meant following year came terms suppression act henry initial monks forced surrender abbey september proposals local gentry king officials dissolution sir granted number smaller monasteries monks finally left spring given pension marks year large certainly comfortable drawing years later monks given monk rose prominence came sticky end killed protestant beliefs later history soon crown property leased years site granted 1st earl sussex church demolished save south wall bounded rest abbey converted mansion suitable gentleman early seventeenth century turned farm dormitory large barn rest buildings agricultural purposes farm house red sandstone barn built south west corner abbey acquired site abbey stopped farm extensive archaeological excavations took place farm house converted rental cottages site tourist attraction partly bring traffic local farmers daughter named abbey acted guide described nightly ghosts monks head passed crown pay death duties estate managed major restoration archaeological work followed english_heritage took responsibility carrying excavations surveys continues care today present day church entirely vanished site boasts finest best preserved monks living quarters surviving southern england buildings round rooms retain important preserved rooms chapter house magnificent arch wooden vault painted chamber abbey medieval remains major include abbey gatehouse provides entrance visitor moat open public remains buildings designated english_heritage grade listed building listed scheduled monument cultural references abbey original site setting abbey series books based features described visited early years twentieth century identified site today literary licence allowed add features imagination castle scenes children musical comedy television series filmed | Cleeve Abbey | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
1288_ChurchofSaintOswald,KingandMartyr,Oswaldkirk | king martyr king martyr church_of_england church serving village parish england located main road passing village miles east dedicated christian saint years old run church_of_england parish cleveland diocese york notably future archbishop_of_canterbury chaplain king charles_ii preached sermon church major restoration work church large chancel dates period church grade listed building oldest building village centuries etymology word means church village literally called church church dedicated christian king spread christianity 7th century history architecture original church built site wooden saxon church remains apart unique examples celtic stonework including relief carved current building probably cross shaft stone southern entrance church stands built 12th century typical example norman stonework church consecrated bishop direction tall windows set church wall north south nave dated approximately sections windows small fragments medieval glass found sideways found low arch inside southern wall generally believed sir member family ruled village 14th century 16th century church records include list dating reign king notable rector served early year probably permanent resident noted mathematician friendly terms ruling monarch given advice setting date coronation future archbishop_of_canterbury chaplain king charles_ii preached sermon church friendship rector church expulsion non important event 17th century installation brand new bells bearing inscription come let lord dated bearing inscription glory god highest dated use bell ropes replaced times intervening centuries extend floor clock mechanism dated wholly mechanical clock faces seen western eastern sides bell tower major restoration work church large chancel dates period restoration east window replaced depicts form flanked christian saints era helped missionary work windows directly opposite western window font end church depicts queen time queen_victoria modern additions church seen bell turret organ chamber south porch currently sole entrance church church uses electric organ services church grade listed building january modern usage church including churches parishes vicar reverend serves parishes services church occur weekly sunday times week help volunteers local community tea time club club teaching christian morals biblical teachings young people biblical role plays mini church host carol service year christmas eve jointly undertaken anglican congregation roman catholic church church united churches harvest festival year hosted building church year alternating church gallery | Church of Saint Oswald, King and Martyr, Oswaldkirk | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
1365_StCaian'sChurch,Tregaian | church church known small medieval church dating 14th century north wales dedicated christian 5th 6th century little known building contains late 14th century east window late 15th century doorway churchyard contains grave william died age leaving children ages living descendants church worship churches combined parish grade listed building national designation given particularly important buildings special interest particular regarded excellent late medieval rural church history location date construction christian building site unknown church dedicated christian 5th 6th century little known manuscript says father king northern britain lost lands sought safety ruler gave land north east island district known son sisters included established nearby church 6th century manuscripts active 5th century son grandson king south wales gives hamlet church situated welsh word shortened means settlement modified form saint settlement miles north county town church countryside small road present church medieval dating 14th century period given east window doorway late 15th century roof end 16th beginning 17th century nave windows pulpit 17th century worship churches combined diocese priest charge parish reverend architecture fittings church built rubble masonry roof slate stone west end entrance doorway south late 15th century decorated surrounds square frame structural division nave congregation sit chancel altar located apart single step chancel church feet inches long feet inches wide east window late 14th century set pointed arch decorative stained glass depicting christ knight words thou good faithful servant unto armour god pairs square headed windows south wall dating 17th century north church second entrance blocked late 19th century pair square headed windows 17th century small window west end church 17th 18th century beams roof seen inside church altar 19th century church 12th century circular font decorated irregular pattern bell dated whilst 19th century memorials 18th 19th 20th centuries walls commemorate lloyd family nearby house survey ancient historical monuments wales noted plain silver cup dated churchyard contains grave william died age married times fathered children descendants attended funeral children death ranged age assessment church national recognition statutory protection alteration designated grade listed building second highest grades listing designating particularly important buildings special interest given status listed excellent late medieval rural church body responsible built heritage wales inclusion welsh buildings statutory lists states retains strong simple character retention early features original plan structurally undivided nave chancel 19th century antiquarian described church small neat noted handsome east window 19th century writer said church simple primitive construction writing clergyman antiquarian said font remarkable having drain hardly large added east window singular design guide churches notes unusually wide east window guide buildings region says church gives impression parish churches like 19th century partly walls lean adds east window compared | St Caian's Church, Tregaian | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
1555_TowsonUnitedMethodistChurch | large historic maryland suburb past rooted 19th century america subsequent growth centuries closely paralleled nation political trends congregation split eve american civil war border state divided eventually reunited built church post world war era 1950s time reconciliation rapid growth mainline protestant denominations especially affluent suburbs member church currently number community outreach programs including child care center boy scout troop actively supports home mothers overseas missions habitat humanity projects congregation seat sanctuary built large building prominent foot landmark visible miles nearby baltimore interstate called beacon located lane interchange half mile west church land originally vast 18th century estate history beginning 1850s settled brothers william hamlet bearing remained farmland 1830s churches little inn tavern travelers york road wife described ardent methodist began holding prayer meetings mansion located half east present church site sunday school started private home near shop york road sparsely populated village called built tiny community church wooded location north east site previously powder magazine built prior british attack baltimore september war called square foot structure built stones salvaged arsenal led methodist episcopal minister dedicated opened public church service sunday november line methodist practice time rural areas circuit rider ministers travel horseback preach villagers designation county seat town began grow rapidly small chapel shared denominations 1870s increasing population spurred construction larger churches division separate churches 1860s 1950s methodist movement growing rapidly pre civil war america disputes slave holding rule church bishops resulting formal split groups faction favor giving church authority hierarchy bishops called took anti slavery stance north opposition formed united_states impending civil war nation 1850s local continued worship ended reed organ purchased sparking disagreement use musical instruments worship minority opposed idea joined southern leaning methodist protestant church withdrawing worship civil war methodist returned met separately sunday methodist church northern leaning methodist episcopal congregation continued civil war began building church nearby laying cornerstone august methodist episcopal neo gothic brick structure located york road present prospect hill cemetery block north intersection designed built cost seat church completed dedicated october eighty seven members soon found financial difficulties having gone heavily debt build new sanctuary chairman church building committee advanced personal funds complete construction embroiled years litigation church church drawing larger crowds pastor described excellent leader singing afternoon sunday school session particularly popular principally devoted learning new hymns attracted young people town especially young men noted account church held fifth anniversary celebration opened prayer piano concert favored beautiful selection sung said contemporary report methodist congregations remained estranged split groups come great revival joint services attended preaching power newspapers commented beginning 20th century increasingly large prosperous congregation added stained glass windows church including christ good shepherd new pipe organ installed second methodist church methodist protestant group continued use chapel built church seating persons corner avenues located heart near constructed stone slate roof bell tower merger methodist episcopal methodist protestant denominations methodist protestant churches known respectively reunited church 1950s present following branches second methodist church continued separate entities thirteen years end world war mainline protestant church attendance increased significantly early faced facilities fast inadequate burgeoning population postwar period boom modern commercial development core area starting displace older buildings churches formed joint committee evaluate merger committee recommended churches concluding properties second churches located close proximity identical objectives program methods work churches continue competition overlapping inevitable resources better serve community april ninety years churches split congregations finally voted reunite merging june adopting members methodist churches began plans construct larger building ample parking announced churches merged acres undeveloped land originally estate north planned alignment baltimore purchased soon groundbreaking ceremony held october construction new church completed service dedication held crowd attended ceremonies new sanctuary overflow persons watching closed circuit television lower level fellowship hall old structure adjacent avenue investment place abandoned eventually demolished illuminated display stained glass windows church located current building structure sold stands today building office development firm insurance agency chapel eventually meeting hall troops 1920s 1930s subsequently abandoned finally demolished way construction parking lot old department store store near present department store town center mall trace exists today historical marker placed near site designating cradle current adopted reflect merger year methodist evangelical united denominations sunday anniversary present sanctuary completion celebrated original dedication service current building facilities shaped structure main sanctuary north south axis designed architect completed church built red brick georgian architectural style prominent foot gold cross visible distance imposing facade cut stone pennsylvania foot high main capped curved stone inside sanctuary rear balcony accommodate thousand persons rows columns standing foot bases flank pulpit doors story east west wing classrooms offices chapel library featuring exhibit memorabilia historical artifacts archival records construction church cost equivalent million including expense land acquisition organ manual rank pipe organ pipes including seven ranks pipes tubular dedicated memory church minister music graduate union theological seminary renowned master sacred music degree program having earned degrees union studied organ addition serving church choral director professor organ died unexpectedly july complications following heart bypass surgery church library named memory succeeded graduate director music current director music july ordained minister studied music graduating bachelor_of_arts degree earned master degree world famous concert performed church organ include octave electronic bells installed tower june played organ console sunday services special occasions christmas eve traditional nationwide church bells fourth july hymns played daily music roll discontinued 1990s renovation expansion project midst million phased renovation expansion project started phase completed elevator additional facilities installed improved disabled accessibility new fire system replacement building climate control system additional classrooms expanded education wing planned future phases master plan adopted church help fund future works church announced plans january sell acres undeveloped wooded property owns lane construction senior citizen housing complex change application submitted officials allow sixteen residential units acre current limits density residential units acre total beds representing neighboring maryland residents said oppose changes allow higher density residential development require trees knocked pastor told entered shelter believing good use land good company needed service face community objections shelter church subsequently announced march development plans dropped shelter official said company jointly come conclusion going pursue pastor said clear weren going able reach compromise certainly don want war neighbors wake plan president told group wishes work find alternative use land commercial development don want church trying money april said church set sell land proposal came plans sell develop land ministry succeeding july miller grew pennsylvania graduated receiving religion studied theological seminary washington earning master degree maryland miller continued studies receiving doctor ministry degree chicago theological seminary later lead pastor church maryland named director serving role mission statement word god disciples jesus christ church staff includes assistant ministers directors music education building administrative personnel district addition sunday morning worship services member congregation graded sunday school classes adult bible study classes youth activities praise prayer healing service music program includes adult youth church voice ensemble high school age young people sings frequently weekly worship services tours eastern summer previous ministers senior pastor september june earned master degree theological seminary denver colorado son methodist minister churches including maryland official methodist senior ministers predecessor years appointment community outreach sponsors boy scout troop overseas missions house mothers actively habitat humanity projects years members group women supported meals wheels serving volunteers local hospitals thirty years church hosted weekly meeting large size sanctuary convenient location suited community gatherings attracting sizable crowds concerts baltimore church hosts annual memorial service fallen firefighters rescue personnel senior officials including fire chief participate service memorial laying bell commemoration nationally known guest speakers spoken started child care center serves approximately children ages years old | Towson United Methodist Church | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
1691_Varagavank | armenian monastery turkish seven churches armenian monastery slopes southeast city van eastern turkey monastery founded early 11th century armenian king religious site initially serving kings eventually seat archbishop van monastery described great monastic centers armenian church richest celebrated monastery area armenian genocide april turkish army attacked burned destroyed monastery destroyed 1960s good sections barely extant history origins according tradition late 3rd century hid remnant wore neck site monastery location discovered builder built described simple established celebrated sunday nearest september weeks daughter armenian king future built church site dedicated late medieval period converted castle known means fortress armenian built north 10th century foundation medieval period monastery founded early reign house kept site fell byzantine rule took following year son founded following death buried returned monastery fearing attack muslims father took region northeastern armenia settled monastery renamed new invaded region monastery churches destroyed iron door monks hid monastery completely restored modern period persian monastery buildings region destroyed earthquake restoration began immediately monastery father found financial support wealthy merchants van according 17th century historian churches restored renovated architect built square planned west functioned church 19th century called west 17th century arched open air porch north south 17th century inscriptions western entrances prince invaded monastery looting manuscripts treasures cross later added monastery declined late 17th century treasures sold economic difficulties archbishop renovated monastery father decorated walls according unknown painter fused styles armenian persian western european art 19th century wall built monastery fourteen years later completely renovated converted manuscripts archbishop van robbed monastery treasures father death restored destroyed earthquake converted wheat warehouse future head father monastery effectively independent subordinate founded printing house began publishing eagle newspaper historical armenia published established modern school school taught subjects theology music grammar geography armenian studies history prominent novelist briefly teachers school produced graduates monastery sacked robbed teachers students killed according contemporary report american van famous historic monastery van region storms centuries certain fire abandonment early early stages armenian genocide turkish government forces laid siege van local organized self defense notable resistance turkish campaign april monastery held captured burnt turks time late april early date burning monastery contested april message sent americans foreign consul missionaries said window mountain store ancient manuscripts going smoke missionary wife wrote diary monastery attacked cavalry foot soldiers april repulsed gave day monastery burned american missionary teacher recounted 8th saw place flames near ancient manuscripts went smoke van governor ordered composed equipped cannons attack armenian defenders overwhelmed monastery collections medieval manuscripts burned destroyed current state significant number structures surviving destruction destroyed 1960s monastery remains barn according historian good sections barely survived days scholar turkey wrote visit remains monastery consisted brick house goats amid clutch homes best preserved section monastery church george looked dome partly collapsed contains traces surviving dome church entirely gone february following renovation lake van deputy governor announced sought restore monastery june year governor stated monastery renovated near future october reported nearby mosque built demolished room restoration monastery damaged result van earthquake according parts main church collapsed parts significantly weakened old cracks got bigger new ones appeared turkish engineers reportedly inspected announced commence restoration work spring wrote promises past needs little skeptical current state church makes work harder time past noted article local provincial governments supported preservation restoration monastery october artist contributed restoration stated hoped restore added van agreed launch restoration project social natural obstacles delayed process ownership reported september monastery owned turkish journalist media executive interview told newspaper monastery belonged grandfather inherited father monastery confiscated group turkey led activist started petition asking apply transfer title deed church concerned armenian community foundation told ready government authority approached respond offer church owners displayed interest activists demonstrated early october headquarters istanbul demanding return monastery land september progress architecture manuscripts monastery composed churches structures main church called holy mother god dated 11th century similar plan prominent earliest structure southern ensemble known 10th century left inscription dated western wall 10th century wife presented monastery gospel queen arm best known armenian illuminated manuscripts 14th 16th centuries monastery major center manuscript production number manuscripts kept cultural references mentions monastery volume novel prominent poet wrote article monastery anniversary father monastery subsequent revival great center education culture european visitors large armenian convent seven churches built substantial stone masonry courtyard planted trees church substantial modern stand courtyard walls covered primitive design execution broken formed noble object plain upper valleys named mountain lies important monastery residence archbishop good school monastery situated slopes mountain frequented numerous neighbourhood gallery | Varagavank | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
2102_OldChurchofStGwenllwyfo,Llanwenllwyfo | old church medieval ruined church near north wales built 15th century replace church 12th century font survived dedicated 7th century female saint known chapel ease church miles away restored 18th 19th centuries contained oak screen pulpit replaced middle 19th century larger church thirds mile away contents including memorial brass plaque early 17th century church bell removed items left disused church noted bad condition roof collapsed little structure remains walls reduced feet height history location ruins church stand near north east wales date construction church site unknown church medieval times 19th century writer suggested present building dates 15th century font probably 12th century date surviving earlier church site restoration work carried 18th century changes church historical details church dedicated 7th century woman known chapel ease attached parish miles away parish divided incumbent church area takes church welsh word originally meant enclosure church modified form saint priest responsible church wife niece owner landed estate area employed architect carry restoration work details unknown church need repair middle 19th century congregation needed larger building new church built thirds mile away financed largely widow 1st baron son old church allowed fall ruins stands disused cemetery surrounded trees architecture fittings nave chancel church structurally divided measure feet inches feet inches walls feet thick recorded having roof doors north south walls windows east north west walls pulpit oak screen feet high dated screen inscriptions welsh latin note married charge caused don honor god church brass plaque erected williams memory wife moved new church screen later added west end stop wind blowing nave windows added opposite sides chancel box installed 18th century bell new church added time survey ancient historical monuments wales building bad condition insecure roof retained 18th century oak communion table rectangular font dating 12th century screen damaged pulpit fragments oak sounding board dated 18th century memorials stone benches north south walls wooden benches 18th early 19th century medieval roof place roof collapsed walls lowered height feet assessment antiquarian described church small neat appropriately fitted performance divine service writing middle 19th century said church conspicuous interesting object parish general character mining districts immediate vicinity distinguished clergyman antiquarian writing church years earlier said building bad repair writer described church 1970s forgotten shell | Old Church of St Gwenllwyfo, Llanwenllwyfo | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
2237_SanSebastianChurch(Manila) | manila san better known roman catholic minor manila philippines seat parish san completed noted architectural features example revival gothic architecture philippines steel temple philippines steel church world included possible designation designated philippine government care order operate college adjacent located plaza del eastern end avenue manila history generous patron 3rd century roman martyr donated land church stands original structure wood burned chinese uprising succeeding structures built brick destroyed fire earthquakes 1880s parish priest ruined church approached spanish architect plan build fire earthquake resistant structure entirely steel completed design fused earthquake baroque style final design said inspired famed spain construction steel sections compose church manufactured belgium according historian steel parts ordered des enterprises brussels tonnes long tons short tons steel sections transported separate shipments belgium philippines shipment arriving belgian engineers supervised assembly church column erected september walls filled mixed sand gravel cement stained glass windows imported german stained glass firm local assisted applying finishing touches church raised status minor pope june completion following year august san consecrated 25th according priest structure supposed altar lost sea ship carrying belgium capsized storm wooden altar locally noted church designed resemble ship hull sway earthquake long reputed french engineer steel structure statue liberty involved design construction confirmed features towers steel floor nave rises meters dome meters tip twin faux finished interior church incorporates gothic architecture style permitting ample illumination lateral windows steel columns walls ceiling painted appearance marble paintings saints interiors church true gothic revival spirit church pulpit designed sculptor carved statues holy men women holy water constructed church crafted marble obtained main altar image lady mount given church sisters mexico_city image earthquakes fires destroyed previous incarnations ivory head stolen cultural historical declared president presidential decree state funding accorded church undertook restoration community likewise expended funds church maintenance restoration san church included possible designation account architectural historical heritage church declared national cultural treasure august unveiling marker january preservation recent years encountered threats structural integrity steel structure sea nearby manila bay placed endangered sites retained subsequent | San Sebastian Church (Manila) | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
2531_AnsheiIsraelSynagogue | historic located lisbon connecticut united_states orthodox congregation founded families constructed built interior single room lined benches altar held sacred congregation membership 1940s 1950s limiting services holidays finally closing early 1980s rules congregation strictly enforced curtain separate sexes distant members allowed drive way services town lisbon took ownership property 1980s currently maintained added national_register_of_historic_places construction early 1800s connecticut people jewish faith persons connecticut jewish public worship permitted petition early jewish services held private homes rented halls later usually adapted churches rural like modest structures reflect need jewish farming summer congregations buildings suitable worship limited financial geographic boundaries land built donated congregation money construct constructed feet feet building feet feet central projecting tower david flanking tower pair windows paint remnants previously painted bright blue passing tower single room platform original altar sacred remains interior concealed gold curtain rests podium chairs wooden benches provided seating described unusual arrangement historic connecticut building electricity heat wood provide heat previously use founding congregation families came poland russia lived surrounding towns lisbon service continue serve orthodox congregation decades congregation membership 1940s 1950s limited services holidays finally closed longer steadily gather men town lisbon acquired 1980s members open walking weekend events president member discussed orthodox congregation rules noted rules strictly enforced orthodox congregation members walk distant members drive walk mile use separate men women norm orthodox services poland russia women seating table right sanctuary near door structure preserved currently use importance added national_register_of_historic_places recognized significant example small country jewish house worship architecture simplicity remains important jewish house worship rural setting possessing integrity design day reflected comments kind country building featuring program building need repairs neglect damage received grant repairs repairs repair structure electrical replaced free students | Anshei Israel Synagogue | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
2639_BathAbbey | bath commonly known anglican parish church monastery bath somerset england founded 7th century reorganised 10th century rebuilt 12th 16th centuries major restoration work carried sir 1860s largest examples architecture church plan able seat active place worship hundreds congregation members hundreds thousands visitors year religious services secular civic ceremonies concerts lectures choir performs abbey heritage museum abbey grade listed building particularly noted fan contains war memorials local population monuments notable people form wall floor plaques commemorative stained glass church organs bells west includes sculptures angels climbing heaven stone history early history king granted hides near bath establishment convent religious house monastery patronage king successfully famous monastery bath bishop william tells rebuilt monastic church occupied site earlier pagan temple standard king moved describe built little known architecture building site england declined time brother crowned king english abbey began revival accession throne encouraged monks adopt rule saint introduced dissolution bath ravaged power struggle sons following death victor granted city royal physician john tours abbot bath shortly john bought grounds king city bath john paid city given gift king unclear abbey recently lost abbot according book owner large estates near city likely abbey wealth attracted john monastery acquiring bath john acquired mint city transferred seat administration probably attempt increase revenues bath rich abbey wells poor diocese taking abbey john increased episcopal revenues william portrays moving episcopal seat motivated desire lands abbey pattern time moving cathedral seats small villages larger towns john moved episcopal seat took abbey bath cathedral chapter turning diocese served monks instead wells previously served diocese john rebuilt monastic church bath damaged rebellions permission given somerset wells comparatively small settlement walled city bath effected john raised cathedral status roles bishop abbot combined monastery run prior elevation abbey cathedral status felt larger date building required john tours planned new cathedral grand scale dedicated complete died december buried cathedral renowned scholar monk based abbey bath travels monastery half finished cathedral devastated fire work continued new bishop completed building approximately feet long consecrated bishop specific date known successor approval pope officially moved seat monks accept new title claim abandoned successor wells moved bishop seat title following death monks bath unsuccessfully attempted regain authority wells monks roll joint cathedral status awarded pope innocent bath wells roger salisbury appointed bishop bath wells having year previously later bishops preferred wells successfully petitioned years wells regain cathedral status gradually fell disrepair monks bishop bath wells visited bath shocked find famous church ruins described discipline group monks eager flesh king took year consider action writing prior bath october explain large income dedicated rebuilding cathedral stories visit bath king dream saw high angels ascending descending ladder represented west cathedral interpretation appeared writings years supposed happened challenged robert king commissioned promising build finest vault england promising shall england france design incorporated surviving norman crossing wall arches appointed supervise work site work probably began following spring planned smaller church covering area norman nave live result restoration cathedral completed years reformation subsequent decline prior surrendered crown january sold church stripped lead iron glass left decay sold castle son gave remains building corporation bath corporation difficulty finding private funds restoration queen elizabeth promoted restoration church serve grand parish church bath ordered national fund set finance work decreed parish church bath wells paid new nave roof timber construction according inscription tomb prompted seeking shelter nave thunderstorm buried tomb north aisle modern renaissance 1820s 1830s buildings including houses shops close actually touching walls abbey demolished interior manners erected flying buttresses exterior nave added turrets major restoration work carried sir 1860s funded rector work included installation fan nave merely aesthetic addition completion original design arranged choir design william clues stonework king intended continue nave plan abandoned probably reasons cost addition stone screen choir nave removed scott work completed pupil 1890s including work west work carried 20th 21st centuries included cleaning stonework reconstruction pipe organ stonework west subject natural erosion process lime based conservation carried 1990s guidance professor previously worked west damage sculptures worse use portland cement previous work carried victorian era statue repair removed replaced modern statue architecture new church typical example perpendicular form gothic architecture low nave arcades tall present opposite balance usual perpendicular churches building serve monastic church built plan relatively rare parish churches time interior contains fine fan robert designed similar henry vii chapel westminster abbey building windows occupying wall space giving interior impression reflecting different attitudes shown clergy time 12th century abbey built bath stone gives exterior yellow colour example perpendicular form gothic architecture low nave arcades tall walls roofs supported buttresses pierced added nave bays feet long feet wide pillars rises feet church feet long feet wide west originally constructed large arched window detailed carvings window carvings angels long stone angels climbing apart story mentioned connecting bishop bath wells direct reference dream prophet jacob mentioned bible commonly called window supports statue beneath door statues restoration work late 20th century involved cleaning controlled intermittent water figures lost head shoulders replaced sculptures west interpreted representing spiritual ascent virtue descent vice pride christ man sorrow 1990s major restoration cleaning work carried exterior stonework returning yellow colour hidden centuries dirt windows building windows occupying percent wall space east end square framed window seven lights includes depiction bell presented church window northwest door memorial died stained glass window uncovered abbey design window tower stage central tower square plan bell openings turret tower feet high accessed staircase steps bells old ring bells replaced new ring tenor survive lighter bells added create ring bells diocese tenor recast abbey tower home ring bells unusually hung order bells highest lowest runs anti clockwise ringing chamber tenor weighs cwt bath noted centre change ringing interior interior fan ceiling originally installed robert restored sir fan provides structural stability distributing weight roof ribs transfer force supporting columns flying buttresses scott work 1870s included installation large gas converted electricity new features included new pulpit seating marble general sanctuary removed replaced decorative 1920s redesigned norman chapel war memorial chapel added new screens installed partly improve topped carved angels playing musical instruments monuments abbey wall memorials floor stones include dedicated admiral governor colony new_south_wales australia federation bishop bath wells wife military leader english civil war wife physician elizabeth empress russia sir senator monuments churchyard carved bath war memorials include commemorating anglo war world war second world war recent memorial installed commemorate developer died main organ mention organ abbey dates known instrument properly recorded organ built modified jordan son specification recorded stops spread extended half octaves added instrument renovated repairs effected instrument removed wells subsequently rebuilt extensively modified abbey organ built bristol specification thirty stops instrument rebuilt new gallery london specification stops spread solo department brought total completed removed remainder kept incorporation new abbey organ new organ supplied abbey norman beard stops spread stood divided steel beams north south crossing arches console standing floor north west pier crossing new cases provided designs bath executed erected new case designed sir addition stops pedal rebuilt hill norman beard brought number stops increased total speaking stops positive division separate case console installed time problems caused scheme lack contrasting sharply reliability caused wide variety different types key actions difficult access led decision instrument rebuilt organ totally reconstructed retaining existing instrument far possible restoring largely condition positive division kept instrument stands speaking stops built largely principle organ layout case department deep parts pedal sited sides case new percent tin pipes case completed walls roof pierced executed suffolk provided allow sound case old console retained thoroughly rebuilt modern accessories new organ ranks contain instrument ranks entirely contain ranks entirely ranks contain new entirely new old wind pressures possible old wind restored replaced instrument key action electrically assisted action stop action electric organ stop organ built abbey based organ builder instrument contained case dark oak portable tuned pitches modern concert pitch possible tune pedal reduce stops sounding stop released returns organ registration use depressed choir abbey sections boys girls men children singing abbey tour europe choir broadcast choral recordings performed concert opening bath spa abbey venue visiting inception sung christmas service live bbc located restored 18th century features artifacts exhibits abbey history displays include different buildings site uses abbey impact community construction architecture sculptures buildings artifacts sculptures role abbey present times museum opened currently closed redevelopment | Bath Abbey | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
2741_ChurchAdministrationBuilding | church administration building cab administrative office building salt_lake_city utah serving headquarters fourth largest christian united_states completed building adjacent temple square differs smaller offices presidency houses offices general authorities personal staff church officials guests permitted enter cab meetings church leaders political community leaders use special events initially housed administrative offices membership grew leadership staff expanded workers scattered office buildings downtown salt_lake_city far away miles south construction east freed offices exclusively general authorities continues serve church headquarters offices president presidency general authorities staff building overseen certain employees church officers guests permitted enter variety events held cab receiving distinguished visitors festivities winter olympics salt_lake_city olympic torch passed hands members presidency steps cab tradition funeral past presidents pass building hosted visitors including construction constructed building built quarry stone utah state capitol nearby marble company supplied marble interior cab according company marble area near columns form structure weighing tons building exterior constructed granite blocks | Church Administration Building | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
2746_StMary'sChurch,Nantwich | church mary church centre market town england church recorded designated grade listed building called cathedral south considered finest medieval churches england architectural writer described great architectural treasures included list outstanding english parish churches building dates 14th century number changes particularly substantial 19th century restoration sir church octagonal tower built red sandstone features church interior include vaulted ceiling choir carved stone chancel carved wooden stalls church active anglican parish church diocese chester history building site chapel ease parish church chapel came control abbey building present church started decorated style style commonly english church building time came yorkshire local sandstone probably near building work interrupted probably outbreak plague town prosperity recovered building work resumed phase construction carried master associated gloucester building perpendicular style south endowed chapel century south porch added nave roof raised windows added following dissolution monasteries removed ceilings renewed church floor raised flooding west gallery built walls painted white addition texts church briefly prison captured battles preston civil war north south galleries new west door added windows repaired general structure church deteriorated said inhabitants safely assemble 19th century sir brought direct extensive restoration alterations removed galleries box old memorials floor level lowered roofs pitched higher eroded stone replaced sandstone happy scale nature scott restoration architectural historian complained replacement decorated doorway perpendicular window corresponding structures style century local representative time opinion great injury church restoration complained way church walls subsequently pointed major work carried church direction local architect south porch restored cost equivalent architecture exterior church built red sandstone shape plan consists bay nave north south south porch storeys central tower north south bay chancel north storey treasury tower square octagonal bays northernmost bay north lady chapel bays dedicated south known chapel addition complaining aspects scott restoration comments abrupt change decorated perpendicular style doubt consequence building work caused particularly chancel windows rich decorated highly decorated buttresses seven light east window pure perpendicular aisle windows windows north decorated south window decorated perpendicular bell openings tower decorated describes tower motif church interior nave porch south wall nave shows line original roof raised contains faint remains paintings dating 19th century consist inscriptions nave pulpit designed pulpit damaged falling roof beam reduced restoration hanging wall nave number tudor boards taken ceiling south dated south aisle small painting widow second pulpit stone dating century attached northeast pier crossing designed appear like large decorated panel wooden crossing vault designed scott roof north wooden tudor design north wall northeast corner oven chimney communion contains oak chest dated bench dated east wall north south damaged sir died damaged civil war found buried chancel floor 19th century restoration sir david came mayor wales money south contains tomb dated transferred church constructed limestone includes sir mayor sheriff chester wife anne addition contains number brass memorials church west wall jubilee church commemorate silver jubilee elizabeth_ii porch stone dates contains carving green man outside porch carvings room porch houses library theological books including complete edition thought unique printed chancel ceiling chancel consists stone vault carved bosses dating 14th century eastern bosses depict life mary western ones christ passion resurrection carved wooden triple arched canopy described having complexity english medieval considered finest country complained stained nearly black lower ends victorian carvings angels foliage carvings subjects musical angels date early mid 15th century different carving subjects include dragon virgin brood ends carvings green man altar table dated north wall sanctuary opposite wall triple described 14th century dedicated contains carvings christ cross mary john national saints andrew patrick david echo stained glass features stained glass west window dates bell depicts presentation jesus temple bell window west end north wall nave depicting job east window designed dated memory local farmer depicting creation window depicts good shepherd david south wall nave window depicting saints military windows south wall fragments old glass north wall north contains window stained glass incorporates pieces medieval glass depicts tree east wall windows date south contains window dating stained glass east window bell shows episodes life christ figures porch stained glass dating original organ moved central position crossing north scott restoration instrument performed badly following attributed cold new position consequently moved south performed better sold church present organ built partly rebuilt rebuilt installed electro action additions repairs additions restoration parish registers date contain material relating history ring bells cast company present day church attracts large numbers sunday offers range services traditional contemporary week activities children young people adults rector canon clergy include director music events including concerts held church perform number venues chosen venue superb | St Mary's Church, Nantwich | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
2749_UppsalaCathedral | cathedral swedish cathedral located centre southeastern sweden controlled seat archbishop sweden archbishop current bishop cathedral dates late 13th century height metres tallest church countries originally built swedish monarchs lengthy period following converted house tombs swedish monarchs including buried church designed french gothic style french architects including form cross formed nave structure built western end completed middle 15th century twin towers built shortly west end church high added later fire adorned low completely redesigned undertook substantial changes building 1880s cathedral principal construction material brick pillars details limestone built according original 13th century plan erected late addition artwork funeral church older seen features destroyed major fire renovation work carried 1970s medieval reformation uncovered restored history end pagan temple kilometres north today replaced christian church exact date construction known ordained uncertain assumed office expelled germany early catalogue bishops mentions bishop replacement finland fourth bishop sweden control archbishop monk cathedral damaged fire chapter sought permission holy building larger site pope granted request condition maintained meeting september cathedral chapter decided site formal authorization issued pope appointed oversee case work began building new cathedral near south constructed site earlier stone church dedicated located exactly cathedral chancel stands sweden patron saint attended mass murdered kept surrounding town soon changed accordingly relics treasure moved new site formal church designed french architects author detailed initial plans supervised work recorded note drawn paris covers expenses incurred master builder assistants travelling sweden work construction cathedral credited work east south chancel probably south portal work appears followed plans predecessor progress slow result cold climate plague financial difficulties end 14th century work initial plans completed thanks particular contribution master builder began construction nave consecrated cathedral complete dedicated highly sweden time patron saint sweden roman_catholic_church patron saint norway completed following decades documentary records references period cathedral including dedicated virgin mary saints main component cathedral towers built cathedral damaged fire occasions especially great fire destroyed city restoration work completed middle century church regular place worship reformation reserved official services catholic_church hierarchy cathedral parish churches called church lady built east central business district remains date torn reformation cathedral coronation church sweden kings queens site celebrating middle ages end 17th century stockholm official coronation church architect undertook comprehensive restoration work seeking cathedral french high gothic appearance criticized building original style added pointed french towers bringing cathedral height making high long attempt cathedral appearance significantly altered large portions medieval outer brick walls removed decorative white washed blind windows similar nearby renovation work early 1970s led improvements building structure included restoration walls windows large portions cement additions exterior structure cathedral removed decades later adversely affected building fabric pope took service archbishop fire protection equipment installed electrical heating systems replaced architecture cathedral tallest church building scandinavia height length breadth height inside metres church designed french high gothic style french master builders including built high gravel ridge southwest latin cross ground plan consists central nave flanked lateral single aisle bay chancel surrounded seven bay nave bordered starting eastern end church surrounding chancel structure built western end nave completed middle 15th century towers took decades complete principal material red brick cathedral built stone foundation chancel pillars details limestone nave pillars originally brick replaced limestone restoration work carried twin towers west end church mentioned additions interior exterior church fire leadership known work castles turret seen older drawings added west towers designed designed new burial chapel east south significant alteration plan cathedral middle ages outside design respected traditions medieval architecture tall gothic windows interior decorated usual style 17th century towers redesigned style fire temporarily replaced low wooden tops time buttresses removed giving cathedral plain look conveyed pictures period copper faced installed designed time carried significant work west façade today towers work completely rebuilt 1880s substantially increasing height fire original flying buttresses removed higher roof built cathedral designed french architects exhibits number differences northern france essentially constructed brick stone brick easily produced locally stone imported distant bricks mortar strong stone walls thicker pillars needed support vaulted ceiling chancel limestone nave brick north portal built limestone doubt needed support rose window structured limestone chancel clearly french design nave built somewhat later displays german swedish characteristics constructed rose window northeast portal entirely french directed work nave appears slightly modified original plans adding including features german origin interesting note cross installed star shaped common time work western end building began construction west portal influenced style towers exhibited features typical 13th century french architecture indicating original plans use time overall despite minor differences reflects style 13th century northern france interior coronation vault stands point crosses nave sweden monarchs crowned middle ages restoration 1880s interior ceiling walls cathedral decorated neo gothic style depictions reformation added figures cathedral medieval heritage renovation work carried 1970s medieval reformation uncovered restored high altar cathedral services important feast days church calendar swedish bishops ordained silver large silver crystal installed cathedral largest chapel chapel eastern end chancel originally known chapel virgin mary later burial monument family completed decorated national arms sweden oldest known swedish finnish coats arms chapel chapel north west corner chancel houses relics patron saint sweden killed site later built shrine moved cathedral soon work began new building king melted shrine replaced new gold contains relics crown originates estate judge wife born chapel daughter housed small gold shrine donated chapel memorial tomb members family murdered king depicts story mary parents anne end 16th century church converted burial chapel queen wife chapel takes monument crowned marble vault designed windows windows maintain original shape size original stained glass decorations lost fire simply replaced normal glass current stained glass designs added renovation end 19th century firm large windows depict trinity god father west door god son south door largest church god holy spirit north door crafted limestone rose window north portal oldest unchanged 13th century treasury artefacts located north tower cathedral displays number gold silver articles religious services collection including golden gown burial wives seen artefacts cathedral include record important events cathedral history ornate pulpit largest sweden designed carved gift fire decorations include john baptist preaching desert athens labourers new bells installed devastating fire called taken poland war booty swedish forces great northern war seven large paintings executed period years depict important events life famous till speech people outside nave initially continental interior decorated designs emphasizing arch ribs portal components brick painted red white stripes 15th century figures late gothic style decorative vine leaves painted parts church traces found chancel chapel originally dedicated unfortunately heavily restored chancel probably painted workshop interred number swedish monarchs notable people buried inside cathedral 16th century king sweden nearly decade death expressed wish buried cathedral buried wives depicted designed king wives interred chapel virgin mary remaining indication original intention chapel painted yellow stars blue background vaulted ceiling symbols catholic tradition died second son second wife buried virgin mary chapel wife poland burial chapel north chancel princess elizabeth died youngest daughter buried adjacent chapel sons killed murders chapel clothes wearing time death displayed 18th century world famous botanist professor memorial designed swedish system 18th century scientist mystic originally interred remains transported england archbishop nobel peace prize recipient tomb foot steps high altar 12th century king national saint relics chapel sweden lutheran archbishop buried foot altar steps relics saint placed shrine chapel inspired clothing saint order memorial cathedral small memorial secretary general united_nations posthumously awarded nobel peace prize stone bears inscription english translation god open visitors cathedral located centre open visitors days north tower open sundays | Uppsala Cathedral | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
2840_LeicesterAbbey | leicester abbey abbey saint mary commonly known religious house city leicester abbey founded 12th century robert 2nd earl leicester grew wealthiest religious establishment patronage donations abbey gained countless churches england acquired considerable land maintained cell small dependent daughter house lancashire abbey prosperity boosted passage special privileges english kings pope included exemption sending representatives parliament paying certain land livestock despite privileges landed estates late 14th century abbey began suffer financially forced lease estates financial situation exacerbated 15th century early 16th century series incompetent corrupt extravagant abbey considerable income exceeded considerable debts abbey provided home average known dress white habit black notable chronicle written time abbey 14th century cardinal died abbey whilst travelling south face trial treason years later abbey dissolved quickly demolished building materials reused structures leicester including mansion built site house passed aristocratic families known acquired 1st earl house eventually looted destroyed fire following capture leicester english civil war abbey donated predecessor modern city_council 8th earl opened known abbey park remaining acres included abbey site ruins donated council following archaeological excavations opened public 1930s following demolition exact location abbey lost rediscovered excavations 1920s layout plotted low stone walls abbey extensively excavated previously training students leicester abbey protected scheduled monument history foundation founded wave monastic enthusiasm swept western 11th 12th centuries wave responsible foundation majority england monasteries founded 13th century monasteries founded wealthy aristocratic endowed establishments return prayers soul right buried monastic church founded tradition monks abbey known followed monastic rules set known dress white habit black lived clerical life engaged public ministry distinct forms monks outside world lived isolated life founded dedicated abbey robert established having founded robert father 1st earl leicester previously founded college secular leicester known college mary new abbey assumed control college possessions included churches leicester robert added gift numerous churches abbey gained manor merger college manor founder leicester continued abbey wife founder son 3rd earl leicester financed construction abbey whilst husband donated acres land pope granted abbey exemption paying newly acquired land livestock granted condition violence abbot donated money abbey buried regardless 14th century abbey religious house attacked soldiers seized property belonging hugh 1st earl winchester kept tenure abbey prospered increasing lands acquisitions described having friendly relations king edward iii gain privileges abbey including having send representatives parliament late 14th century abbey entered difficult period income began fall period abbey home canon henry wrote chronicle includes contemporary experiences historical section recording events chronicles impact rise gives unusually favourable account john chronicle valued historians contemporary account leicester compared chronicles plague florence depth account records effects includes impact prices food grain wine cattle changes wages labour market chronicle includes detailed death tolls leicester parishes revealing population leicester killed disease following deaths abbey punishment candidates ill prepared little suited sacred ministry chronicle published 15th century 15th century abbey began lease land probably solution falling income lands leicester remained leased directly farmed abbey served abbot leicester abbey resigned chaplain king subsequently served cardinal successor richard granted permitting ask pope remove abbey jurisdiction abbot feared interfere abbey lay diocese unclear pope agreed petition petitioned pope receiving declaration confirming fully subject successors tenure abbey fortunes fell visit revealed number fallen number boys fallen accused practices accepting unsuitable boys return money minor revenues keeping offices treasurer hands abbey accounts known servants accused practising magic including despite apparent financial corruption abbey appeared financially stable abbey monastic buildings recently extensively rebuilt abbey substantial annual income large income abbot sustaining appears taken strong measures abbot ordered number increased number boys increased bishop ordered proper accounts kept forbade abbot granting permission bishop 16th century visited inspect abbey abbot like accused financial thought old perform duties included excessive number known freely church chapter house whilst bishop complained boys educated visit successor showed things improved rarely attended church services bring disturbed services abbot bad example affected canon behaviour ate drank improper times failed attend services average attended freely outside abbey visiting town frequently going hunting accused visit revealed abbey severely debt leading bishop appoint administrators oversee abbey finances chancellor visited abbey found things improved abbot attending services eating unusual times unusual places away chancellor complained abbot excessive number servants habit leaving abbey proper reason saw alternative remove task simple tried secure position sending gifts bribes leading resort abbot constantly interfering affairs abbey finally resigned years later years failures noticed granted pension year retirement far quiet frequently wrote complaining affairs abbey fact generous pension year taken tax asking tax paid abbey tenure cardinal visited abbey influential minister government king henry viii fell favour failing secure papal permission henry divorce wife november arrested treason route yorkshire london held prisoner fell ill journey took leicester arrived abbey november declaring father come leave bones died november public allowed view remains interred abbey church time removed abbey financial position poor despite richest monastery income owed total abbot house took control reduced debt usually elected abbey represented departure tradition probably gained position abbot influential abbot promise bribe henry_viii chief adviser exact details unknown letters suggest promised nephew given lease abbey promise honoured april faced opposition abbey historians suggested choices selecting felt future changes church future architect king henry_viii asked vii marriage pope refused started series events known henry broke away authority pope lieu pope henry assumed authority church priests religious figures including monks required swear support royal supremacy church leicester abbey acknowledged king royal supremacy august saving abbey immediate dissolution henry chief minister long eyes wealth english monasteries time owned approximately quarter realm landed wealth starting monasteries inspected establishment wealth recorded frequent reports vice excess reports compiled volumes known leicester abbey inspected complimented honest man tried bring charges adultery unnatural vice abbey sought gain favour protect abbey sending gifts sheep ultimately fruitless convinced king henry immoral behaviour england monasteries suppressed dissolved land property wealth transferred king abbot attempts save finally surrendered crown dissolution dissolution dissolution abbey buildings demolished years main gatehouse boundary walls farm buildings left standing abbot granted substantial pension year abbey dissolved largest diocese lincoln payments continue long reign henry_viii son king national finance poor suspended recorded having received payments months following dissolution period religion rapidly changing england managed adapt beliefs stay hierarchy church twice candidate rector represented true religious sympathies patronage catholic edward griffin hall financial incentive wage income year highest henry_viii personally considered position proposed new king decided creation touching distance bishop suggested candidate granted income preparation formally appointed mary died appointed mary catholic sister successor protestant elizabeth refused appoint mary favoured candidates vacant mary left gotten lightly candidates arrested felt unable accept queen elizabeth whilst serving rector decided lay low list drawn diocese lincoln lists known lives continued noticed deprived june sold rights year pension sir sum quietly fled abroad probably france flanders wealthy old man wanted state fugitive sea contrary statute lived quietly abroad remaining years date place death unknown thought lived years old following dissolution monasteries henry_viii began lease newly acquired land property extract income granted year lease commissioners negotiated surrender abbey period abbey rapidly demolished stone sold meet high demand town leicester war france scotland led henry viii sell religious establishments land raise finances quickly later granted bestowed leading families friends supporters king religious establishments frequently developed country homes new aristocratic owners notable examples include followed similar format cave cut short king granted abbey 1st brother queen abbey stone create new mansion site held abbey years supporting claim throne accession arrested lands confiscated mary granted abbey mansion catholic supporter 1st baron hastings fell favour mary sister elizabeth came throne abbey sold 3rd earl brother sir sir edward owners actually lived abbey permanently living gatehouse whilst site developed sir edward son henry inherited abbey sold 1st earl mansion built site known 1st earl intended abbey main residence started massively extend mansion new range added south large wing north family massively wealthy estates homes following death 1st earl family decided use principle residence stopping point way london house gained time residency house née bruce widow 2nd earl english civil war house king charles royalist forces besieging captured leicester house looted burned royalist left marched south oxford meeting parliamentary forces battle repaired family sold abbey point ruins agricultural land 19th century abbey come possession 8th earl sold land east known allow undertake flood prevention work land river developed public space known opened prince wales remaining acres abbey included abbey site donated 9th earl demolished found unsafe nearly half years later area opened public abbey park archaeological excavations excavations abbey took place 17th century instructed search body relics abbey little found ground remains exact location abbey lost 1840s editor tried failed attempt locate abbey church 1850s carry excavations failed locate abbey prior 9th earl donation abbey attempt undertaken trace abbey found interim period donation land opening abbey park abbey subject numerous archaeological excavations continued following decade abbey church associated buildings finally located decided architect charge designing new public park site abbey laid low stone walls abbey stone robbed remained buildings trenches remains foundations trenches recognised meant layout areas chapter house dormitory clear decided presumed location abbey clarify layout area abbey excavations located north south walls 15th 16th century brick oven confirming area excavated enlarged south west corner building second oven uncovered corner entirely robbed stone courses sandstone remaining second oven found contain fragments wheat fish bones drain identified 1930s excavation located found contain small bones fish scales bones rats lived drain excavation confirmed kitchen square building measuring metres square walls metres metres thick found corners room suggest room octagonal shape internally similar found abbey ruins training excavations students layout archaeological excavations undertaken allowed historians layout plan abbey plotted low stone walls 1920s 1930s abbey church built artificially raised piece land thought richly decorated featured tower west end main entrance church large extended church large secondary situated chancel east end church lay south abbey church flanked ranges building west range contained room washing vaulted storage floor abbey best residential accommodation probably including abbot east range contained abbey small room presumed library second larger storage corridor known leading graveyard floor canon dormitory communal south range contained warming house containing large fire residents warm floor ate south lay ranges buildings formed courtyard western range courtyard contained abbey south east courtyard large separate rectangular building small projection facing north building believed guest hall projection explained window abbey sat large walled original walls constructed sandstone 13th century featured projecting corner towers smaller interval towers length original wall demolished enclosure enlarged south turn 16th century work thought remains wall known wall new wall built red brick stone decorated different patterns symbols include devices simple patterns religious symbols built wall black bricks abbey entered outer gateway north wall led halt way metres long flanked stone walls enclosed south end abbey formal gatehouse original gatehouse single storey construction flanking gate subsequently enlarged new gatehouse measured metres metres round turrets corner thought contain stairs couple storeys built gate gatehouse flanked west thought small second kitchen eastern lay abbey hospital care ill elderly large buildings chapel hall end serving ward abbey contained poor boys received free education type boarding school water mill possessions controlled churches churches churches outside monastic cells lancashire land list list abbey | Leicester Abbey | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
2950_GisboroughPriory | ruined borough cleveland ceremonial county england founded mary norman feudal magnate ancestor scottish king richest monastic foundations england grants crown nobles gentry local people modest means norman destroyed fire rebuilt gothic style scale following century remains regarded finest surviving examples early gothic architecture england prospered abolished england monastic communities buildings demolished stone buildings east end church left standing great window forming distinctive arch known landmark symbol estate family acquired east window preserved romantic adjoining seat takes spelled owned care english_heritage scheduled monument 19th century archaeological excavations taken place grounds substantial site investigated addition east window surviving visible fragments complex include lower courses west range vaulted gateway 14th century use today adjoining laid 18th century restoration volunteer group ruins gardens open public year history establishment established time founding town refers fortified place scandinavian called taken site established romans lived vicinity arrival 8th 9th centuries priest church mill recorded book refers town following gave lands area count passed friend lord largest landowners north owning acres km2 yorkshire william north left region severely depressed state monasteries north opportunities existed new agricultural religious developments order came england start 12th century established houses england including major ones communities living rule wearing dark robes earned black according founding charter founded certain monastery religious order sic honour god holy virgin mary gave church service god things pertaining gift included lands amounting roughly equivalent acres km2 churches mills possessions grants charter started provide material buildings house foundation authorised pope archbishop york peers yorkshire founded monastic institutions religious obligations date foundation unclear 14th century canon historian walter gives charter confirmation dates period foundation charters shorter dating possibly detailed dating definitive document rights privileges prior grew centuries added royal grants granted rights sac established monday market right hold annual day fair mark feast assumption august proceeds fees events supported prior granted free warren lands nearby villages extended permitted convert acres land deer park gave twice yearly right right stray return gave steady income fines fees owned sheep 13th 14th century known strict rule religious reputation living canonical life attracted ireland long close involvement closely associated like outlook canon william moved abbot supported local people records survive numerous small grants related place chamber distributed poor support building work leased bought sold land money property grants benefit building fund wealthy discipline slipped found necessary action late 13th century number sent correction turn took places embroiled dispute local landowner raided properties alias course dispute parish church suffered catastrophic fire according account lead roof forgot fire causing roof catch fire lead ran church building destroyed effects costly books lost sought raise funds rebuilding petitioned king grant parish churches rewarded donors granting temporal punishment sins nave chancel rebuilt support family coat arms displayed buildings rebuilding probably took century complete work slowed high costs civil unrest early 14th century scottish raiders repeatedly plundered north england lands reduced value raids diminishing income wealth tapped york good losses refugees monastic houses forced disperse escape raiders probably consequence troubles petitioned king clerical tenth tax clerical property granted permission buildings staff diminished lay brothers yorkshire line family died death childless local nobility families married peter sisters took patronage continued centuries prominent local nobles buried scottish robert grandfather patrons families buried received substantial financial support patrons william lord provided funds complete north nave donated roughly equivalent million today new left cattle manor bequeathed range religious items arrangements body interred death dissolution henry viii england catherine act supremacy passed declared church_of_england church estate england king estate henry ordered comprehensive survey church property found annual net value fourth wealthiest monastic house yorkshire monasteries annual income suppressed wave suppression second survey carried king commissioners provided final suppression charges lack quality religious life prior forced resign replaced loyal king dissolution welcomed locals derived economic benefit presence families depended strength feeling recorded letter lord sir sunday 11th july yorkshire parish priest declaring articles dissolution directed king archbishop york alias came violently took book forth priest hands pulled pieces popular discontent sparked implicated revolt failed hanged prior abbot abbot formally dissolved april surrendered king men december making monastic houses england suppressed proposal found secular college came buildings exception great east window demolished november granted lease buildings site demolished carried away demolition carried collapsing central tower body church crushing fall reducing rubble site lands let sir later purchased property outright occupied quarters west range moving new mansion old hall bow street century remains cleared fallen stonework looted sold grounds redeveloped formal gardens grounds old hall local historian mid-19th century described stonework seen buildings uses seen eyes broken pillars august pile uses stands stepping stones common sewer richly doorway forms entrance sorrow shame richly columns carved god temple supporting pig house fragments travelled hall near mock ruin built incorporating stones brought wealth stuff local legends claimed underground passage led cave hills raven stood guard chest gold lands source wealth sir son called thomas established england works south town important product variety industrial uses especially important cloth industry substance fix cloth supply controlled controlled spain conflict england exercised virtual monopoly provision import cheaper turkish banned pope century visited pope works near rome noticed soil vegetation resembled estate return established works aid smuggled rome earning papal casts doubt story noting account published decades stated came france mention travels italy substantial survive eastern great east window survival owed rise 18th century portrayal ruined buildings landscapes contemporaries inspired fashion nobility gentry produce paintings monasteries providing incentive landowners preserve romantic ruins east window examples monastic ruin retained visual qualities incorporated grounds old hall romantic ruin great window removed ensure view given role inspiring east window preservation turner visit yorkshire east lawn laid east window grand early 20th century installed cattle grounds south buildings ran length grounds afforded access ruins flight steps flanked carved sea wolves reflecting coat arms thought dragons local people steps referred dragon steps old hall demolished built mansion house half mile east 2nd baron transferred control responsibility english heritage remains property lord english_heritage responsible maintaining ruins day day running managed according folklore haunted ghost monk black habit returns annually check buried treasure disturbed said arrive midnight year new moon lower spanning vanished moat people turned watch allegedly managed spot figure spectators turned saw description buildings characterised highly visible remains church survives state dominated east wall stands height church column bases seen number excavated graves site outline visible largely ruins west range constitutes largest area remains ground ruined gatehouse intact limits visitors stand western edges site church remains church dominated eastern wall stands height great east window regarded finest examples century church architecture design close eastern arm cathedral built time thought modelled design window disappeared surviving fragments seven major lights openings window centre great circle filled lights main east wall flanked massive buttresses capped octagonal similar pair main flanking window unusual design projects lower lobe support statue longer present possibly virgin mary dedicated little remains ground rest surviving stonework final form church nave bays bays total length metres survival east wall allows ridge line roof stood metres ground arcades supported shafts bases visible capitals carved foliage combined single arch main arcade high vault executed stone bosses decorated red white paint gold leaf traces visible bosses found 19th century eastern bay divided remnants screens visible main aisle north south responds main altar stood short distance west tall screen angle aisle spiral staircase visible surviving east wall gave access passage inside walls secondary stairs angles main enabling access parts building maintenance cleaning requiring remains north south extended north present boundary wall graveyard presumably high ranking clergy 19th century archaeologists found stone excavations visible east wall original location recorded centrally placed grave visible east window housed memorial founders erected removed dismantled parts recovered 19th century reconstructed displayed ruins church housed shrine virgin mary significant north lincoln destroyed reformation revived father roman catholic parish priest years housed town ranges fragments buildings associated seen site measuring metres square south church surrounded domestic buildings ranges replaced earlier ranges destroyed fire rebuilt new larger design doors north wall gave access nave church surviving arches columns taken london display provided basis reconstruction medieval english national art court section exhibition fragments west range range extant entered west outer projecting north end range members community received visitors prior lived upper floor comprised hall chamber chapel dedicated prior rooms probably located outer pattern monasteries outside world largest surviving fragment range comprises supplies kept vaulted bays constructed stone floor level relatively preserved believed divided timber later replaced stone dining hall range south range east contained chapter house dormitory excavated western end range excavated presents vaulted bays survive located floor service passage survives kitchen western late middle ages severely restricted raised floor outer buildings buildings stood centre walled arranged courts inner outer entrances remains great gate inner court extant outer gatehouse longer survives gate comprised outer porch inner porter lodge ground floor chambers arch survived intact early 18th century outer porch remains structure consists single large round headed outer smaller arches different sizes deeply accommodate doors metres south larger arch wagons pedestrians entered smaller arch little remains porter lodge remnants visible north wall shaft built octagonal short distance west west range extant visited grounds built 14th century modified century addition roof welsh slate capped open sided timber original nesting boxes removed garden store older buildings site rebuilt times ruins visible today principally rebuild site occupied times structure possibly timber framed church boundary wall indicated number believed saxon settlement vicinity late saxon 8th century coin found buried remains west nave site abandoned point time built land stood cultivation graveyard early 12th century early norman building erected vicinity possibly temporary church norman completed relatively short narrow constructed style twin nave single tower west end aligned main axis church entered north external door south existence northward door suggests secular congregation possibly local nobility patrons number graves associated found south aisle floor north wall rebuilt larger scale church demolished course construction new church continued 13th century enlarged twin towers west end flanking large double doorway central rose window water provided lead pipes church buildings north west main body church comprised nave choir laid geometric coloured tiles adjoining sandstone columns nave north aisle divided private number people probably local nobles gentry buried unusual feature church sunk nave possibly built effort safeguard water supplies effects fire destroyed seen paving surviving pillars thought church completely rebuilt excavations 1980s substantial damaged west end reused resulted distinct ends constructed different architectural styles rebuilding major task took generations probably completed end 14th century unclear second survived fire rebuilt builders reused possible core surviving eastern wall fragments destroyed second monks pond land immediately south formal gardens attached early 18th century planted oval shaped double avenue trees monks walk stonework recovered mid-19th century excavations deposited trees lawn hold musical theatrical productions monks walk fell restoration late 19th century wife lord laid formal gardens typical late victorian design elaborate schemes paths rose garden sunken italian garden ornamental pool centre open public small fee entered gateway bow street gardens freely accessible east road fish pond presents dramatic arch reflected photographed painted pond scene elaborate water organised raise funds restoration pond home number exceptionally large fish pollution caused sewage leak led death fish properties owned responsible hospital south west hospital probably founded 12th century documented fate unclear probably survived dissolution owned cell wood grant issued reign henry records donation hamlet enable establish cell single monk canon unclear cell built mentioned deeds henry_viii commissioners property building remains recorded existing century cleared start 19th century trace stood indication excavations captain carried major excavation cutting trench site number features discovered including stone coffin containing skeleton tall man thought remnants monumental shrine painted roof bosses evidence fire discovered form pieces fused metal lead silver iron melted penetrated floor heat fire carried excavations conjunction work consolidate walls grounds opened public work carried exposed site cleared material 19th century carried major excavation west end nave consolidate area cause collapse burial vault excavations found evidence fire including masonry shattered bell broken grave remains people men women children gender discovered buried grave goods including gold finger ring jet crosses found alongside remains priests skeletons cremated ashes scattered monks walk survey carried west east west range indicated existence remains monastic buildings excavated establishment dissolution recorded holding office names dates taking office periods held office known follows lawrence michael john simon date uncertain adam | Gisborough Priory | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
3019_AllSaints'Church,Shuart | saints church north west kent south east england established period chapel ease parish centred north eastern corner mainland kent adjacent island separated mainland sea formed known church site demolished early 17th century remaining ground church stood area saints church stood settled land west given 7th century saints church remained chapel ease parish early 14th century parish broken form separate parishes area served saints merged centre new parish saints chapel churches saints continued junior relationship parish making annual payments church saints originally consisted nave chancel sanctuary added building phase church extended occasions 10th 14th centuries period population growth include nave western tower northern chapel windows featured stained glass church abandoned 15th century presumably parish longer support churches demolished virtually masonry removed improvements church settlement remained area local administration 17th century regarded deserted medieval village visible remains land remained belonging parish site saints church excavated archaeologists main structure robbed materials leaving foundations archaeologists able interpret history building construction form foundations discovered numerous stone carvings floor tiles remnants stained glass disturbed graves origin place anglo saxon language means cut piece land earliest evidence human settlement dates rectangular enclosure lies little north site saints church collection objects period known found south west site 1980s occupation continued roman period structures pottery glass dating times found nearby human site history period begins division eastern western parts 7th century division attributed medieval sources route taken female deer set free run island founder double monastery marking route beginning north island sea ending south halfway miles apart land east route given monastery existence land west described broadly western island given monastery king kent division island apparent book compiled remained important feature early 15th century included prominently map island drawn according division marked bank lynch goes island commonly called lynch monastery established developed centre large estate manor parish early 9th century extremely wealthy came control canterbury 10th century church estate appear fallen royal hands king england gave christ church canterbury known anglo saxon charter recording gift shows estate included land west time slightly earlier charters complicated picture king england gave land nicholas wade year gave land means charter recording land west north evidently nonetheless regarded belonging archbishop king king mother gave lands kent including christ church documents recording transactions entered christ church archive land christ church acquired 10th century liberty shown map early 15th century site saints church included mentioned book included entry recorded right held entirely archbishop canterbury portion held tenant analysis archbishop holdings book concludes saints church community church dedicated saints established time 10th century status church mother church area dates 7th century led establishment church chapel equally development response acquisition land area christ church canterbury examination building archaeological remains failed provide precise date church stood years establishment nearby church earliest church certainly built late 11th century church original church saints rectangular building aligned east west axis measuring feet feet consisted western nave eastern chancel sanctuary added eastern end chancel phase building chancel feet long nave small taking feet building overall length connected feet long feet foundations suggest heavy structure including vaulted ceiling size community church originally built serve unknown book records presence manor included land consisted mainly land mainland kent numbers multiplied times account represent adult male heads households book manor lived expansion second phase building undertaken 10th 11th centuries church enlarged west wall demolished allowing nave extended west feet chancel opened replaced lighter chancel arch phase followed 12th century nave rebuilt larger structure north south lined columns measuring feet wide feet long tower feet square added western end church time fourth phase building carried 13th century fourth phase involved installation new windows featuring stained glass especially eastern end nave comparable glass south dates chapel added north church measuring feet wide feet long altar eastern end paved tiles inches square flemish floor tiles installed church probably 15th century expansion church coincided period growth population parish approximately doubled people late 13th century record explicitly mention saints dates community served complained archbishop canterbury vicar failed provide chaplain celebrate daily mass archbishop settled dispute concerning duty pay repairs church owed owners property archbishop canterbury established parish chapel served vicar assistant priest according document parish served time predecessor population continually increasing extent single vicar parish inadequate island separated rest kent new arrangement prompted posed distance mother church document specified vicar saints pay annually vicar sign vicar procession assistant priest year monday eighth day easter present virgin mary patron saint september visits continued century recorded parish making annual payments 19th century archbishop instructions set relative values parishes saints taxes known clerical tenths liable compared saints vicar saints named decline map drawn early 15th century shows church tower map shows churches actually appeared shows church tower examination church foundations indicates probably ruin middle 15th century demolished replaced smaller structure tower years later material construction new nave church late 15th century medieval font parish church mary virgin probably came saints church year vicar reported existence acres called close stood chapel saints antiquarian wrote church entirely demolished fences marks decline community begun decline closing adjacent channel channel preferred route sea borne trade england continental europe medieval times probably providing large early prosperity kent supporting local industry collecting salt progressively blocked tax records 15th century inhabitants included men shipping ceased end 15th century northern section adjacent merely creek middle 16th century abandonment church presumably arose cost keeping churches saints remote rural parish continued represented tax records 17th century assessed rate archaic taxes known tenths rate fixed compared rate appears records parish decline parish second smallest number households having near settlement matter historical record wrote town belonged chapel saints building recorded lewis good farm house farmhouse built late 17th century stands today considered deserted medieval village excavation site saints church recorded ordnance survey maps 19th century confirmed mid-20th century aerial photography north road site farmland owned college cambridge excavated college permission surviving main structure foundations rammed chalk nonetheless allowed construction history developed elements structure found included mortar floor tiles green sandstone stone stone stained glass stone fragments numerous carvings including small carved pieces foliage certainly twelfth century work fragments mortar showing imprint found rubble foundation trenches indicating stone structure shoreline number graves discovered covered unmarked stone robbed filled rubble containing fragments human bone graves dug demolition church construction smaller short lived replacement 15th century virtually building structure robbed presumably use remained destroyed | All Saints' Church, Shuart | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
3134_TawangMonastery | indian state largest monastery india second largest world palace situated valley near small town northwestern close proximity border known translates paradise clear night founded accordance wishes 5th belongs school religious association continued period british rule monastery stories high enclosed feet long compound wall complex residential buildings library monastery valuable old scriptures mainly festivals celebrated monastery elaborate colorful etymology monastery means horse means chosen forms word meaning location selected horse means paradise means means divine meaning site chosen horse divine paradise location monastery situated near mountain elevation feet commanding view valley comprises snow capped mountains coniferous forest bounded southern western flanks steep formed streams narrow spur north gently sloping ground east monastery entered northern direction sloping spur alpine vegetation nearby named monastery connected road rail air services nearest rail head kilometres away road airport nearest airport road distance kilometres legends legends narrated establishment monastery legend said location present monastery selected horse belonged mission assigned 5th establish monastery intense search failed locate suitable place retired cave offer prayers seeking divine intervention choose site came cave found horse missing went search horse finally found grazing mountain called past palace king took divine guidance decided establish monastery location seeking help local people established monastery location second legend linked treasures location stated given resulted abbreviated form means initiation according legend white horse region people went search horse found horse grazing present location monastery people area horse location found year eventually honour sacred site built site legend narrated goddess painted monastery female deity compared like drawn black colour eyes dressed skirt tiger skin neck moon disc hair similar seen associated legend states past lived sri_lanka consort demon king practiced human sacrifice supportive practice fled kingdom running away king shot shot arrow struck riding drew arrow left hole gap watch teachings lord history monastery founded behest 5th contemporary experiencing difficulties building monastery chosen location ancient 5th issued people area provide help fix perimeter given ball length form limit monastery prior dominance sect buddhism black hat sect buddhism dominant resulted hostile approach founder problem compounded belonged sect tried invade control monastery built like fort structure strategic location chosen defense point view entered agreements agreement signed february surrender right return annual fee dated related order british administration india return annual fee seven officials travel plains collect monastic contributions according visited monastery monastery parliamentary form administration known chief monastery members dependent head government aspect supported visited monastery region india control agreement area came control british gave square miles territory including region monastery british disputed territory bone contention india china war china invaded india october northeastern border forcing indian army retreat occupied including monastery months china claimed belonged war 14th fled journey crossed india march reached taken shelter monastery days moving years later spite strong protests china visit november monumental event people region abbot monastery greeted fanfare monastery monks number reported established monastery august manuscripts manuscripts treated preservation november reported monastery threatened possible landslide risk times_of_india reporting massive landslides professor united_kingdom acknowledged landslide expert wrote northern flank site appears consist landslide reasons clear river flows south toe slope site outside bend long term erosion toe need prevented site preserved monastery currently control district monastery administrative control headed monk built known south west district collect taxes preach buddhism monastery owns lands villages patches villages cultivated farmers share produce monastery present resident head monastery features entrance outer walls entrance monastery colourful gate structure known built shape like structure walls built stone masonry roof features interior walls murals saints painted distinctive mural ninth mural southwest west corner southern wall protector deity religion considered guardian deity region ahead main gate south entry open gate main entrance monastery south open gate massive doors fitted northern wall outer wall feet length heights varying feet apart main gate southern monastery entry gate massive door nearer gate small openings wall provide complete view exterior eastern wall connects according legend 5th given roll thread bound walls monastery denote extent monastery built main buildings monastery built like large mansion triple large assembly hall functional structures residential quarters students monks monastery school water supply facility centre buddhist cultural studies ground floor monastery ritual dances performed walls monastery buddhist deities saints suspended balcony painted buddhist symbols monastery residential buildings accommodate monks houses monks abbot monastery resides house located near gate southeastern corner monastery notable feature wall porch ground floor foot print stone slab said foot print belonged resident monastery water carrier known served monastery long time fine day announced completed service monastery stamped left foot stone slab created formation step step miracle view belief people region imprint stone slab created divine person true monastery main temple main temple monastery west entry gate known means assembly means building built large image feet height decorated lotus position image northern face assembly hall installed platform head extends floor image silver holds special goddess guardian deity monastery said painted blood drawn nose 5th renders ethereal living quality image known donated monastery 5th main temple fell dilapidated condition renovated traditional buddhist architectural style decorated paintings murals carvings sculptures forth library texts monastery printing press printing religious books paper locally wooden blocks printing books usually refer conducting religious rituals entire second floor houses library contains scriptures affected insect attacks collection library consists printed books volumes commentaries buddhist teachings sets translated version buddhist teachings volumes sets printed printed sets volumes set volumes volumes letters books washed gold religious text letters washed gold pages stage sacred scriptures lost reason attributed monks monastery visit winter time past monks demanded image gifted accepted monastery result refused sacred texts records took away books customs festivals belong sect dominant sect region boys join monastery young boys join monastery train condition lifetime commitment monk wishes leave monastery heavy penalty levied according past custom family sons middle son monastery family sons youngest son inducted monastery main festivals held monastery festival religious scriptures monasteries following religious villagers carry scriptures agricultural land seeking good yield crops protect attack wild animals festival marks beginning new year people visit monastery offer prayers known annual festival exclusively held monastery held according buddhist calendar days 28th 30th corresponds january calendar celebration objective festival ward evil spirits round prosperity happiness people ensuing year day festival dances performed artists colorful costumes masks held courtyard including performed monks monastery dance represents myth costumes masks represent animal forms cows tigers sheep forth | Tawang Monastery | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious 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3412_StMary'sChurch,LlanfairMathafarnEithaf | small medieval church north wales earliest parts building including nave north doorway date 14th century parts including chancel east window date 15th century associated welsh poet clergyman born nearby served later travelled america teach virginia church use worship churches combined parish grade listed building national designation given particularly important buildings special interest good rural church retaining substantial medieval fabric history location mary church situated near east coast north wales country road near village parish includes coastal resort parish takes church welsh word originally meant enclosure church modified form translates area field tavern medieval church oldest building nave dates 14th century chancel arch nave chancel added following century architect diocese carried work church added north porch south making alterations additions chancel church use worship churches combined diocese position rector held services held sunday morning alternating holy communion morning prayer welsh priest poet born parish january served weeks later travelled america teach virginia remained virginia death architecture fittings built rubble masonry buttresses eastern ends nave chancel slate roof roof seen inside church west end roof containing bell dated church gallery west end reached climbing spiral staircase nave longer higher chancel step simple 15th century chancel arch nave measures feet inches feet inches chancel measures feet inches feet inches entrance porch middle south wall nave houses round headed doorway 15th 16th century headed single window south wall nave left porch windows headed lights sections window separated right porch south wall chancel similar window lights inserted blocked window 17th century north wall church rebuilt 14th century doorway pointed arch windows similar south east window dates 15th century lights headed set pointed arch hood mould outside survey ancient historical monuments wales noted wooden communion table dated interior memorials dated recorded churchyard contained 11th century churchyard cross point held fittings inside church date mid-19th century pulpit carved panels depicting christ madonna child installed marking death altar memory died world war assessment church national recognition statutory protection alteration designated grade listed building second highest grades listing designating particularly important buildings special interest given status body responsible built heritage wales inclusion welsh buildings statutory lists states listed good rural church retaining substantial medieval fabric writing clergyman antiquarian said called long low building situated uneven rocky exposed locality parish bleak appearance thought roof church remarkable quantity good light timber construction | St Mary's Church, Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
3485_StThomastheMartyr'sChurch,Oxford | oxford martyr church_of_england parish church tradition oxford england near oxford railway station located west row east opposite overview church founded 12th century dedicated building retains original architecture substantial expansions repairs particularly 17th century 19th century church played significant role early stages site daily services practices altar candles wearing leaders movement preached church early closely associated history restoration traditionally held church founded reign stephen unlikely true years stephen death known site granted nearby abbey chapel erected site century area referred parish remained nominally chapel abbey dissolution monasteries henry_viii placed christ church oxford christ church treated conventional parish church mid-19th century incumbent styled vicar placed patronage christ church scholars members college held author enlarged church english civil war medieval stained glass church destroyed partly vandalism troops captured imprisoned church following restoration holders changed rapidly remaining position years time christ church leased house high street parish trustees profits repairing church continued house sold 19th 20th centuries early 19th century church parish showing signs neglect recorded parish thought non church reduced creation parishes brought significant turnaround attendance unusual innovation floating chapel acquired use chapel serving families working river oxford canal boat thomas chapel ease donated local coal merchant sank replaced chapel dedicated remained use second chapel built dedicated later replaced new parish church took parish new major repairs carried beginning floor level raised flood level feet roof rebuilt south wall rebuilt original materials main features 12th century chancel arch discarded vicar later founder firm believer movement introduced daily services practices altar candles wearing causing leaders including preached church early days movement closely associated chamberlain founded community thomas martyr devoted assistance poor parish heavily remained active convent buildings built demolished north aisle demolished new aisle bays west end built place blocked tower arch blocked windows chancel opened new chancel arch built vicar later building built north wall tower declared ancient parish church_of_england introduced women priests like parishes people thomas decided accept women terms resolutions passed general archbishop_of_canterbury placed church care provincial episcopal visitor oversees parish diocese oxford present congregation maintains anglo catholic traditions building added register architecture church nave north aisle west tower chancel south porch nave rebuilt late 15th early 16th century meet tower approximately age dated appears built older foundations southern nave contains probably thirteenth century buttresses pair windows north aisle originally built 13th century rebuilt built 17th century rebuilt designs chamberlain church twice chancel ceiling decorated windows style late 12th century priest door built south circa south porch built behest arms carved date given hangs chancel chancel ceiling decorated pattern gold stars blue background years later altar erected east end north aisle placed north wall chancel royal arms displayed tower thomas church grade listed building churchyard contains building originally built school designed remains earlier building thomas present amounted single cottage brick gateway | St Thomas the Martyr's Church, Oxford | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
3998_GantingGrandMosque | grand mosque indonesian written pronounced mosque located west sumatra indonesia construction began making oldest oldest indonesia building involved persons cultural backgrounds construction centre islamic reform area 19th century future president spent time exile mosque survived struck following sumatra earthquake severely damaged earthquakes floor establishment continues center prayer religious education functions community mosque tourist attraction early history according mosque built foot moved bank dutch colonial government intended use previous location build road emma haven port later moved present location documents mosque having constructed wooden frame roof according documentation mosque built history mosque culture tourism department city suggests mosque constructed small mosque stone wood dirt walls ceiling like java construction mosque spearheaded local figures rich merchant village chief funds provided sumatra erected land donated locals located center city district construction mosque finished measured metres fence metres mosque establishment mosque counsel future participants served point departure participants central sumatra left sumatra port opened end war held meeting discuss steps eliminate islam island large earthquake west coast sumatra struck destroyed mosque buildings survived stone floor later replaced mixture shells modern history floor received work beginning tiles netherlands ordered tiles installed company appointed worker installation completed year dutch established cement factory transport cement port dutch built stone road road took roughly land mosque built compensation dutch sent west sumatra area includes modern day west sumatra corps expanded chamber metres length built portuguese style façade mosque floor replaced cement imported germany ethnic chinese captain began working octagonal dome resembling lead prayers preach given chinese style carvings established including better educate local populace islam alumni later established indonesia mosque location national scouting organisation japanese began occupying indies time dutch prisoner evacuated reached discovered japanese forces occupied hopes bringing dutch left members time based went retrieve bring cart days arriving slept mosque delivered speech year japanese occupation mosque served military headquarters central western sumatra functioned training camp soldiers military units formed japanese consisted native soldiers formed taken allies landed sumatra muslim indian soldiers brought english deserted joined native revolutionaries planned strategy mosque including assault british barracks indian soldiers died assault buried mosque indonesia independence recognised hosted numerous indonesia abroad including vice president minister defence sultan general foreign dignitaries visited mosque included people malaysia saudi_arabia egypt construction mosque continued mosque columns originally constructed brick covered tiles seven years later followed seven years later construction left right dome walls main chamber covered tile april measuring scale struck west coast sumatra weeks larger earthquake struck caused columns supporting mosque roof years later places worship severely damaged large earthquake struck area september earthquake collapsed mosque façade caused severe structural damage interior columns result community feared mosque collapse renovations completed prayers held yard listed indonesia beautiful book compiled mosque west sumatra included regency architecture grand mosque built land measuring metres mosque metres building sites central area extra land hold people prayers courtyard surrounded iron fence separating busy streets eastern northern sides mosque southern mosque proper numerous graves including mosque founders architectural blend numerous schools shows clearly different cultural groups involved mosque construction including architecture europe middle_east china mosque roof goes upwards steps dome step square rest octagonal roof slits lighting mosque proper main façade measure metres leads rooms located northern southern sides mosque western mosque room keeper measuring metres door facing east window measuring centimetres forward measures metres east north south doorway hangs iron door east facing decorated pair non supporting columns center centimetres iron door prayers aside doors windows iron north south eastern wall hangs geometric carving created square rectangular panels arc designs merge ring shapes walls measure centimetres thick centimetres high inside seven double iron wrought cylindrical columns diameter centimetres columns rest concrete measuring centimetres square columns northern southern sides near central octagonal room doorway east window main chamber main chamber metre square entrances east north south doors measure centimetres wooden doors spread fan carvings threshold windows wooden frames eastern wall flanking doors windows north south walls west windows measure metres doors threshold windows decorated spread fan carvings walls concrete covered floor white tiles flower motif main room includes guru main columns shape ranging centimetres columns red brick bound egg whites lacking iron framework columns arranged rows representing islam column covered marble engraved names adam muhammad columns main supports octagonal roof western room flanked smaller rooms north south measures metres centimetres tall east centimetres tall west areas chambers measuring metres north south sides enclosed chambers built permanent structures mosque library structure northern mosque connected mosque proper smaller structures grounds consultation future pilgrims structures school | Ganting Grand Mosque | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
4301_StMary'sChurch,Llanfair-yng-Nghornwy | medieval parish church north west north wales date foundation church village unknown oldest parts date 11th 12th century twice enlarged 15th century chancel rebuilt 16th century chapel added south chancel separated arches tower west end 17th century south porch unknown date converted church entered tower grade listed building national designation given buildings exceptional usually national interest particular regarded fine rural parish church incorporating significant early medieval fabric writers 19th century commented square tower good east window elegant monuments clergyman antiquarian called best specimens old parish church island 21st century writer noted impressive guide buildings region calls important church north west church worship combined parish incumbent priest september people associated church include 19th century rector awarded gold medal efforts save lives sea great grandson artist sir buried churchyard history location mary church parish church village north west north wales set churchyard minor road south east village area near coast miles port town takes church welsh word originally meant enclosure church fair modified form saint welsh mary parish coastal position reflected means mary mary angle waters uncertain church constructed site church mentioned taxation year oldest parts present structure nave walls arch nave chancel east nave date 11th 12th century 15th century chancel reconstructed enlarged following century chapel added south chancel separated arcade arches history said south chapel belongs exclusively local landed estates chancel belonged tower added west end 17th century according guide buildings region stage porch added south west corner nave features middle 19th century porch entrance blocked replaced window access church door west tower restoration work carried sheffield based architects plans included proposal add chapel north happen work undertaken repairs carried chancel south chapel 1930s architect historian worship churches combined diocese incumbent priest church september rector helped establish wake storm caused boat sink deaths awarded gold medal later renamed efforts rescue boat gale writing williams noted gentleman aided lady alert cause humanity generally shore case accident supplied comfort protect suffering artist sir great grandson james wife request memorial south wall chapel buried churchyard churchyard contains commonwealth war graves royal_navy sailor world war world war architecture fittings structure medieval church built rubble masonry dressed displaying perpendicular details roof slate stone internally roofs nave chancel chapel exposed beams running length nave decorated intervals painted plaster shield designs chancel roof late 15th century chapel roof early following century interior church entered door west tower modern double doors tower nave set plain square doorway dating 17th 18th century nave feet inches feet inches nave chancel plain round arch 11th 12th century step rail east end chancel step chapel sanctuary 18th century set late 15th century chancel measures feet inches feet memorials 18th early 19th centuries called died erected 7th emma decorated marble arches chancel chapel rest octagonal columns arches inscribed early 16th century lettering david pray david stone roughly carved face screen chancel shown markings north wall westernmost arches position visitor mentioned notes church fixed east south walls sanctuary chapel chapel measures feet inches feet inches font rear nave north octagonal outside circular bowl inside survey church plate diocese recorded large silver inscribed donor year plain silver dated windows nave windows south window east 14th century lights sections window separated flat tops decorated stone survey church ancient historical monuments wales noted window crude design window north nave wall lights rounded tops dated 14th century sources 16th century guide buildings north west wales says window typically 16th century 15th century window east end chancel lights topped pattern joined circles lights decorated set pointed arch frame hood mould stained glass depicts north south christ children christ table cross north window chancel 19th century copy north nave window windows chapel lights east wall 16th century set arch hood mould south wall set flat headed frame tower porch tower external buttresses door west set pointed arch frame hood mould buttresses door added tower built survey described modern stages levels tower tall upper stage slightly narrower base measures feet inches feet inches tower simple rectangular openings north east south walls 17th century bell west wall tower plain arch opening wall tower short shape pyramid wood covered south porch described unusually long measures feet inches feet inches external doorway blocked converted window 14th century doorway nave pointed head square frame described survey having unusual design porch roof late medieval period assessment national recognition statutory protection alteration designated grade listed building highest grade listing designating exceptional usually national interest fewer cent listed buildings wales category given status fine rural parish church incorporating significant early medieval fabric including 12th century chancel arch welsh government body responsible built heritage wales inclusion welsh buildings statutory lists notes good late medieval additions including fine 16th century chapel says special interest early date quality later detail writing restoration described church ancient structure partly norman style square tower rude architecture noted massive circular pillars arches chancel peculiar good taste architecture recently rebuilt 19th century writer remarked elegant monuments church writing clergyman antiquarian said largest churches division said recently repaired restored best specimens old parish church island adding east window good detail execution welsh politician church historian sir visited church said east window good perpendicular lights early style described churchyard shaded fine trees tower rude plain noting open bell arch west comparable mary church guide churches describes fairly large church standing quiet wooded location comments impressive entrance churchyard structure tower guide buildings county calls important church north west says unusual plan | St Mary's Church, Llanfair-yng-Nghornwy | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
4834_LlandaffCathedral | cathedral welsh anglican cathedral cardiff wales seat head dedicated welsh saints welsh welsh cardiff city centre current building constructed 12th century site earlier church severe damage church rebellion english civil war overrun troops great storm damage cathedral extensive church seriously considered removal following storms early new cathedral began construction designed elder second world war january cathedral severely damaged parachute dropped blowing roof nave south aisle chapter house stonework remains medieval period primarily stone local blue constitutes stonework post reformation period work church world war primarily concrete pennant sandstone roofs welsh slate lead added post war rebuilding february organ damaged severe lightning strike prompting fundraiser million raise money entirely new organ years cathedral traditional anglican choir boys men recently girls choir dedicated choir school church wales cathedral contains number notable tombs including 6th century 6th century welsh clergyman church founder saint bishops 7th century 19th century bishop history medieval period built site existing church according tradition community established ford church founded successor regarded cathedral patron saints successor original church longer extant standing celtic cross presence christian worship site times occupied early norman conquest appointing urban bishop began construction cathedral remains transferred death urban believed work completed time years died cathedral dedicated bishop organised chapter circa appointed fourteen priests sub changes episcopal seal giving detail figure bishop depicted adding phrase grace god inscription west dates contains statue structure urban began altered cathedral dedicated lady chapel built bishop built rear church constructed urban old choir area removed order build chapel time cathedral constant state repair alterations slow pace lady chapel completed bays north choir aisle rebuilt severe damage church rebellion forces destroyed damage extensive cause fellow believed cathedral possibly damaged repair damage repaired notably partly survives northwest tower added named assumed cardiff accession throne nephew king henry vii england late medieval tombs include sir sir grand standard bearer england granted king saving life battle war roses post medieval victorian period english civil war cathedral overrun troops destruction troops seized books cathedral library taking cardiff castle burned copies book common prayer invited castle warm fire cold winter day wives time unrest man named claimed practising appropriated portions cathedral gain set tavern cathedral stable turned choir area pen font trough pigs southwest tower suffered major damage great storm state collapse damage cathedral extensive church seriously considered removal cardiff series storms proceeded damage cathedral bringing sections roof destruction collapse forced worship services confined lady chapel closed western entrance cathedral entirely thirty years cathedral roof collapsed chapter asked architect elder prepare estimates plans restore cathedral work began new cathedral designed wood wood produced italian temple style working eastern portion building leaving remaining western half ruins wood trying build italian recreation solomon temple sixteen years passed chapter funds repair western half building wood plans replace western entrance cathedral tower porch changes western entrance began work damage western portion structure repaired traces italian temple work wood removed cathedral 19th century bishop began reside time centuries bishops resided years unsuccessful attempt transfer time bristol attempt transferring office dean restored position filled years office dean separated november restoration dean office beginning better times cathedral new dean instrumental bringing needed restoration completed allow cathedral reopened worship april gloucester lent cathedral choir service making possible hear choral music time restoration point remove traces italian temple repair damages caused attempt transform cathedral wood arches beautiful hidden walls removed original positions covered plaster hidden walls meeting held service detailed restoration plan announced meeting list wishing donate work edward vii prince wales pledged donations large allow restoration work continue immediately cathedral extensively restored tower rebuilt added restoration work completed local architect designed use new stained glass window paul designed sir designed panels days creation chapel circa choir cathedral organ time account describes ruins organ given cathedral found organ time published book account condition fabric cathedral present time intended raise funds restore cathedral choir purchase new organ cathedral school type existed 9th century reorganised school cathedral school accepted female pupils 20th 21st centuries evening january second world war cathedral severely damaged parachute dropped near blowing roof nave south aisle chapter house reconstructed damage organ sunday bombing worship took place work soon began clear lady chapel sanctuary repair roof areas completed april work possible end war repaired areas served place worship british damaged infamous importance received grade building status december major carried architect york building use june queen attended service celebrating completion restoration august regiment memorial chapel constructed sir created figure christ majesty suspended nave concrete arch designed pace presented options replace cathedral restoration earlier having columns suitable painting beneath double arch topped hollow drum house division organ figure christ glory installed west face drum proposal accepted dean cathedral chapter approached funds initially meant replacement stained glass damaged bombing art media permission helped finance figure february cathedral suffered severe lightning strike particular damage caused organ poor condition instrument able lightning damage prompted launch appeal raise million construction entirely new organ architecture original church recorded 12th century book feet long feet wide feet high contained low narrow measuring feet long construction began building orders second norman bishop administer power newly formed diocese doesn appear lasted long extensive construction ordered western parts replaced urban built nave remain today fine subtlety architecture clear similarity probable leading somerset hired building work 13th 14th centuries northwest tower funded lord late 16th century church fallen state disrepair bishop complained cathedral like place like house prayer holy exercises church continued exist poor state choral services suspended fear roof collapse northwestern tower blew away storm southwest tower fell hired restore cathedral work temple complete remained way wake industrial development cardiff cathedral raise funds commence restoration hired restore lady chapel commitments later left work worked extensively church 1840s 1850s restored sanctuary begun work nave largely temple wood built london based able hire pre artists extensive developments provided stained glass 1860s responsible dramatic redevelopment southwest tower aided number talented artists exploded near south aisle cathedral resulting roof nave collapsing shattering windows sir hired rebuild roof decision remove added north aisle replaced york coordination dean time saw number improvements modern style fittings clearly influenced gothic material church remains medieval period primarily stone stone local blue stonework stonework post reformation period work church world war primarily concrete pennant sandstone roofs added post war period welsh slate lead west cathedral length contains grand central doorway higher level floor nave described double arched head continuous outline south nave characterised bays stepped buttresses aisle windows featuring heads south aisle sanctuary small square building storeys dates mid 13th century bath limestone local red sandstone octagonal roof lowered pitch pace later worked buttresses building seven stained glass 16th century flemish origin interior pulpit featuring moses note added accessed norman north door cathedral music years cathedral traditional anglican choir boys men recently girls choir dedicated choir school church wales addition parish choir sings weekly mixed choir boys girls men women cathedral ring bells additional flat sixth thirteen total hung change ringing located tower current bells installed replacing previous ring church wales ring bells cathedral church cardiff set bells organ dating rebuilt wartime damage entirely satisfactory lightning damage originally planned install new organ time costs million deemed high climate post war britain work installing new organ firm organ builders began autumn fully completed brought playable stage inaugural performance easter service april proceeds festival music donated cathedral completion new organ remaining stops added late summer entirely new organ british cathedral installation 1960s cathedral premiered record label recording called music focuses new cathedral organ choir recording title taken jacob sculpture cathedral nave post war renewal structure proceeds sales record donated african charities december days christmas cathedral chapter announced adult members choir redundant assistant cathedral midst financial crisis chapter intended save year taking measures list assistant michael james assistant director music post dissolved december 6th century body transferred husband daughter cousin 6th century welsh clergyman church founder 7th century supposedly buried church site present cathedral stands bishop john bishop sir bishop bishop alfred | Llandaff Cathedral | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
4942_OurLadyStaroftheSeaandStWinefride,Amlwch | sea sea roman catholic church town island north wales built 1930s design italian architect reinforced concrete church shape boat reflecting maritime heritage dedicated lady star sea title welsh saint church grade listed building designation given particularly important buildings special interest remarkable inter war church built highly unusual experimental design called rare unique church called britain avant garde churches location history church road miles west town north coast wales dedicated title lady star sea 7th century welsh construction church began foundations excavated completed church consecrated year architect italian engineer settled north wales english wife suffering tuberculosis specialist field design roman catholic churches conventional examples work found north wales church diocese parish priest father parish includes churches lady damage weather deterioration concrete meant church closed worship requiring attend services demolition possibility appeal launched raised estimated million million necessary repairs included replacing roof internally externally repairing steps application planning permission work submitted application grant rejected march committee concerned proposed new extension inappropriate recognising high heritage merit proposal body responsible built heritage wales grant grant june bodies individuals donations appeal church reopened restoration mass celebrated architecture fittings built reinforced concrete building designed style boat design nautical theme elements windows deliberate reference history port town position coast church concrete arch ribs outside base rib main entrance south end church stone steps window shaped like church like star set mosaic positioned door stone cross facade concrete church dressed stone south nearest main road ribs outside visible inside building patterns lights coloured marble panels lower parts interior walls rear church parish hall built masonry underneath church altar replaced reopening church carved brought convent liverpool dedicated porch houses slab dating half 13th century assessment church grade listed building second highest grades listing designating particularly important buildings special interest given status december listed remarkable inter war church describes striking individual highly unusual experimental design exploits plastic qualities material create expressive religious building guide churches describes impressive building surely unusual church guide buildings north wales describes piece italian architectural daring referring french structural engineer worked concrete guide asks inspired church closer 1920s paris catholic church design unlike building writing church reopened heritage writer journalist said church worth visit exterior closed noted sweeping arches inspired boats bold sloping sides west end concluding church saved described britain avant garde churches said far best work calling rare unique church noted highly individual interpretation seaside setting modern design monumental aesthetic entrance guide religious buildings wales written church reopened described unusual added fittings worthy building noted writer words catholic church church built britain wars frankly radical character | Our Lady Star of the Sea and St Winefride, Amlwch | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
4973_AllSaintsChurch,Patcham | saints church anglican parish church ancient sussex village english city brighton place worship existed site years present building norman internal features 13th century exterior rounds restoration victorian era included structural additions wide range monuments wall paintings survive inside including commemorating owner nearby important early history brighton church grade listed continues serve anglican place worship residents 20th century residential development transformed vast rural parish large outer suburb brighton church served large rural area north fishing village ancient predecessor brighton settlement developed building reconstructed norman era wide ranging series alterations carried victorian church improve building structural condition provide space cater growing population developed suburb 20th century churches opened area administered building plain exterior contrasts preserved parts ancient interior features include wall paintings stone memorials churchyard set grade listed tombs history records area covered county sussex reached saxon forces years controlled land english channel coast far 10th century fully established boundaries match present county area divided smaller administrative areas called hundreds neighbouring village preston preston hundreds covering present day brighton lowest administrative level parish based church parish recorded time survey time church existed centre small village spur land near parish covered acres unusually large 11th century population largest sussex parish 1st earl surrey held land local hundreds owned manor area church gradually centre population parish village developed leading church east modern london road saxon church rebuilt 12th 13th centuries feature survive era blocked doorway reset north aisle built doorway described norman possibly earlier norman conquest saxon sources goes stating originally north wall nave identifies 12th century chancel arch plain structure inserted chancel nave 12th century nave period 12th century chancel added following years windows 14th century similar windows inserted nave time 13th century narrow tower built west end thin windows characteristic era dates mid-19th century tower given substantial diagonal buttresses sandstone time exterior underwent complete restoration rebuilding work changes 19th century addition porch south end buttresses south wall nave 16th 17th century having stood years little alteration church completely changed year period 19th century substantial added north aisle larger taller rest building early 19th century building better structural condition sussex survey sir noted fitted rebuilding ancient churches fashionable victorian era condition surviving medieval suggests exterior walls poor condition earlier periods restoration 13th century wall painting christ judgement discovered chancel arch hidden layers remains later paintings oldest murals england time north extension outside walls west east south sides coated grey cement probably improve structural condition described kill ing exterior stone dead historian argued medieval churches rendered way having uncovered flint walls gives impression typical church era look like proximity growing resort brighton miles north palace pier english channel coast encouraged suburban growth mid-19th century low point population village steadily rose nearly time present city council built estate council housing parish early 1920s april acres acre parish annexed brighton urban area known time large housing estates built population reached continued rise opening north aisle improved capacity time new houses surrounding ancient village centre development spread distant parts parish churches opened initially ease temporary building erected avenue estate south replaced permanent brick built church year architect designed built newly developed suburb west london road original temporary church avenue church hall christ king congregation gained hall built avenue closed round restoration took place interior redesigned old choir stalls removed memorials church contains memorials oldest wall tablet commemorating earliest owners died origins 16th century manor house isolated position west london road owner 1st baron passed son sir member family later lived important figure brighton early history local appointed form commission record regulate ancient customs villagers fishermen farmers conflicting needs commissioners produced book book ancient customs fishermen orders law memorial parts remain intact flanked coat arms naked grave church generations family commemorated chancel second generation rebuilt uncle marriage developed brighton high class town estate 19th century family descendants represented son closely involved majesty customs chairman years served board admiralty son daughter husband son memorials manor parish passed family acquired outside seven nearly identical chest tombs centuries old appear belong members family unrelated tombs nearby early 19th century listed grade english heritage august north churchyard traditionally criminals committed suicide memorial survives unfortunately shot architecture fittings plan comprises west tower heavy buttresses bay nave tall aisle north described historian proportion rest building particularly height porch south wall chancel north aisle flint built courses red brick rest church exterior clad cement time outside walls entirely flint stone sandstone sides nave southwest corner tower buttresses added 16th century roof tower 19th century slate rest church roof porch roof 14th century tower contains bells dated known repaired chancel roof nave roof vertical queen post supports ancient tie beams nave chancel separated ancient chancel arch contemporary 12th century structure chancel arch remains 13th century wall painting showing christ judgement dated depicts ascension heaven dead weighing souls jesus christ flanked virgin mary condition discovered 1880s paintings existed walls visible windows north south walls tower stone including east window main body church chancel nave windows 14th century decorated gothic style common time tower windows bell openings smaller early english style popular 13th century tower built largest window sits east end chancel light prominent style window dates 14th century age small window porch twin lights heads set arch windows windows plain headed single blocked doorway modern north aisle oldest surviving church inches thick sits inches opening feet high feet wide gradual settling ground masked original foot height stones equal height wider served inside church arch visible wall chancel retains arched added 14th century restoration work font circular example dates church possesses objects dating 16th 17th centuries dating west wall wide range old carved prayer boards common feature sussex churches ancient examples graffiti consisting crosses dates survives inside curious carvings common sussex current status listed grade october worship saints open evangelical style sunday school regular youth group saints church incorporates postwar suburb west modern building brick glass designed architect ecclesiastical parish saints covers north brighton rural incorporating preston far south preston park railway station scattered residential buildings north south following review diocese parts west parish transferred road brighton south end section ceded time decision taken close parish church divide parish saints churches received congregation northern parish diocese declared redundant december july use place worship year displaced congregations churches demolished joined form new church community bought building renamed road church church demolished church building near preston park destruction fire church | All Saints Church, Patcham | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
4982_ChristEpiscopalChurch(Waltham,Massachusetts) | christ massachusetts christ church historic episcopal church main street massachusetts church parish massachusetts named national_register_of_historic_places church founded local hall services wooden church built wooden structure eventually proved inadequate larger church designed built local current location church contains stained glass windows produced noteworthy manufacturers including bell served church founding history community christ church founded episcopal clergyman missionary identified growing industrial city ideal place build church new episcopal community met hall later gothic wooden church completed land church funding provided founding member christ church rector maine remained church rector years retiring time christ church membership grew members time retired church building parish bought land intent building larger church main street old church building sold french canadian roman catholic community christ church held services hall new building completed years planning architectural firm hired design new structure construction began early months philanthropist christ church senior warden signed contract construction financed building fortune philanthropist sisters christ church contributed significantly funding service completed building held june sunday retired delivered church inaugural sermon wooden pulpit gift new building church parish massachusetts named national_register_of_historic_places architecture design christ church designed masters american style architecture constructed native english country style inspiration church stone exterior came indirectly architect friend harvard classmate expanded home richardson designed residence style mansion built glacial stones site estate richardson died played planning christ church design inspired use stones property exterior church church features stained glass windows significance east window bell gift memory wife died construction church request wife likeness incorporated left panel window red clad figure kneeling christ west window designed pays homage manufacturing history addition images solomon figures bible window features bicycle wheel watch car symbols reference industrial character south wall signed window designed artist window depicts given church memory south wall window noted boston stained glass artist work given memory depicts easter scene risen christ revealing mary founding clergy elected christ church parish serve rector present note intervening years listed priest charge appointed bishop served leader church | Christ Episcopal Church (Waltham, Massachusetts) | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
5089_ChurchofStNicholas,SaparevaBanya | church nicholas bulgarian small medieval eastern orthodox church southwestern bulgarian town originally property local notable attached larger church constructed 11th 14th century church built red bricks white mortar simple byzantine cross square design single nave interior scarcely preserved reconstructed falling ruin listed monument culture national importance history scholars disagree possible period church construction assessments range 11th 12th 12th 13th 13th 14th century article magazine local priest cited saying stone church altar unearthed excavations priest believed stone reportedly date inscribed sent capital size probably constructed independent church legend links church unidentified local feudal lord named nicholas final resting place archaeologist considers likely possibly chapel cemetery church attached larger place worship larger church pulled early ottoman rule bulgaria century destroyed renovation prohibited ottomans gradually fell ruin study writes time church lacked roof references story group settled order ottoman authorities war according story sought pull church roof fell death inside church fled horror church thoroughly reconstructed team architect architecture church nicholas lies centre architecture simple single nave single present church follows byzantine cross square design unusually short arms equal size dome sides particular height large church size situated church eastern shape features window entrance located west wall church constructed rows red bricks stuck white mortar according scholar size metres source measures way square appearance height probably reached dome terms design decoration church near today compared nearby features multitude stepped outside walls interior originally entirely covered fragments survive enlisted monument culture national importance publication bulgaria newspaper record issue | Church of St Nicholas, Sapareva Banya | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
5176_StPeter'sChurch,Sudbury | redundant anglican church town suffolk england recorded designated grade listed building care church stands centre town dominating position market hill church site current structure dates 15th century intervening period church bell tower like rest building mainly covered flint interior church features paintings pipe organ originally history earliest documentary record church chapel ease church church built stages beginning bays chancel base tower later stages building civil war william damaged items church restoration took place included alterations nave roof clock installed half 18th century metal wood added replaced church restored included removal galleries box laying chancel floor replacement pulpit stained glass installed windows stained glass installed later century chancel restored wooden installed lady chapel stonework exterior restored statues inserted south porch restoration took place upper tower replaced taken paintings removed chancel church declared redundant forerunner charitable trust established maintain improve church redundant church occasionally services variety events including concerts organ exhibitions architecture exterior church constructed mainly flint stone brick tiles plan rectangular confined limited space northwest corner cut chancel fully alignment nave plan consists bay nave north south bay chancel organ chamber north lady chapel south extended sanctuary east west tower incorporated body church architectural styles decorated perpendicular tower stages angle buttresses consists stepped corners statues buttresses church main entrance church west door base tower main entrance south porch statues exterior porch represent christ interior arcades bays piers north arcade differing south roof divided panels bosses intersections medieval nave roof suffolk original form painting remains chancel arch south aisle octagonal 15th century font removed church 17th century horse trough returned church horses refused drink chancel designed measures feet high feet wide depicts sides chancel 15th century screens lady chapel font carved depiction copy supper north south doors paintings moses aaron painted hung position flanking east end church pulpit altar victorian stained glass manual organ built renovated rebuilt bishop major rebuild carried ring bells oldest cast recent | St Peter's Church, Sudbury | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
5528_FirstPresbyterianChurchofMarcellus | greek revival located intersection new_york state route village new_york oldest churches village village founded local residents differing religious denominations met tavern october reverend missionary active central new_york area helped organize member wooden meeting house constructed years later community built churches original church new_york present church greek revival style erected dedicated church undergo substantial alterations century dedicated april commentators found structure finest examples church architecture expressed regret loss original features church celebrated original church village founded villagers denominations meeting tavern worship services tavern proprietor permitted read write reverend missionary active area early provided spiritual guidance october village worship society member organized efforts missionary active central new_york following year society incorporated church later described presbyterian ecclesiastical relations time internal policy arrangement august society voted build church trustee donated acre land intersection main street present day village construction feet wooden meeting house completed floor board pulpit slab seats bell ceilings warmed foot fur power spirit missionaries served meeting house years church gained pastor ordained installed year congregation adopted articles faith remained membership years year church affiliated years later charter member newly formed parsons served accepted posts new_york new_york returned remained appointed built extension church added interior painted cost thousand today year donated church grown considerably erected new_york built state road prosperous years experienced declining membership following deaths shed horses vehicles constructed church april society changed religious society house lot secured church land graded new horse sheds built present church present church need repair sold thousand today agreement applied construction new church site cost new church designed popular greek revival style dedicated october anniversary congregation years construction dedication new church bell fitted church pastor reverend succeeded died eve 25th anniversary church appointed interim ministers new pulpit new furniture acquired change boundaries act general_assembly brought merged formed appointed accepted position smith left celebrated church anniversary october writing church history smith departure appointed served years leadership church perfected organization ruling elders elected corporate remained effect november officially changed november succeeded served years church church new church new stained glass windows original replaced new heating system church began conducting sunday school classes unable attend services north town nearby hamlet succeeded served years celebrated church centenary october left replaced served appointed appointed served years service new horse carriage sheds constructed church replacing earlier ones built sheds rented car torn way extension church severe destroyed replaced shortly cost thousand today served church great depression war years successor called continued pastor served congregation body building raised sanctuary redone refurbished basement constructed additions kitchen dining room lounge classrooms cost thousand today church dedicated completion construction april november church officially december succeeded graduate miss ordained woman elder year later women half present session eighteen elders reverend remained church years succeeded reverend presently serves congregation church celebrated anniversary reverend died october age architectural critique church structure noted certainly distinguished churches particularly fine example architecture interior unfortunately improved new arrangement organ new windows recent years blown falling nave rebuilt approximately original proportions transitional detail square conical unfortunately eliminated recent replacement original wood entrance doors future finest church uncertain destruction loss entire community list | First Presbyterian Church of Marcellus | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
6069_StFflewin'sChurch,Llanfflewin | referred church small rural church situated farm north wales church site said built present building structural features dating 18th century church font 14th 15th century inscribed medieval reused window church worship churches combined grade listed building national designation given buildings special interest warrant effort preserve simple rural church built medieval foundations guide churches said typical preserved rural church worth visit history location church dedicated christian active 6th century described son came britain present day northern france end 5th century established christian site location present church according diocese guide churches 19th century guide wales writer says early 7th century building period survives church recorded taxation year present building thought body responsible built heritage wales probably built medieval foundations albeit earliest feature structure late 18th century repairs early 19th century partially rebuilt says guide buildings north west wales restored 1930s welsh poet clergyman better known rector death buried churches responsibility church isolated located countryside north farm mile area known takes church welsh word originally meant enclosure church means church set raised circular enclosure arched possibly 17th century date use worship belongs churches combined diocese rector architecture fittings church small rectangular internal division nave chancel measures feet inches feet inches built rubble masonry roof slate west end roof roof seen inside entrance church porch rounded arch west end south wall window west end north wall windows south north walls rectangular pairs window east wall form rounded arch lights sections window separated window fragment medieval dating time set inscribed church roughly dressed font sides dating 14th 15th century number slate memorial north south walls 18th century survey ancient historical monuments wales recorded initials date silver cup cover having engraved date noted wooden pitch pipe wooden dating late 18th century assessment church national recognition statutory protection alteration designated behalf grade listed building lowest grades listing designating buildings special interest warrant effort preserve given status listed simple rural church built medieval foundations notes retains vernacular character pre gothic revival church said church described plain beautifully situated near small lake surrounded pleasing scenery welsh politician church historian sir visited church september said church completely doubtful original feature remains bell single light window north wall said font singular design octagonal swelling downwards face concave said site wild striking guide churches says typical preserved rural church worth visit | St Fflewin's Church, Llanfflewin | Art and architecture | Architecture | Architecture – Religious |
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