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[
"Environmental impact",
"Climate change"
] | [[Climate change]] and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale. Global warming affects agriculture through changes in [[instrumental temperature record|average temperatures]], rainfall, and [[extreme weather|weather extremes]] (like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] and ground-level [[ozone]] concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods; and changes in [[current sea level rise|sea level]]. Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world. Future climate change will probably negatively affect [[crop yield|crop production]] in [[low latitude]] countries, while effects in northern [[latitude]] may be positive or negative. Global warming will probably increase the risk of [[food insecurity]] for some vulnerable groups, such as the [[poverty|poor]]. Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of and a percentage of the world's methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife. Agriculture contributes to climate change by [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest for agricultural use. Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions in 2010. A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture, and greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector. | 627 | Agriculture | [
"Agriculture",
"Agronomy",
"Food industry"
] | [
"Ecoagriculture",
"Agroecology",
"Remote sensing",
"List of documentary films about agriculture",
"Agricultural robot",
"Building-integrated agriculture",
"Corporate farming",
"Vertical farming",
"Vegetable farming",
"Agricultural engineering",
"Pharming (genetics)",
"Hill farming",
"Contract farming",
"Agricultural aircraft",
"Crofting",
"Subsistence economy",
"Aeroponics"
] |
[
"Environmental impact",
"Sustainability"
] | Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and [[ecosystem]] resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests. Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights. Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable. Technology permits innovations like [[conservation tillage]], a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances [[carbon sequestration]]. Other potential practices include [[conservation agriculture]], [[agroforestry]], improved [[Convertible husbandry|grazing]], avoided grassland conversion, and [[biochar]]. Current mono-crop farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of sustainable practices, such as 2-3 crop rotations that incorporate grass or hay with annual crops, unless negative emission goals such as soil carbon sequestration become policy. According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, IFPRI found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half. The caloric demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, can be satisfied by additional improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset. | 627 | Agriculture | [
"Agriculture",
"Agronomy",
"Food industry"
] | [
"Ecoagriculture",
"Agroecology",
"Remote sensing",
"List of documentary films about agriculture",
"Agricultural robot",
"Building-integrated agriculture",
"Corporate farming",
"Vertical farming",
"Vegetable farming",
"Agricultural engineering",
"Pharming (genetics)",
"Hill farming",
"Contract farming",
"Agricultural aircraft",
"Crofting",
"Subsistence economy",
"Aeroponics"
] |
[
"Environmental impact",
"Energy dependence"
] | Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from [[fossil fuel]] sources. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area) as [[world population]] doubled. Heavy reliance on [[petrochemical]] has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output. Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery. Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery. In particular, the production of [[nitrogen fertilizer]] can account for over half of agricultural energy usage. Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined. [[Food systems]] encompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US. | 627 | Agriculture | [
"Agriculture",
"Agronomy",
"Food industry"
] | [
"Ecoagriculture",
"Agroecology",
"Remote sensing",
"List of documentary films about agriculture",
"Agricultural robot",
"Building-integrated agriculture",
"Corporate farming",
"Vertical farming",
"Vegetable farming",
"Agricultural engineering",
"Pharming (genetics)",
"Hill farming",
"Contract farming",
"Agricultural aircraft",
"Crofting",
"Subsistence economy",
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[
"Disciplines",
"Agricultural economics"
] | Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services". Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century. Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from [[tenant farmer]] and [[sharecropping]] in the post-[[American Civil War]] Southern United States to the European [[feudal]] system of [[manorialism]]. In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to [[food processing]], distribution, and [[agricultural marketing]], sometimes referred to as the [[Agricultural value chain|value chain]], have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of [[value added|value addition]] (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. [[Market concentration]] has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute [[economic surplus]] from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities. National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products, in the form of taxation, [[Subsidy|subsidies]], tariffs and other measures. Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions, [[exchange rate policy|exchange rate policies]] and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions. However, , there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the greatest amount of trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the [[oilseed]], sesame had the greatest amount of taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy. Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers. Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight. | 627 | Agriculture | [
"Agriculture",
"Agronomy",
"Food industry"
] | [
"Ecoagriculture",
"Agroecology",
"Remote sensing",
"List of documentary films about agriculture",
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"Corporate farming",
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"Agricultural engineering",
"Pharming (genetics)",
"Hill farming",
"Contract farming",
"Agricultural aircraft",
"Crofting",
"Subsistence economy",
"Aeroponics"
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[
"Disciplines",
"Agricultural science"
] | [[Agricultural science]] is a broad multidisciplinary field of [[biology]] that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and [[social science]] used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, [[plant pathology]], crop modelling, soil science, [[entomology]], production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation, [[waste management]], and [[bioremediation]]. The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when [[Johann Friedrich Mayer (agriculturist)|Johann Friedrich Mayer]] conducted experiments on the use of [[gypsum]] (hydrated [[calcium sulphate]]) as a fertilizer. Research became more systematic when in 1843, [[John Lawes]] and Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at [[Rothamsted Research Station]] in England; some of them, such as the [[Park Grass Experiment]], are still running. In America, the [[Hatch Act of 1887]] provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers. In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of the [[Lymantria dispar dispar|gypsy moth]] and [[brown-tail]] moth, establishing [[parasitoid]] (such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the USA. | 627 | Agriculture | [
"Agriculture",
"Agronomy",
"Food industry"
] | [
"Ecoagriculture",
"Agroecology",
"Remote sensing",
"List of documentary films about agriculture",
"Agricultural robot",
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"Agricultural engineering",
"Pharming (genetics)",
"Hill farming",
"Contract farming",
"Agricultural aircraft",
"Crofting",
"Subsistence economy",
"Aeroponics"
] |
[
"Policy"
] | [[Agricultural policy]] is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), [[economic stability]] (including policies related to taxes), natural resources and [[environmental sustainability]] (especially [[water resource management|water policy]]), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries). Agricultural policy can also touch on [[food quality]], ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and [[Conservation biology|conservation]]. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs. There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups. [[Agribusiness]] interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of [[lobbying]] and [[campaign contribution]]. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities. The [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Dr. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure. | 627 | Agriculture | [
"Agriculture",
"Agronomy",
"Food industry"
] | [
"Ecoagriculture",
"Agroecology",
"Remote sensing",
"List of documentary films about agriculture",
"Agricultural robot",
"Building-integrated agriculture",
"Corporate farming",
"Vertical farming",
"Vegetable farming",
"Agricultural engineering",
"Pharming (genetics)",
"Hill farming",
"Contract farming",
"Agricultural aircraft",
"Crofting",
"Subsistence economy",
"Aeroponics"
] |
[] | '''Aldous Leonard Huxley''' (26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and philosopher. He wrote nearly 50 books—both novels and non-fiction works—as well as wide-ranging essays, narratives, and poems. Born into the prominent [[Huxley family]], he graduated from [[Balliol College]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], with an undergraduate degree in English literature. Early in his career, he published short stories and poetry and edited the literary magazine ''[[Oxford Poetry]]'', before going on to publish travel writing, satire, and [[screenplays]]. He spent the latter part of his life in the United States, living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the foremost intellectuals of his time. He was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] nine times and was elected Companion of Literature by the [[Royal Society of Literature]] in 1962. Huxley was a [[pacifist]]. He grew interested in philosophical [[mysticism]] and [[universalism]], addressing these subjects with works such as ''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]'' (1945)—which illustrates commonalities between [[Western esotericism|Western]] and [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern]] mysticism—and ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' (1954)—which interprets his own [[psychedelic experience]] with [[mescaline]]. In his most famous novel ''[[Brave New World]]'' (1932) and his final novel ''[[Island (Huxley novel)|Island]]'' (1962), he presented his vision of [[dystopia]] and [[utopia]], respectively. | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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"Writers from Los Angeles",
"Writers from Taos, New Mexico",
"20th-century English philosophers"
] | [
"List of peace activists"
] |
[
"Early life"
] | Huxley was born in [[Godalming]], Surrey, England, in 1894. He was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster [[Leonard Huxley (writer)|Leonard Huxley]], who edited ''[[Cornhill Magazine]]'', and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded [[Prior's Field School]]. Julia was the niece of poet and critic [[Matthew Arnold]] and the sister of [[Mary Augusta Ward|Mrs. Humphry Ward]]. Julia named him Aldous after a character in one of her sister's novels. Aldous was the grandson of [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], the [[Zoology|zoologist]], agnostic, and controversialist ("Darwin's Bulldog"). His brother [[Julian Huxley]] and half-brother [[Andrew Huxley]] also became outstanding biologists. Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevenen Huxley (1889–1914), who took his own life after a period of [[Major depressive disorder|clinical depression]]. As a child, Huxley's nickname was "Ogie", short for "Ogre". He was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently "[contemplated] the strangeness of things". According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing. Huxley's education began in his father's well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at Hillside School near [[Godalming]]. He was taught there by his own mother for several years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside he went on to [[Eton College]]. His mother died in 1908, when he was 14 (his [[Leonard Huxley (writer)|father]] later remarried). He contracted the eye disease [[Keratitis punctata]] in 1911; this "left [him] practically blind for two to three years." This "ended his early dreams of becoming a doctor." In October 1913, Huxley entered [[Balliol College, Oxford]], where he studied English literature. He volunteered for the [[British Army]] in January 1916, for the [[World War I|Great War]]; however, he was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye. His eyesight later partly recovered. He edited ''[[Oxford Poetry]]'' in 1916, and in June of that year graduated [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] with [[British undergraduate degree classification#First Class Honours|first class honours]]. His brother Julian wrote: Following his years at Balliol, Huxley, being financially indebted to his father, decided to find employment. He taught French for a year at [[Eton College]], where Eric Blair (who was to take the pen name [[George Orwell]]) and [[Steven Runciman]] were among his pupils. He was mainly remembered as being an incompetent schoolmaster unable to keep order in class. Nevertheless, Blair and others spoke highly of his excellent command of language. Huxley also worked for a time during the 1920s at [[Tata Chemicals Europe|Brunner and Mond]], an advanced chemical plant in [[Billingham]] in County Durham, northeast England. According to the introduction to the latest edition of his science fiction novel ''[[Brave New World]]'' (1932), the experience he had there of "an ordered universe in a world of planless incoherence" was an important source for the novel. | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Career"
] | Huxley completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of 17 and began writing seriously in his early twenties, establishing himself as a successful writer and social satirist. His first published novels were social satires, ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' (1921), ''[[Antic Hay]]'' (1923), ''[[Those Barren Leaves]]'' (1925), and ''[[Point Counter Point]]'' (1928). ''[[Brave New World]]'' (1932) was his fifth novel and first dystopian work. In the 1920s he was also a contributor to ''[[Vanity Fair (American magazine 1913–1936)|Vanity Fair]]'' and [[Vogue (British magazine)|British ''Vogue'']] magazines. | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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"List of peace activists"
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[
"Career",
"Contact with the Bloomsbury Set"
] | During the First World War, Huxley spent much of his time at [[Garsington Manor]] near Oxford, home of [[Lady Ottoline Morrell]], working as a farm labourer. There he met several [[Bloomsbury Group]] figures, including [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Alfred North Whitehead]], and [[Clive Bell]]. Later, in ''Crome Yellow'' (1921) he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. Jobs were very scarce, but in 1919 [[John Middleton Murry]] was reorganising the ''[[Athenaeum (British magazine)|Athenaeum]]'' and invited Huxley to join the staff. He accepted immediately, and quickly married the Belgian refugee Maria Nys, also at Garsington. They lived with their young son in Italy part of the time during the 1920s, where Huxley would visit his friend [[D. H. Lawrence]]. Following Lawrence's death in 1930, Huxley edited Lawrence's letters (1932). Works of this period included important novels on the dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, most famously ''[[Brave New World]]'', and on pacifist themes (for example, ''[[Eyeless in Gaza (novel)|Eyeless in Gaza]]''). In ''[[Brave New World]]'', set in a [[dystopia]] London, Huxley portrays a society operating on the principles of mass production and [[Classical conditioning|Pavlovian conditioning]]. Huxley was strongly influenced by [[F. Matthias Alexander]], and included him as a character in ''[[Eyeless in Gaza (novel)|Eyeless in Gaza]]''. Beginning in this period, Huxley began to write and edit non-fiction works on pacifist issues, including ''[[Ends and Means]]'', ''An Encyclopedia of Pacifism'', and ''Pacifism and Philosophy'', and was an active member of the [[Peace Pledge Union]]. | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Career",
"Life in the United States"
] | In 1937 Huxley moved to Hollywood with his wife Maria, son [[Matthew Huxley]], and friend [[Gerald Heard]]. He lived in the U.S., mainly in southern California, until his death, and also for a time in [[Taos, New Mexico]], where he wrote ''[[Ends and Means]]'' (published in 1937). The book contains tracts on war, religion, nationalism and ethics. Heard introduced Huxley to [[Vedanta]] ([[Upanishads|Upanishad-centered philosophy]]), meditation, and vegetarianism through the principle of [[ahimsa]]. In 1938, Huxley befriended [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]], whose teachings he greatly admired. Huxley and Krishnamurti entered into an enduring exchange (sometimes edging on debate) over many years, with Krishnamurti representing the more rarefied, detached, ivory-tower perspective and Huxley, with his pragmatic concerns, the more socially and historically informed position. Huxley provided an introduction to Krishnamurti's quintessential statement, ''[[The First and Last Freedom]]'' (1954). Huxley also became a Vedantist in the circle of [[Hindu]] [[Swami Prabhavananda]], and introduced [[Christopher Isherwood]] to this circle. Not long afterwards, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, ''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]'', which discussed the teachings of renowned mystics of the world. Huxley's book affirmed a sensibility that insists there are realities beyond the generally accepted "five senses" and that there is genuine meaning for humans beyond both sensual satisfactions and sentimentalities. Huxley became a close friend of Remsen Bird, president of [[Occidental College]]. He spent much time at the college, which is in the [[Eagle Rock, Los Angeles|Eagle Rock]] neighbourhood of Los Angeles. The college appears as "Tarzana College" in his satirical novel ''[[After Many a Summer]]'' (1939). The novel won Huxley a British literary award, the 1939 [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] for fiction. Huxley also incorporated Bird into the novel. During this period, Huxley earned a substantial income as a Hollywood screenwriter; [[Christopher Isherwood]], in his autobiography ''My Guru and His Disciple'', states that Huxley earned more than $3,000 per week (approximately $50,000 in 2020 dollars) as a screenwriter, and that he used much of it to transport Jewish and left-wing writer and artist refugees from Hitler's Germany to the US. In March 1938, Huxley's friend [[Anita Loos]], a novelist and screenwriter, put him in touch with [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] (MGM), which hired him for ''[[Madame Curie (film)|Madame Curie]]'' which was originally to star [[Greta Garbo]] and be directed by [[George Cukor]]. (Eventually, the film was completed by MGM in 1943 with a different director and cast.) Huxley received screen credit for ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 film)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' (1940) and was paid for his work on a number of other films, including ''[[Jane Eyre (1943 film)|Jane Eyre]]'' (1944). He was commissioned by [[Walt Disney]] in 1945 to write a script based on ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' and the biography of the story's author, [[Lewis Carroll]]. The script was not used, however. Huxley wrote an introduction to the posthumous publication of [[J. D. Unwin]]'s 1940 book ''Hopousia or The Sexual and Economic Foundations of a New Society''. | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
"Aldous Huxley",
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[
"Career",
"Life in the United States"
] | On 21 October 1949, Huxley wrote to George Orwell, author of ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', congratulating him on "how fine and how profoundly important the book is." In his letter to Orwell, he predicted: In 1953, Huxley and Maria applied for [[Citizenship in the United States|United States citizenship]] and presented themselves for examination. When Huxley refused to bear arms for the U.S. and would not state that his objections were based on religious ideals, the only excuse allowed under the [[McCarran Internal Security Act|McCarran Act]], the judge had to adjourn the proceedings. He withdrew his application. Nevertheless, he remained in the U.S. In 1959 Huxley turned down an offer of a [[Knight Bachelor]] by the [[Harold Macmillan#Prime Minister (1957–1963)|Macmillan government]] without putting forward a reason; his brother Julian had been knighted in 1958, while another brother Andrew would be knighted in 1974. In the fall semester of 1960, Huxley was invited by Professor [[Huston Smith]] to be the Carnegie Visiting Professor of Humanities at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT). As part of the MIT centennial program of events organised by the Department of Humanities, Huxley presented a series of lectures titled, "What a Piece of Work is a Man" which concerned history, language, and art. | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Late-in-life perspectives"
] | Biographer Harold H. Watts wrote that Huxley's writings in the "final and extended period of his life" are "the work of a man who is meditating on the central problems of many modern men." Huxley had deeply felt apprehensions about the future the developed world might make for itself. From these, he made some warnings in his writings and talks. In a 1958 televised interview conducted by journalist [[Mike Wallace]], Huxley outlined several major concerns: the difficulties and dangers of world overpopulation; the tendency towards distinctly hierarchical social organisation; the crucial importance of evaluating the use of technology in mass societies susceptible to persuasion; the tendency to promote modern politicians to a naive public as well-marketed commodities. In a December 1962 letter to brother Julian, summarizing a paper he had presented in Santa Barbara, he wrote, "What I said was that if we didn't pretty quickly start thinking of human problems in ecological terms rather than in terms of power politics we should very soon be in a bad way." Huxley's engagement with Eastern wisdom traditions was entirely compatible with a strong appreciation of modern science. Biographer Milton Birnbaum wrote that Huxley "ended by embracing both science and Eastern religion." In his last book, ''[[Literature and Science]]'', Huxley wrote that "The ethical and philosophical implications of modern science are more Buddhist than Christian..." In "A Philosopher's Visionary Prediction," published one month before he died, Huxley endorsed training in [[general semantics]] and "the nonverbal world of culturally uncontaminated consciousness," writing that "We must learn how to be mentally silent, we must cultivate the art of pure receptivity... [T]he individual must learn to decondition himself, must be able to cut holes in the fence of verbalized symbols that hems him in." | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Association with Vedanta"
] | Beginning in 1939 and continuing until his death in 1963, Huxley had an extensive association with the [[Vedanta Society of Southern California]], founded and headed by [[Swami Prabhavananda]]. Together with Gerald Heard, Christopher Isherwood and other followers, he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual practices. In 1944, Huxley wrote the introduction to the "Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God", translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood, which was published by the Vedanta Society of Southern California. From 1941 until 1960, Huxley contributed 48 articles to ''Vedanta and the West'', published by the society. He also served on the editorial board with Isherwood, Heard, and playwright [[John Van Druten]] from 1951 through 1962. Huxley also occasionally lectured at the Hollywood and Santa Barbara Vedanta temples. Two of those lectures have been released on CD: ''[[Knowledge and Understanding]]'' and ''[[Who Are We? (album)|Who Are We?]]'' from 1955. Nonetheless, Huxley's agnosticism, together with his speculative propensity, made it difficult for him to fully embrace any form of institutionalised religion. | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Psychedelic drug use and mystical experiences"
] | In the spring of 1953, Huxley had his first experience with the [[psychedelic drug]] [[mescaline]]. Huxley had initiated a correspondence with Doctor [[Humphry Osmond]], a British psychiatrist then employed in a Canadian institution, and eventually asked him to supply a dose of mescaline; Osmond obliged and supervised Huxley's session in southern California. After the publication of ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'', in which he recounted this experience, Huxley and Swami Prabhavananda disagreed about the meaning and importance of the psychedelic drug experience, which may have caused the relationship to cool, but Huxley continued to write articles for the society's journal, lecture at the temple, and attend social functions. Huxley later had an [[The Doors of Perception#Later experience|experience on mescaline]] that he considered more profound than those detailed in ''The Doors of Perception''. Huxley wrote that "The mystical experience is doubly valuable; it is valuable because it gives the experiencer a better understanding of himself and the world and because it may help him to lead a less self-centered and more creative life." | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Eyesight"
] | Differing accounts exist about the details of the quality of Huxley's eyesight at specific points in his life. Circa 1939, Huxley encountered the [[Bates method]], in which he was instructed by [[Margaret Darst Corbett]]. In 1940, Huxley relocated from Hollywood to a ''ranchito'' in the high desert hamlet of [[Llano, California]], in northern [[Los Angeles County]]. Huxley then said that his sight improved dramatically with the Bates Method and the extreme and pure natural lighting of the southwestern American desert. He reported that, for the first time in more than 25 years, he was able to read without glasses and without strain. He even tried driving a car along the dirt road beside the ranch. He wrote a book about his experiences with the Bates Method, ''[[The Art of Seeing]]'', which was published in 1942 (U.S.), 1943 (UK). The book contained some generally disputed theories, and its publication created a growing degree of popular controversy about Huxley's eyesight. It was, and is, widely believed that Huxley was nearly blind since [[#Aldous Huxley eye disease|the illness in his teens]], despite the partial recovery that had enabled him to study at Oxford. For example, some ten years after publication of ''The Art of Seeing'', in 1952, [[Bennett Cerf]] was present when Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet, wearing no glasses and apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty: "Then suddenly he faltered—and the disturbing truth became obvious. He wasn't reading his address at all. He had learned it by heart. To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes. When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn't read it, and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him. It was an agonising moment". Brazilian author [[João Ubaldo Ribeiro]], who as a young journalist spent several evenings in the Huxleys' company in the late 1950s, wrote that Huxley had said to him, with a wry smile, "I can hardly see at all. And I don't give a damn, really". | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Eyesight"
] | On the other hand, Huxley's second wife, [[Laura Huxley|Laura Archera]], later emphasised in her biographical account, ''This Timeless Moment'': "One of the great achievements of his life: that of having regained his sight". After revealing a letter she wrote to the ''Los Angeles Times'' disclaiming the label of Huxley as a "poor fellow who can hardly see" by [[Walter C. Alvarez]], she tempered her statement with, "Although I feel it was an injustice to treat Aldous as though he were blind, it is true there were many indications of his impaired vision. For instance, although Aldous did not wear glasses, he would quite often use a magnifying lens". Laura Huxley proceeded to elaborate a few nuances of inconsistency peculiar to Huxley's vision. Her account, in this respect, agrees with the following sample of Huxley's own words from ''The Art of Seeing'': "The most characteristic fact about the functioning of the total organism, or any part of the organism, is that it is not constant, but highly variable". Nevertheless, the topic of Huxley's eyesight continues to endure similar, significant controversy. American [[popular science]] author [[Steven Johnson (author)|Steven Johnson]], in his book ''Mind Wide Open'', quotes Huxley about his difficulties with [[Encoding (memory)#Visual encoding|visual encoding]]: "I am and, for as long as I can remember, I have always been a poor visualizer. Words, even the pregnant words of poets, [[Aphantasia|do not evoke pictures in my mind]]. No hypnagogic visions greet me on the verge of sleep. When I recall something, the memory does not present itself to me as a vividly seen event or object. By an effort of the will, I can evoke a not very vivid image of what happened yesterday afternoon ...". | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Personal life"
] | Huxley married on 10 July 1919 Maria Nys (10 September 1899 – 12 February 1955), a Belgian epidemiologist from [[Bellem]], a village near [[Aalter]], he met at [[Garsington]], Oxfordshire, in 1919. They had one child, [[Matthew Huxley]] (19 April 1920 – 10 February 2005), who had a career as an author, anthropologist, and prominent [[epidemiology|epidemiologist]]. In 1955, Maria Huxley died of cancer. In 1956, Huxley married Laura Archera (1911–2007), also an author, as well as a violinist and psychotherapist. She wrote ''This Timeless Moment'', a biography of Huxley. She told the story of their marriage through Mary Ann Braubach's 2010 documentary, ''Huxley on Huxley''. Huxley was diagnosed with [[laryngeal cancer]] in 1960; in the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the Utopian novel ''[[Island (Huxley novel)|Island]]'', and gave lectures on "Human Potentialities" both at the [[UCSF Medical Center]] and at the [[Esalen Institute]]. These lectures were fundamental to the beginning of the [[Human Potential Movement]]. Huxley was a close friend of [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] and [[Rosalind Rajagopal]] and was involved in the creation of the Happy Valley School, now [[Besant Hill School]] of Happy Valley, in [[Ojai, California]]. The most substantial collection of Huxley's few remaining papers, following the destruction of most in a fire, is at the [[University of California, Los Angeles Library|Library of the University of California, Los Angeles]]. Some are also at the [[Stanford University Libraries]]. On 9 April 1962, Huxley was informed he was elected Companion of Literature by the [[Royal Society of Literature]], the senior literary organisation in Britain, and he accepted the title via letter on 28 April 1962. The correspondence between Huxley and the society is kept at the [[Cambridge University Library]]. The society invited Huxley to appear at a banquet and give a lecture at [[Somerset House]], London, in June 1963. Huxley wrote a draft of the speech he intended to give at the society; however, his deteriorating health meant he was not able to attend. | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Death"
] | On his deathbed, unable to speak owing to advanced laryngeal cancer, Huxley made a written request to his wife Laura for "[[Lysergic acid diethylamide|LSD]], 100 [[Microgram|µg]], [[Intramuscular injection|intramuscular]]." According to her account of his death in ''This Timeless Moment'', she obliged with an injection at 11:20 a.m. and a second dose an hour later; Huxley died aged 69, at 5:20 p.m. (Los Angeles time), on 22 November 1963. Media coverage of Huxley's death, along with that of fellow British author [[C. S. Lewis]], was overshadowed by the [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassination of American President John F. Kennedy]] on the same day, less than seven hours before Huxley's death. In a 2009 article for ''[[New York (magazine)|New York]]'' magazine titled "The Eclipsed Celebrity Death Club", Christopher Bonanos wrote: This coincidence served as the basis for [[Peter Kreeft]]'s book ''[[Between Heaven and Hell (novel)|Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley]]'', which imagines a conversation among the three men taking place in Purgatory following their deaths. Huxley's memorial service took place in London in December 1963; it was led by his elder brother Julian. On 27 October 1971, his ashes were interred in the family grave at the Watts Cemetery, home of the [[Watts Mortuary Chapel]] in [[Compton, Guildford]], Surrey, England. Huxley had been a long-time friend of Russian composer [[Igor Stravinsky]], who dedicated his last orchestral composition to Huxley. Stravinsky began ''Variations'' in [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]], in July 1963, and completed the composition in Hollywood on 28 October 1964. It premiered in Chicago on 17 April 1965, by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, conducted by [[Robert Craft]]. | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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[
"Awards"
] | (-) 1939: [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] (-) 1959: [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] Award of Merit . (-) 1962: Companion of Literature | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
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"English science fiction writers",
"English short story writers",
"English travel writers",
"Futurologists",
"Human Potential Movement",
"Huxley family",
"James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients",
"Male essayists",
"Moral philosophers",
"Mystics",
"Neo-Vedanta",
"People educated at Eton College",
"People from Godalming",
"Perennial philosophy",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of technology",
"Psychedelic drug advocates",
"Writers from Los Angeles",
"Writers from Taos, New Mexico",
"20th-century English philosophers"
] | [
"List of peace activists"
] |
[
"Film adaptations of Huxley's work"
] | (-) 1950: ''[[Prelude to Fame]]'' based upon ''Young Archimedes'' (-) 1968: ''[[Point Counter Point]]'' (-) 1971: ''[[The Devils (film)|The Devils]]'' (-) 1980: ''[[Brave New World (1980 film)|Brave New World]]'' (-) 1998: ''[[Brave New World (1998 film)|Brave New World]]'' (-) 2020: ''[[Brave New World (2020 TV series)|Brave New World]]'' | 628 | Aldous Huxley | [
"Aldous Huxley",
"1894 births",
"1963 deaths",
"20th-century English novelists",
"20th-century essayists",
"Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford",
"Anti-consumerists",
"Bates method",
"British agnostics",
"British emigrants to the United States",
"British essayists",
"British male novelists",
"British male poets",
"British male short story writers",
"British pacifists",
"British philosophers",
"British satirists",
"British science fiction writers",
"British short story writers",
"Burials in Surrey",
"Consciousness researchers and theorists",
"Deaths from cancer in California",
"Deaths from laryngeal cancer",
"Duke University faculty",
"English agnostics",
"English essayists",
"English expatriates in the United States",
"English male novelists",
"English male poets",
"English male short story writers",
"English pacifists",
"English people of Cornish descent",
"English philosophers",
"English satirists",
"English science fiction writers",
"English short story writers",
"English travel writers",
"Futurologists",
"Human Potential Movement",
"Huxley family",
"James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients",
"Male essayists",
"Moral philosophers",
"Mystics",
"Neo-Vedanta",
"People educated at Eton College",
"People from Godalming",
"Perennial philosophy",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of technology",
"Psychedelic drug advocates",
"Writers from Los Angeles",
"Writers from Taos, New Mexico",
"20th-century English philosophers"
] | [
"List of peace activists"
] |
[
"Places",
"Africa"
] | (-) [[Ada Foah]] or Ada, Ghana, a town (-) [[Ada (Ghana parliament constituency)]] (-) [[Ada, Delta]], a town in Isoko region, Delta State, Nigeria (-) [[Ada, Osun]], a town in Osun State, Nigeria | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"Places",
"Asia"
] | (-) [[Adeh, Urmia]], also known as Ada, a village in West Azerbaijan Province (-) [[Ada, Karaman]], a village in Karaman Province, Turkey | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"Places",
"Europe"
] | (-) [[Ada, Croatia]], a village (-) [[Ada, Serbia]], a town and municipality (-) [[Ada Ciganlija]] or Ada, a river island artificially turned into a peninsula in Belgrade, Serbia | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"Places",
"North America",
"United States"
] | (-) [[Ada, Alabama]], an unincorporated community (-) [[Ada County, Idaho]] (-) [[Ada, Kansas]], an unincorporated community (-) [[Ada Township, Michigan]] (-) [[Ada, Minnesota]], a city (-) [[Ada Township, Dickey County, North Dakota]] (-) [[Ada, Ohio]], a village (-) [[Ada, Oklahoma]], a city (-) [[Ada, Oregon]], an unincorporated community (-) [[Ada Township, Perkins County, South Dakota]] (-) [[Ada, West Virginia]], an unincorporated community (-) [[Ada, Wisconsin]], an unincorporated community | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"Film and television"
] | (-) [[Ada TV]], a television channel in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (-) [[Ada (1961 film)|''Ada'' (1961 film)]], a 1961 film by Daniel Mann (-) [[Ada (2019 film)|''Ada'' (2019 film)]], a short biopic about Ada Lovelace (-) ''[[Ada... A Way of Life]]'', a 2008 Bollywood musical by Tanvir Ahmed (-) [[Ada (dog actor)]], a dog that played Colin on the sitcom ''Spaced'' (-) Ada, one of the main characters in 1991 movie [[Armour of God II: Operation Condor#Cast|Armour of God II: Operation Condor]] | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"Biology"
] | (-) [[Ada (plant)|''Ada'' (plant)]], a genus of orchids (-) [[Adenosine deaminase]], an enzyme involved in purine metabolism (-) [[Ada (protein)]], an enzyme induced by treatment of bacterial cells | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"Computer science"
] | (-) [[Ada (programming language)]], programming language based on Pascal (-) [[Ada (computer virus)]] | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"Air travel"
] | (-) [[Ada Air]], a regional airline based in Tirana, Albania (-) [[Ada International Airport]] or Saipan International Airport, Saipan Island, Northern Mariana Islands (-) [[Aerolínea de Antioquia]], a Colombian airline (-) [[Airline Deregulation Act]], a 1978 US bill removing governmental control from commercial aviation | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"Schools"
] | (-) [[Ada, the National College for Digital Skills]], a further education college in Tottenham Hale, London (-) [[Ada High School (Ohio)]], Ada, Ohio (-) [[Ada High School (Oklahoma)]], Ada, Oklahoma | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"People"
] | (-) [[Ada (name)]], a feminine given name and a surname, including a list of people and fictional characters (-) [[Ada Lovelace]] (1815–1852), computer scientist sometimes regarded as the first computer programmer | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[
"Other uses"
] | (-) [[List of tropical storms named Ada]] (-) [[Ada (food)]], a traditional Kerala delicacy (-) Ada, the currency of the [[Cardano (cryptocurrency platform)|Cardano cryptocurrency platform]] (-) [[Ada Bridge]], Belgrade, Serbia (-) , a cargo vessel built for the London and South Western Railway (-) [[Ada (ship)|''Ada'' (ship)]], a wooden ketch, wrecked near Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia (-) ''[[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle]]'', novel by Vladimir Nabokov (-) [[Dangme language]], spoken in Ghana (ISO 639-2 and 639-3 code "ada") (-) [[Ada Health]] GmbH, a symptom checker app | 630 | Ada | [] | [
"Adha (disambiguation)",
"Ada'a",
"Ade (disambiguation)",
"ADA (disambiguation)",
"Adah (disambiguation)",
"Ada regulon",
"USS ''Little Ada'' (1864)"
] |
[] | '''[[Aberdeen]]''' is a city in Scotland, United Kingdom. '''Aberdeen''' may also refer to: | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Places",
"Africa"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen, Sierra Leone]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Eastern Cape]], South Africa | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Places",
"Asia",
"Hong Kong"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong]], an area and town on southwest Hong Kong Island (-) [[Aberdeen Channel]], a channel between Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) and Nam Long Shan on the Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong (-) [[Aberdeen floating village]], at Aberdeen Harbour, containing approximately 600 junks, which house an estimated 6,000 people (-) Aberdeen Harbour, a harbour between [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong]] and Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) (-) [[Aberdeen Tunnel]], a tunnel in Hong Kong Island (-) [[Ap Lei Chau]] or Aberdeen Island, an island of Hong Kong (-) [[Aberdeen (constituency)]], a constituency of Southern District Council | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Places",
"Asia",
"India"
] | (-) Aberdeen Bazaar, a shopping centre in [[Port Blair]], South Andaman Island | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Places",
"Australia"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen, New South Wales]] (-) [[Aberdeen, South Australia]], one of the early townships that merged in 1940 to create the town of Burra (-) [[Aberdeen, Tasmania]], a suburb of the [[City of Devonport]] | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Places",
"Europe"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen (Parliament of Scotland constituency)]] (-) [[Aberdeen (UK Parliament constituency)]] 1832-1885 (-) [[Aberdeen Burghs (UK Parliament constituency)]] 1801-1832 (-) [[Aberdeen Central (Scottish Parliament constituency)]] (-) [[Aberdeen Central (UK Parliament constituency)]] (-) [[Aberdeen Donside (Scottish Parliament constituency)]] (-) [[County of Aberdeen]], a historic county of Scotland whose county town was Aberdeen (-) [[Old Aberdeen]], a part of the city of Aberdeen in Scotland | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Places",
"North America",
"Canada"
] | (-) Aberdeen, community in the township of [[Champlain, Ontario|Champlain]], Prescott and Russell County, Ontario (-) [[Aberdeen, Abbotsford]], a neighbourhood in the City of Abbotsford, British Columbia (-) [[Aberdeen Centre]], a shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia (-) [[Aberdeen, Grey County, Ontario]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Kamloops]], an area in the City of Kamloops, British Columbia (-) [[Aberdeen Lake (Nunavut)]], a lake in Kivalliq Region, Nunavut, Canada (-) [[Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]], part of the Municipality of Inverness County, Nova Scotia (-) [[Aberdeen Parish, New Brunswick]] (-) [[Rural Municipality of Aberdeen No. 373]], Saskatchewan (-) [[Aberdeen, Saskatchewan]] (-) Aberdeen Bay, a bay between southern [[Baffin Island]] and north-eastern Hector Island in the Nunavut territory (-) Aberdeen Township, Quebec, until 1960 part of Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, now part of [[Rapides-des-Joachims, Quebec]] (-) [[Aberdeen River]], a tributary of rivière aux Castors Noirs in Mauricie, Québec (-) [[New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]] | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Places",
"North America",
"United States"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen, Arkansas]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Florida]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Georgia]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Idaho]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Ohio County, Indiana]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Porter County, Indiana]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Kentucky]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Maryland]] [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], a United States Army facility located near Aberdeen, Maryland (-) Aberdeen, Massachusetts, a neighborhood of [[Brighton, Boston]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Mississippi]] [[Aberdeen Lake (Mississippi)]], a lake in northeast Mississippi on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, close to Aberdeen, Mississippi (-) [[Aberdeen Township, New Jersey]] (-) [[Aberdeen, North Carolina]] [[Aberdeen Historic District (Aberdeen, North Carolina)]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Ohio]] (-) [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]] [[Aberdeen Historic District (Aberdeen, South Dakota)]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Texas]] (-) [[Aberdeen (Disputanta, Virginia)]] (-) [[Aberdeen Gardens (Hampton, Virginia)]] (-) [[Aberdeen, Washington]] [[Aberdeen Gardens, Washington]] (-) [[Aberdeen, West Virginia]] | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Education"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen Business School]] (-) [[Aberdeen College]], formerly one of the largest further education colleges in Scotland, merged with Banff & Buchan College to form North East Scotland College (-) [[Aberdeen Grammar School]], Aberdeen, Scotland (-) [[Aberdeen Hall]], a university-preparatory school in Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada (-) [[Aberdeen High School (disambiguation)]] (-) [[King's College, Aberdeen]] (-) [[University of Aberdeen]], a public research university in the city of Aberdeen | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Entertainment"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen (2000 film)|''Aberdeen'' (2000 film)]], a 2000 Norwegian-British film directed by Hans Petter Moland, starring Stellan Skarsgård and Lena Headey (-) [[Aberdeen (2014 film)|''Aberdeen'' (2014 film)]], a 2014 Hong Kong film starring Louis Koo (-) [[Aberdeen (band)]], an American rock band (-) [[Aberdeen (song)]], a song by Cage The Elephant (-) [[Aberdeen City (band)]], Boston based indie/alternative rock band | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Other transportation"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen Airport (disambiguation)]] (-) [[Aberdeen Lock and Dam]], one of four lock and dam structures on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Rail"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen, Carolina and Western Railway]], a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina (-) [[Aberdeen and Rockfish Railroad]], a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina (-) [[Aberdeen Corporation Tramways]] (-) [[Aberdeen Line (disambiguation)]] (-) [[Aberdeen station (disambiguation)]] (-) [[Dundee and Perth and Aberdeen Junction Railway]], a later name of the Dundee and Perth Railway | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Shipping"
] | (-) [[Aberdeen Line]], a British shipping company founded in 1825 (-) , one of several ships by that name (-) , a sloop of the British Royal Navy that served between 1936 and 1948 (-) , a merchant ship operated during the latter stages of World War II, later commissioned as the USS ''Altair'' | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[
"Sports"
] | (-) Aberdeen [[Dad Vail Regatta]], the largest regular intercollegiate rowing event in the United States, named after its sponsor, Aberdeen Asset Management (-) [[Aberdeen F.C. (disambiguation)]] (-) [[Aberdeen GSFP RFC]], an amateur rugby union club based in Aberdeen (-) [[Aberdeen IronBirds]], a minor league baseball team affiliated with the Baltimore Orioles (-) [[Aberdeen L.F.C.]], a women's football team affiliated with Aberdeen F.C. | 632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)",
"Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney",
"Etymology of Aberdeen",
"Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)",
"Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair",
"Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Act",
"Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)",
"Aberdeen Angus"
] |
[] | '''Algae''' (; singular '''alga''' ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] [[eukaryotic]] [[organism]]. It is a [[polyphyletic]] grouping that includes species from multiple distinct [[clade]]. Included organisms range from [[unicellular organism|unicellular]] [[microalgae]], such as ''[[Chlorella]],'' [[Prototheca]] and the [[diatom]], to [[multicellular]] forms, such as the [[Macrocystis pyrifera|giant kelp]], a large [[brown algae|brown alga]] which may grow up to in length. Most are aquatic and [[autotrophic]] and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as [[stoma]], [[xylem]] and [[phloem]], which are found in [[embryophyte|land plants]]. The largest and most complex marine algae are called [[seaweed]], while the most complex freshwater forms are the [[Charophyta]], a [[phylum|division]] of green algae which includes, for example, ''[[Spirogyra]]'' and [[stonewort]]. No definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae "have [[chlorophyll]] as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells". Likewise, the colorless [[Prototheca]] under [[Chlorophyta]] are all devoid of any chlorophyll. Although [[cyanobacteria]] are often referred to as "blue-green algae", most authorities exclude all [[prokaryotes]] from the definition of algae. Algae constitute a [[polyphyletic]] group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their [[plastid]] seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. [[Green algae]] are examples of algae that have primary [[chloroplast]] derived from [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] cyanobacteria. [[Diatom]] and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an [[Endosymbiotic theory#Secondary endosymbiosis|endosymbiotic]] [[red alga]]. Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple [[asexual reproduction|asexual]] cell division to complex forms of [[sexual reproduction]]. Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of [[bryophyte]], [[rhizoid]] in [[nonvascular plants]], and the [[root]], [[leaf|leaves]], and other [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]] found in [[tracheophyte]] ([[vascular plants]]). Most are [[phototroph]], although some are [[mixotroph]], deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by [[osmotrophy]], [[Myzocytosis|myzotrophy]], or [[phagocytosis|phagotrophy]]. Some unicellular species of [[green algae]], many [[golden algae]], [[euglenid]], [[dinoflagellate]], and other algae have become [[heterotroph]] (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the [[apicomplexans]], are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from [[cyanobacteria]] that produce [[oxygen]] as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as [[Purple sulfur bacteria|purple]] and [[green sulfur bacteria]]. Fossilized filamentous algae from the [[Vindhya]] basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[] | Because of the wide range of types of algae, they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional [[seaweed farming]] practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in East Asia food cultures. More modern [[algaculture]] applications extend the [[Edible seaweed|food traditions]] for other applications include cattle feed, using algae for [[bioremediation]] or pollution control, transforming sunlight into [[algae fuel]] or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review, found that these applications of algae could play an important role in [[carbon sequestration]] in order to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]] while providing valuable value-add products for global economies. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Etymology and study"
] | The singular is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English. The [[etymology]] is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin , 'be cold', no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is , 'binding, entwining'. The [[Ancient Greek]] word for 'seaweed' was (), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, , meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical (), 'paint' (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue. Accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either [[phycology]] or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name ''fucus'' appears in a number of [[Taxon|taxa]]. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Classifications"
] | The committee on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has recommended certain suffixes for use in the classification of algae. These are '''-phyta''' for division, ''-phyceae'' for class, ''-phycideae'' for subclass, ''-ales'' for order, ''-inales'' for suborder, ''-aceae'' for family, ''-oidease'' for subfamily, a Greek-based name for genus, and a Latin-based name for species. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Classifications",
"Algal characteristics basic to primary classification"
] | The primary classification of algae is based on certain morphological features. The chief among these are (a) pigment constitution of the cell, (b) chemical nature of stored food materials, (c) kind, number, point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile cell, (d) chemical composition of cell wall and (e) presence or absence of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of cell structure. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Classifications",
"History of classification of algae"
] | Although [[Carolus Linnaeus]] (1754) included algae along with lichens in his 25th class Cryptogamia, he did not elaborate further on the classification of algae. [[Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher]] (1803) was perhaps the first to propose a system of classification of algae, and he recognized three groups, Conferves, Ulves, and Tremelles. While [[Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link]] (1820) classified algae on the basis of the colour of the pigment and structure, [[William Henry Harvey]] (1836) proposed a system of classification on the basis of the habitat and the pigment. [[J. G. Agardh]] (1849–1898) divided algae into six orders: Diatomaceae, Nostochineae, Confervoideae, Ulvaceae, Floriadeae and Fucoideae. Around 1880, algae along with fungi were grouped under Thallophyta, a division created by Eichler (1836). Encouraged by this, [[Adolf Engler]] and [[Karl Anton Eugen Prantl|Karl A. E. Prantl]] (1912) proposed a revised scheme of classification of algae and included fungi in algae as they were of opinion that fungi have been derived from algae. The scheme proposed by Engler and Prantl is summarised as follows: (1) Schizophyta (2) Phytosarcodina (3) Flagellata (4) Dinoflagellata (5) Bacillariophyta (6) Conjugatae (7) Chlorophyceae (8) Charophyta (9) Phaeophyceae (10) Rhodophyceae (11) Eumycetes (Fungi) The algae contain [[chloroplast]] that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular [[DNA]] like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely. [[Phylogeny]] based on [[plastid]] not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy: [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], in ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' (1753), the starting point for modern [[botanical nomenclature]], recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae. In ''[[10th edition of Systema Naturae|Systema Naturae]]'', Linnaeus described the genera ''[[Volvox]]'' and ''[[Corallina]]'', and a species of ''[[Acetabularia]]'' (as ''[[Madrepora]]''), among the animals. In 1768, [[Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin]] (1744–1774) published the ''Historia Fucorum'', the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on [[marine biology]] to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves. [[William Henry Harvey|W. H. Harvey]] (1811–1866) and [[Lamouroux]] (1813) were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae. At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., [[Otto Friedrich Müller|O. F. Müller]] and [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg]]) studying the [[Infusoria]] (microscopic organisms). Unlike [[macroalgae]], which were clearly viewed as plants, [[microalgae]] were frequently considered animals because they are often motile. Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
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"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Classifications",
"History of classification of algae"
] | Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the "algae" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group. Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: [[cyanophyte]], [[rhodophyte]], [[chrysophyte]], [[xanthophyte]], [[diatom|bacillariophytes]], [[phaeophyte]], [[Dinoflagellate#history|pyrrhophytes]] ([[Cryptomonad|cryptophytes]] and [[dinophyte]]), [[euglenophyte]], and [[chlorophyte]]. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., [[Bolidophyceae]]), and others were splintered from older groups: [[charophyte]] and [[glaucophyte]] (from chlorophytes), many [[heterokontophyte]] (e.g., [[Synurophyceae|synurophytes]] from chrysophytes, or [[eustigmatophyte]] from xanthophytes), [[haptophyte]] (from chrysophytes), and [[chlorarachniophyte]] (from xanthophytes). With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in [[Protist]], later also abandoned in favour of [[Eukaryota]]. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as [[protozoa]] in the past still have duplicated classifications (see [[ambiregnal protist]]). Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae ''[[Prototheca]]'' and ''[[Helicosporidium]]'', parasites of metazoans, or ''[[Cephaleuros]]'', parasites of plants) were originally classified as [[fungi]], [[sporozoan]], or [[protist]] of ''[[incertae sedis]]'', while others (e.g., the green algae ''[[Phyllosiphon]]'' and ''[[Rhodochytrium]]'', parasites of plants, or the red algae ''[[Pterocladiophila]]'' and ''[[Gelidiocolax mammillatus]]'', parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates ''[[Oodinium]]'', parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., ''[[Chlorochytrium]]''), but later were seen as [[endophytic]] algae. Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., ''[[Beggiatoa]]'') were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the [[apicomplexan]] are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
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"Polyphyletic groups"
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"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Relationship to land plants"
] | The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like ''[[Chara (alga)|Chara]]'' almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic [[alternation of generations]] and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
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] |
[
"Morphology"
] | A range of algal [[Morphology (biology)|morphologies]] is exhibited, and [[Convergent evolution|convergence]] of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular [[Thallus|thalli]] are the [[Red algae|reds]] and [[Brown algae|browns]], and some [[Chlorophyta|chlorophytes]]. Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the [[Florideophyceae|florideophyte]] reds, various browns, and the charophytes. The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the [[horsetail]] occur at the nodes. [[Conceptacle]] are another [[polyphyletic]] trait; they appear in the [[coralline algae]] and the [[Hildenbrandiales]], as well as the browns. Most of the simpler algae are [[unicellular]] [[flagellate]] or [[amoeboid]], but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the [[biological life cycle|lifecycle]] of a species, are (-) [[Colony (biology)|Colonial]]: small, regular groups of motile cells (-) Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in [[mucilage]] (-) Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls (-) Palmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage (-) Filamentous: a string of nonmotile cells connected together, sometimes branching (-) Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,—some of which may reach 50 m in length ([[kelp]])—the red algae, and the green algae. The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see [[Charales]] and [[Charophyta]]), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the [[Embryophyte]]. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
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"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Morphology",
"Turfs"
] | The term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick, carpet-like beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like [[coral reef|corals]] and [[kelp forest#kelp|kelps]], and they are usually less than 15 cm tall. Such a turf may consist of one or more species, and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listed: (-) Algae that form aggregations that have been described as turfs include diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, phaeophytes and rhodophytes. Turfs are often composed of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales, but monospecific turfs are frequently reported. (-) Turfs can be morphologically highly variable over geographic scales and even within species on local scales and can be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species. (-) Turfs have been defined as short algae, but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0.5 cm to more than 10 cm. In some regions, the descriptions approached heights which might be described as canopies (20 to 30 cm). | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
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"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Physiology"
] | Many algae, particularly members of the [[Characeae]] species, have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, [[osmoregulation]], [[turgor regulation]], [[salt tolerance]], [[cytoplasmic streaming]], and the generation of [[action potentials]]. [[Phytohormone]] are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
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"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Symbiotic algae"
] | Some species of algae form [[symbiosis|symbiotic relationships]] with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are: | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
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"Marimo",
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"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Symbiotic algae",
"Lichens"
] | [[Lichen]] are defined by the [[International Association for Lichenology]] to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic [[symbiont]] resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure". The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the [[Ascomycota]] with a few from the [[Basidiomycota]]. In nature they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate. One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species. The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont. [[Trentepohlia (alga)|Trentepohlia]] is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (''[[aerophyte]]'') growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Symbiotic algae",
"Coral reefs"
] | [[Coral reef]] are accumulated from the [[calcareous]] [[exoskeleton]] of [[marine invertebrate]] of the order [[Scleractinia]] (stony [[coral]]). These [[Animal#Food and energy sourcing|animals]] [[Metabolism|metabolize]] [[Sugar#Chemistry|sugar]] and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including [[secretion]] of the exoskeleton, with water and [[carbon dioxide]] as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often [[endosymbiont]] in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals ([[hermatypic coral]]) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus ''[[Symbiodinium]]'' to be in a healthy condition. The loss of ''Symbiodinium'' from the host is known as [[coral bleaching]], a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Symbiotic algae",
"Sea sponges"
] | [[Endosymbiont]] green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (''[[Halichondria panicea]]''). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Lifecycle"
] | [[Rhodophyta]], [[Chlorophyta]], and [[Heterokontophyta]], the three main algal [[phylum|divisions]], have lifecycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are [[diploid]], a sexual phase where the cells are [[haploid]], followed by fusion of the male and female [[gamete]]. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a [[zygote]]. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes. Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during [[meiosis]], a key stage of the sexual cycle. However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction. Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Numbers"
] | The ''Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium'' (located in the [[National Museum of Natural History]]) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown). Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook, in the [[British Isles]] the ''UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report'' estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ..." Regional and group estimates have been made, as well: (-) 5,000–5,500 species of red algae worldwide (-) "some 1,300 in Australian Seas" (-) 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa, and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal. Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in [[List of seaweeds of South Africa (disambiguation)|List of seaweeds of South Africa]]. These exclude [[phytoplankton]] and crustose corallines. (-) 669 marine species from California (US) (-) 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton. The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
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"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Distribution"
] | The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of [[phytogeography]] in the mid-19th century. Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of [[spore]] analogously to the dispersal of [[Plantae]] by [[seeds]] and [[spores]]. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms. Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands. The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers. However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them. Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces. To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as [[Antarctica]], long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "[[Pacific]] algae" or "[[North Sea]] algae". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, ''[[Ulva reticulata]]'' and ''[[U. fasciata]]'' travelled from the mainland to [[Hawaii]] in this manner. Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns." For example, ''[[Clathromorphum]]'' is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there. However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies." | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Ecology"
] | Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on [[Snow algae|snow]] and [[Ice algae|ice]]. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under deep; however, some such as ''[[Navicula]] pennata'' have been recorded to a depth of . A type of algae, ''Ancylonema nordenskioeldii'', was found in [[Greenland]] in areas known as the 'Dark Zone', which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet. Same algae was found in the [[Italian Alps]], after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier. The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column ([[phytoplankton]]) provide the food base for most marine [[food chain]]. In very high densities ([[algal bloom]]), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or [[asphyxiate]] other life forms. Algae can be used as [[indicator organism]] to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems. In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants. To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease. On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: [[Aquatic plant|aquatic]] ([[planktonic]], [[benthic]], [[Marine biology|marine]], [[freshwater]], [[lentic]], [[lotic]]), [[Terrestrial plant|terrestrial]], [[Aerobiology|aerial]] (subaerial), [[lithophytic]], [[halophytic]] (or [[euryhaline]]), [[psammon]], [[thermophilic]], [[Psychrophile|cryophilic]], [[epibiont]] ([[epiphytic]], [[epizoic]]), [[endosymbiont]] ([[endophytic]], endozoic), [[parasitic]], [[calcareous|calcifilic]] or [[lichen]] (phycobiont). | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Cultural associations"
] | In [[classical Chinese]], the word is used both for "algae" and (in the modest tradition of the [[scholar-official|imperial scholars]]) for "literary talent". The third island in [[Kunming Lake]] beside the [[Summer Palace]] in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao, which thus simultaneously means "Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall" and "Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent". | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Uses",
"Agar"
] | [[Agar]], a [[gelatin]] substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses. It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
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"AlgaeBase",
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"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
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"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Uses",
"Alginates"
] | [[Alginic acid]], or alginate, is extracted from [[brown algae]]. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of [[biotechnology]] as a [[Biocompatibility|biocompatible medium]] for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. [[Molecular cuisine]] is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours. Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of ''[[Macrocystis]]'' are harvested annually in [[New Mexico]] for [[Alginic acid|alginate]] extraction and [[abalone]] feed. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
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"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Uses",
"Energy source"
] | To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise, directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Uses",
"Fertilizer"
] | For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; [[George Owen of Henllys]] writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in [[South Wales]]: Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as [[fertilizer]], [[soil conditioner]], and livestock feed. Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. [[Algaculture]] on a large scale is an important type of [[aquaculture]] in some places. [[Maerl]] is commonly used as a soil conditioner. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
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"AlgaeBase",
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"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
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"Microphyte",
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"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
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[
"Uses",
"Nutrition"
] | Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia, leading some to label them as [[superfood]]. They provide many vitamins including: A, [[Thiamine|B]], [[Riboflavin|B]], [[Vitamin B6|B]], [[niacin]], and [[Vitamin C|C]], and are rich in [[iodine]], [[potassium]], iron, [[magnesium]], and [[calcium]]. In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as [[Spirulina (dietary supplement)|spirulina]], ''[[Chlorella]]'' and the vitamin-C supplement from ''[[Dunaliella]]'', high in [[beta-carotene]]. Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including ''[[fat choy (vegetable)|fat choy]]'', a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species such as ''[[nori]]'' and ''[[aonori]]''; Ireland, [[dulse]]; [[Chile]], [[cochayuyo]]. [[laver (seaweed)|Laver]] is used to make laver bread in [[Wales]], where it is known as ; in [[Korea]], . It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to [[British Columbia]], in Hawaii and by the [[Māori people|Māori]] of [[New Zealand]]. [[Sea lettuce]] and [[Alaria esculenta|badderlocks]] are salad ingredients in [[Scotland]], Ireland, [[Greenland]], and [[Iceland]]. Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem. Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisine: (-) ''[[Chlorella]]'': This form of alga is found in freshwater and contains [[photosynthetic]] pigments in its [[chloroplast]]. It is high in [[iron]], [[zinc]], [[magnesium]], [[vitamin B2]] and [[Omega-3 Fatty acids]]. Furthermore, it contains all nine of the essential [[amino acids]] the body does not produce on its own (-) ''[[Spirulina (genus)|Spirulina]]'': Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium (a [[prokaryote]], incorrectly referred to as a "blue-green alga"), contains 10% more [[protein]] than ''Chlorella'' as well as more [[thiamine]] and [[copper]]. The oils from some algae have high levels of [[unsaturated fatty acid]]. For example, ''[[Parietochloris incisa]]'' is very high in [[arachidonic acid]], where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool. Some varieties of algae favored by [[vegetarianism]] and [[veganism]] contain the long-chain, essential [[omega-3 fatty acid]], [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA) and [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as [[copepod]] and are passed up the food chain. Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as [[flaxseed oil]], which only contains the short-chain [[alpha-linolenic acid]] (ALA). | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Uses",
"Pollution control"
] | (-) Sewage can be treated with algae, reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed. (-) Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer. (-) Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an [[algae scrubber]], also known as an algae turf scrubber. [[Agricultural Research Service]] scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from [[manure effluents]] using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an [[algal turf scrubber]] (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers. Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Uses",
"Polymers"
] | Various polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene. Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops and in surf boards. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Uses",
"Bioremediation"
] | The alga ''[[Stichococcus bacillaris]]'' has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; [[Biodegradation|biodegrading]] the synthetic substance. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Uses",
"Pigments"
] | The natural [[pigment]] ([[carotenoid]] and [[chlorophyll]]) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical [[dye]] and coloring agents. The presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly [[high-performance liquid chromatography]], can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[
"Uses",
"Stabilizing substances"
] | Carrageenan, from the red alga ''Chondrus crispus'', is used as a stabilizer in milk products. | 633 | Algae | [
"Algae",
"Endosymbiotic events",
"Polyphyletic groups"
] | [
"AlgaeBase",
"Toxoid",
"Plant",
"Marimo",
"Photobioreactor",
"Eutrophication",
"Microphyte",
"Microbiofuels",
"Phycotechnology",
"Iron fertilization",
"AlgaePARC"
] |
[] | '''Analysis of variance''' ('''ANOVA''') is a collection of [[statistical model]] and their associated estimation procedures (such as the "variation" among and between groups) used to analyze the differences among means. ANOVA was developed by the [[statistician]] [[Ronald Fisher]]. ANOVA is based on the [[law of total variance]], where the observed [[variance]] in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation. In its simplest form, ANOVA provides a [[statistical test]] of whether two or more population [[mean]] are equal, and therefore generalizes the [[Student's t-test#Independent two-sample t-test|''t''-test]] beyond two means. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"History"
] | While the analysis of variance reached fruition in the 20th century, antecedents extend centuries into the past according to Stigler. These include hypothesis testing, the partitioning of sums of squares, experimental techniques and the additive model. [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] was performing hypothesis testing in the 1770s. Around 1800, Laplace and [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] developed the least-squares method for combining observations, which improved upon methods then used in astronomy and geodesy. It also initiated much study of the contributions to sums of squares. Laplace knew how to estimate a variance from a residual (rather than a total) sum of squares. By 1827, Laplace was using [[least squares]] methods to address ANOVA problems regarding measurements of atmospheric tides. Before 1800, astronomers had isolated observational errors resulting from reaction times (the "[[personal equation]]") and had developed methods of reducing the errors. The experimental methods used in the study of the personal equation were later accepted by the emerging field of psychology which developed strong (full factorial) experimental methods to which randomization and blinding were soon added. An eloquent non-mathematical explanation of the additive effects model was available in 1885. [[Ronald Fisher]] introduced the term [[variance]] and proposed its formal analysis in a 1918 article ''[[The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance]]''. His first application of the analysis of variance was published in 1921. Analysis of variance became widely known after being included in Fisher's 1925 book ''[[Statistical Methods for Research Workers]]''. Randomization models were developed by several researchers. The first was published in Polish by [[Jerzy Neyman]] in 1923. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Example"
] | The analysis of variance can be used to describe otherwise complex relations among variables. A dog show provides an example. A dog show is not a random sampling of the breed: it is typically limited to dogs that are adult, pure-bred, and exemplary. A histogram of dog weights from a show might plausibly be rather complex, like the yellow-orange distribution shown in the illustrations. Suppose we wanted to predict the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog. One way to do that is to ''explain'' the distribution of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics. A successful grouping will split dogs such that (a) each group has a low variance of dog weights (meaning the group is relatively homogeneous) and (b) the mean of each group is distinct (if two groups have the same mean, then it isn't reasonable to conclude that the groups are, in fact, separate in any meaningful way). In the illustrations to the right, groups are identified as ''X'', ''X'', etc. In the first illustration, the dogs are divided according to the product (interaction) of two binary groupings: young vs old, and short-haired vs long-haired (e.g., group 1 is young, short-haired dogs, group 2 is young, long-haired dogs, etc.). Since the distributions of dog weight within each of the groups (shown in blue) has a relatively large variance, and since the means are very similar across groups, grouping dogs by these characteristics does not produce an effective way to explain the variation in dog weights: knowing which group a dog is in doesn't allow us to predict its weight much better than simply knowing the dog is in a dog show. Thus, this grouping fails to explain the variation in the overall distribution (yellow-orange). An attempt to explain the weight distribution by grouping dogs as ''pet vs working breed'' and ''less athletic vs more athletic'' would probably be somewhat more successful (fair fit). The heaviest show dogs are likely to be big, strong, working breeds, while breeds kept as pets tend to be smaller and thus lighter. As shown by the second illustration, the distributions have variances that are considerably smaller than in the first case, and the means are more distinguishable. However, the significant overlap of distributions, for example, means that we cannot distinguish ''X'' and ''X'' reliably. Grouping dogs according to a coin flip might produce distributions that look similar. An attempt to explain weight by breed is likely to produce a very good fit. All Chihuahuas are light and all St Bernards are heavy. The difference in weights between Setters and Pointers does not justify separate breeds. The analysis of variance provides the formal tools to justify these intuitive judgments. A common use of the method is the analysis of experimental data or the development of models. The method has some advantages over correlation: not all of the data must be numeric and one result of the method is a judgment in the confidence in an explanatory relationship. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Background and terminology"
] | ANOVA is a form of [[statistical hypothesis testing]] heavily used in the analysis of experimental data. A test result (calculated from the [[null hypothesis]] and the sample) is called statistically significant if it is deemed unlikely to have occurred by chance, ''assuming the truth of the null hypothesis''. A statistically significant result, when a probability ([[p-value|''p''-value]]) is less than a pre-specified threshold (significance level), justifies the rejection of the [[null hypothesis]], but only if the a priori probability of the null hypothesis is not high. In the typical application of ANOVA, the null hypothesis is that all groups are random samples from the same population. For example, when studying the effect of different treatments on similar samples of patients, the null hypothesis would be that all treatments have the same effect (perhaps none). Rejecting the null hypothesis is taken to mean that the differences in observed effects between treatment groups are unlikely to be due to random chance. By construction, hypothesis testing limits the rate of [[Type I errors]] (false positives) to a significance level. Experimenters also wish to limit [[Type II errors]] (false negatives). The rate of Type II errors depends largely on sample size (the rate is larger for smaller samples), significance level (when the standard of proof is high, the chances of overlooking a discovery are also high) and [[effect size]] (a smaller effect size is more prone to Type II error). The terminology of ANOVA is largely from the statistical [[design of experiments]]. The experimenter adjusts factors and measures responses in an attempt to determine an effect. Factors are assigned to experimental units by a combination of randomization and [[Randomized block design|blocking]] to ensure the validity of the results. [[Blind experiment|Blinding]] keeps the weighing impartial. Responses show a variability that is partially the result of the effect and is partially random error. ANOVA is the synthesis of several ideas and it is used for multiple purposes. As a consequence, it is difficult to define concisely or precisely. "Classical" ANOVA for balanced data does three things at once: ANOVA "has long enjoyed the status of being the most used (some would say abused) statistical technique in psychological research." ANOVA is difficult to teach, particularly for complex experiments, with [[Restricted randomization|split-plot designs]] being notorious. In some cases the proper application of the method is best determined by problem pattern recognition followed by the consultation of a classic authoritative test. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Classes of models"
] | There are three classes of models used in the analysis of variance, and these are outlined here. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Classes of models",
"Fixed-effects models"
] | The fixed-effects model (class I) of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter applies one or more treatments to the subjects of the experiment to see whether the [[response variable]] values change. This allows the experimenter to estimate the ranges of response variable values that the treatment would generate in the population as a whole. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Classes of models",
"Random-effects models"
] | Random-effects model (class II) is used when the treatments are not fixed. This occurs when the various factor levels are sampled from a larger population. Because the levels themselves are [[random variable]], some assumptions and the method of contrasting the treatments (a multi-variable generalization of simple differences) differ from the fixed-effects model. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Classes of models",
"Mixed-effects models"
] | A mixed-effects model (class III) contains experimental factors of both fixed and random-effects types, with appropriately different interpretations and analysis for the two types. Example: Teaching experiments could be performed by a college or university department to find a good introductory textbook, with each text considered a treatment. The fixed-effects model would compare a list of candidate texts. The random-effects model would determine whether important differences exist among a list of randomly selected texts. The mixed-effects model would compare the (fixed) incumbent texts to randomly selected alternatives. Defining fixed and random effects has proven elusive, with competing definitions arguably leading toward a linguistic quagmire. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Assumptions"
] | The analysis of variance has been studied from several approaches, the most common of which uses a [[linear model]] that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Assumptions",
"Textbook analysis using a normal distribution"
] | The analysis of variance can be presented in terms of a [[linear model]], which makes the following assumptions about the [[probability distribution]] of the responses: (-) [[Statistical independence|Independence]] of observations – this is an assumption of the model that simplifies the statistical analysis. (-) [[normal distribution|Normality]] – the distributions of the [[Residual (statistics)|residuals]] are [[Normal distribution|normal]]. (-) Equality (or "homogeneity") of variances, called [[homoscedasticity]] — the variance of data in groups should be the same. The separate assumptions of the textbook model imply that the [[errors and residuals in statistics|errors]] are independently, identically, and normally distributed for fixed effects models, that is, that the errors (formula_1) are independent and formula_2 | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Assumptions",
"Randomization-based analysis"
] | In a [[Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled experiment]], the treatments are randomly assigned to experimental units, following the experimental protocol. This randomization is objective and declared before the experiment is carried out. The objective random-assignment is used to test the significance of the null hypothesis, following the ideas of [[Charles Sanders Peirce|C. S. Peirce]] and [[Ronald Fisher]]. This design-based analysis was discussed and developed by [[Francis J. Anscombe]] at [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]] and by [[Oscar Kempthorne]] at [[Iowa State University]]. Kempthorne and his students make an assumption of ''unit treatment additivity'', which is discussed in the books of Kempthorne and [[David R. Cox]]. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Assumptions",
"Randomization-based analysis",
"Unit-treatment additivity"
] | In its simplest form, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity states that the observed response formula_3 from experimental unit formula_4 when receiving treatment formula_5 can be written as the sum of the unit's response formula_6 and the treatment-effect formula_7, that is formula_8 The assumption of unit-treatment additivity implies that, for every treatment formula_5, the formula_5th treatment has exactly the same effect formula_11 on every experiment unit. The assumption of unit treatment additivity usually cannot be directly [[falsificationism|falsified]], according to Cox and Kempthorne. However, many ''consequences'' of treatment-unit additivity can be falsified. For a randomized experiment, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity ''implies'' that the variance is constant for all treatments. Therefore, by [[contraposition]], a necessary condition for unit-treatment additivity is that the variance is constant. The use of unit treatment additivity and randomization is similar to the design-based inference that is standard in finite-population [[survey sampling]]. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Assumptions",
"Randomization-based analysis",
"Derived linear model"
] | Kempthorne uses the randomization-distribution and the assumption of ''unit treatment additivity'' to produce a ''derived linear model'', very similar to the textbook model discussed previously. The test statistics of this derived linear model are closely approximated by the test statistics of an appropriate normal linear model, according to approximation theorems and simulation studies. However, there are differences. For example, the randomization-based analysis results in a small but (strictly) negative correlation between the observations. In the randomization-based analysis, there is ''no assumption'' of a ''normal'' distribution and certainly ''no assumption'' of ''independence''. On the contrary, ''the observations are dependent''! The randomization-based analysis has the disadvantage that its exposition involves tedious algebra and extensive time. Since the randomization-based analysis is complicated and is closely approximated by the approach using a normal linear model, most teachers emphasize the normal linear model approach. Few statisticians object to model-based analysis of balanced randomized experiments. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Assumptions",
"Randomization-based analysis",
"Statistical models for observational data"
] | However, when applied to data from non-randomized experiments or [[observational study|observational studies]], model-based analysis lacks the warrant of randomization. For observational data, the derivation of confidence intervals must use ''subjective'' models, as emphasized by [[Ronald Fisher]] and his followers. In practice, the estimates of treatment-effects from observational studies generally are often inconsistent. In practice, "statistical models" and observational data are useful for suggesting hypotheses that should be treated very cautiously by the public. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Assumptions",
"Summary of assumptions"
] | The normal-model based ANOVA analysis assumes the independence, normality and homogeneity of variances of the residuals. The randomization-based analysis assumes only the homogeneity of the variances of the residuals (as a consequence of unit-treatment additivity) and uses the randomization procedure of the experiment. Both these analyses require [[homoscedasticity]], as an assumption for the normal-model analysis and as a consequence of randomization and additivity for the randomization-based analysis. However, studies of processes that change variances rather than means (called dispersion effects) have been successfully conducted using ANOVA. There are ''no'' necessary assumptions for ANOVA in its full generality, but the ''F''-test used for ANOVA hypothesis testing has assumptions and practical limitations which are of continuing interest. Problems which do not satisfy the assumptions of ANOVA can often be transformed to satisfy the assumptions. The property of unit-treatment additivity is not invariant under a "change of scale", so statisticians often use transformations to achieve unit-treatment additivity. If the response variable is expected to follow a parametric family of probability distributions, then the statistician may specify (in the protocol for the experiment or observational study) that the responses be transformed to stabilize the variance. Also, a statistician may specify that logarithmic transforms be applied to the responses, which are believed to follow a multiplicative model. According to Cauchy's [[functional equation]] theorem, the [[logarithm]] is the only continuous transformation that transforms real multiplication to addition. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Characteristics"
] | ANOVA is used in the analysis of comparative experiments, those in which only the difference in outcomes is of interest. The statistical significance of the experiment is determined by a ratio of two variances. This ratio is independent of several possible alterations to the experimental observations: Adding a constant to all observations does not alter significance. Multiplying all observations by a constant does not alter significance. So ANOVA statistical significance result is independent of constant bias and scaling errors as well as the units used in expressing observations. In the era of mechanical calculation it was common to subtract a constant from all observations (when equivalent to dropping leading digits) to simplify data entry. This is an example of data [[Coding (social sciences)|coding]]. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Logic"
] | The calculations of ANOVA can be characterized as computing a number of means and variances, dividing two variances and comparing the ratio to a handbook value to determine statistical significance. Calculating a treatment effect is then trivial: "the effect of any treatment is estimated by taking the difference between the mean of the observations which receive the treatment and the general mean". | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Logic",
"Partitioning of the sum of squares"
] | ANOVA uses traditional standardized terminology. The definitional equation of sample variance is formula_12, where the divisor is called the degrees of freedom (DF), the summation is called the sum of squares (SS), the result is called the mean square (MS) and the squared terms are deviations from the sample mean. ANOVA estimates 3 sample variances: a total variance based on all the observation deviations from the grand mean, an error variance based on all the observation deviations from their appropriate treatment means, and a treatment variance. The treatment variance is based on the deviations of treatment means from the grand mean, the result being multiplied by the number of observations in each treatment to account for the difference between the variance of observations and the variance of means. The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total [[sum of squares (statistics)|sum of squares]] ''SS'' into components related to the effects used in the model. For example, the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. formula_13 The number of [[Degrees of freedom (statistics)|degrees of freedom]] ''DF'' can be partitioned in a similar way: one of these components (that for error) specifies a [[chi-squared distribution]] which describes the associated sum of squares, while the same is true for "treatments" if there is no treatment effect. formula_14 See also [[Lack-of-fit sum of squares]]. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Logic",
"The ''F''-test"
] | The [[F-test|''F''-test]] is used for comparing the factors of the total deviation. For example, in one-way, or single-factor ANOVA, statistical significance is tested for by comparing the F test statistic formula_15 formula_16 where ''MS'' is mean square, formula_17 = number of treatments and formula_18 = total number of cases to the [[F-distribution|''F''-distribution]] with formula_19, formula_20 degrees of freedom. Using the ''F''-distribution is a natural candidate because the test statistic is the ratio of two scaled sums of squares each of which follows a scaled [[chi-squared distribution]]. The expected value of F is formula_21 (where formula_22 is the treatment sample size) which is 1 for no treatment effect. As values of F increase above 1, the evidence is increasingly inconsistent with the null hypothesis. Two apparent experimental methods of increasing F are increasing the sample size and reducing the error variance by tight experimental controls. There are two methods of concluding the ANOVA hypothesis test, both of which produce the same result: (-) The textbook method is to compare the observed value of F with the critical value of F determined from tables. The critical value of F is a function of the degrees of freedom of the numerator and the denominator and the significance level (α). If F ≥ F, the null hypothesis is rejected. (-) The computer method calculates the probability (p-value) of a value of F greater than or equal to the observed value. The null hypothesis is rejected if this probability is less than or equal to the significance level (α). The ANOVA ''F''-test is known to be nearly optimal in the sense of minimizing false negative errors for a fixed rate of false positive errors (i.e. maximizing power for a fixed significance level). For example, to test the hypothesis that various medical treatments have exactly the same effect, the [[F-test|''F''-test]]'s ''p''-values closely approximate the [[permutation test]]'s [[p-value]]: The approximation is particularly close when the design is balanced. Such [[permutation test]] characterize [[uniformly most powerful test|tests with maximum power]] against all [[alternative hypothesis|alternative hypotheses]], as observed by Rosenbaum. The ANOVA ''F''-test (of the null-hypothesis that all treatments have exactly the same effect) is recommended as a practical test, because of its robustness against many alternative distributions. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Logic",
"Extended logic"
] | ANOVA consists of separable parts; partitioning sources of variance and hypothesis testing can be used individually. ANOVA is used to support other statistical tools. Regression is first used to fit more complex models to data, then ANOVA is used to compare models with the objective of selecting simple(r) models that adequately describe the data. "Such models could be fit without any reference to ANOVA, but ANOVA tools could then be used to make some sense of the fitted models, and to test hypotheses about batches of coefficients." "[W]e think of the analysis of variance as a way of understanding and structuring multilevel models—not as an alternative to regression but as a tool for summarizing complex high-dimensional inferences ..." | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"For a single factor"
] | The simplest experiment suitable for ANOVA analysis is the completely randomized experiment with a single factor. More complex experiments with a single factor involve constraints on randomization and include completely randomized blocks and Latin squares (and variants: Graeco-Latin squares, etc.). The more complex experiments share many of the complexities of multiple factors. A relatively complete discussion of the analysis (models, data summaries, ANOVA table) of the completely randomized experiment is [[One-way analysis of variance|available]]. For a single factor, there are some alternatives of one-way analysis of variance; namely, Welch's heteroscedastic F test, Welch's heteroscedastic F test with trimmed means and Winsorized variances, Brown-Forsythe test, AlexanderGovern test, James second order test and Kruskal-Wallis test, available in onewaytests [[R package]]. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"For multiple factors"
] | ANOVA generalizes to the study of the effects of multiple factors. When the experiment includes observations at all combinations of levels of each factor, it is termed [[Factorial experiment|factorial]]. Factorial experiments are more efficient than a series of single factor experiments and the efficiency grows as the number of factors increases. Consequently, factorial designs are heavily used. The use of ANOVA to study the effects of multiple factors has a complication. In a 3-way ANOVA with factors x, y and z, the ANOVA model includes terms for the main effects (x, y, z) and terms for [[Interaction (statistics)|interactions]] (xy, xz, yz, xyz). All terms require hypothesis tests. The proliferation of interaction terms increases the risk that some hypothesis test will produce a false positive by chance. Fortunately, experience says that high order interactions are rare. The ability to detect interactions is a major advantage of multiple factor ANOVA. Testing one factor at a time hides interactions, but produces apparently inconsistent experimental results. Caution is advised when encountering interactions; Test interaction terms first and expand the analysis beyond ANOVA if interactions are found. Texts vary in their recommendations regarding the continuation of the ANOVA procedure after encountering an interaction. Interactions complicate the interpretation of experimental data. Neither the calculations of significance nor the estimated treatment effects can be taken at face value. "A significant interaction will often mask the significance of main effects." Graphical methods are recommended to enhance understanding. Regression is often useful. A lengthy discussion of interactions is available in Cox (1958). Some interactions can be removed (by transformations) while others cannot. A variety of techniques are used with multiple factor ANOVA to reduce expense. One technique used in factorial designs is to minimize replication (possibly no replication with support of [[Tukey's test of additivity|analytical trickery]]) and to combine groups when effects are found to be statistically (or practically) insignificant. An experiment with many insignificant factors may collapse into one with a few factors supported by many replications. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Associated analysis"
] | Some analysis is required in support of the ''design'' of the experiment while other analysis is performed after changes in the factors are formally found to produce statistically significant changes in the responses. Because experimentation is iterative, the results of one experiment alter plans for following experiments. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Associated analysis",
"Preparatory analysis",
"The number of experimental units"
] | In the design of an experiment, the number of experimental units is planned to satisfy the goals of the experiment. Experimentation is often sequential. Early experiments are often designed to provide mean-unbiased estimates of treatment effects and of experimental error. Later experiments are often designed to test a hypothesis that a treatment effect has an important magnitude; in this case, the number of experimental units is chosen so that the experiment is within budget and has adequate power, among other goals. Reporting sample size analysis is generally required in psychology. "Provide information on sample size and the process that led to sample size decisions." The analysis, which is written in the experimental protocol before the experiment is conducted, is examined in grant applications and administrative review boards. Besides the power analysis, there are less formal methods for selecting the number of experimental units. These include graphical methods based on limiting the probability of false negative errors, graphical methods based on an expected variation increase (above the residuals) and methods based on achieving a desired confidence interval. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
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