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[
"Internal classification",
"Diffloth (2005)"
] | [[Gérard Diffloth|Diffloth]] compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have: Or in more detail, (-) '''[[Munda languages]]''' (India) '''Koraput''': 7 languages Core Munda languages '''Kharian–Juang''': 2 languages North Munda languages ''[[Korku language|Korku]]'' '''Kherwarian''': 12 languages (-) [[Khasi–Khmuic languages]] (Northern Mon–Khmer) '''[[Khasic languages|Khasian]]''': 3 languages of north eastern India and adjacent region of Bangladesh Palaungo-Khmuic languages '''[[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]]''': 13 languages of Laos and Thailand Palaungo-Pakanic languages '''Pakanic''' or '''[[Pakanic languages|Palyu]]''': 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam '''[[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]]''': 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand (-) Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon–Khmer) Vieto-Katuic languages ? '''[[Vietic languages|Vietic]]''': 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including the [[Vietnamese language]], which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language. '''[[Katuic languages|Katuic]]''': 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand. Khmero-Bahnaric languages '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''': 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Khmeric languages The '''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''' dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. '''[[Pearic languages|Pearic]]''': 6 languages of Cambodia. Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon–Khmer) '''[[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]]''': 6 languages of the [[Nicobar Islands]], a territory of India. Asli-Monic languages '''[[Aslian languages|Aslian]]''': 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia and Thailand. '''[[Monic languages|Monic]]''': 2 languages, the [[Mon language]] of Burma and the [[Nyah Kur language|Nyahkur language]] of Thailand. | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[
"Internal classification",
"Sidwell (2009, 2011)"
] | [[Paul Sidwell]] (2009), in a [[lexicostatistical]] comparison of 36 languages which are well known enough to exclude loan words, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant [[Munda languages|Munda]] and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic. He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & [[Roger Blench|Blench]] (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic. If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest [[Shompen language|Shompen]] as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central [[Mekong]] river valley relatively quickly. Subsequently, Sidwell (2015a: 179) proposed that [[Nicobarese languages|Nicobarese]] subgroups with [[Aslian languages|Aslian]], just as how Khasian and Palaungic subgroup with each other. A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis of the Austroasiatic language family by Sidwell (2015b) suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure, with an east–west division (consisting of Munda, Khasic, Palaungic, and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before present. Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul Sidwell (2015c) further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into [[Indochina]] from the [[Lingnan]] area of [[southern China]], with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China. Sidwell (2015c) tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years B.P. during the [[Neolithic transition]] era of [[mainland Southeast Asia]], with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4,000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]] watershed of [[Lingnan]], which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam, or downstream through the [[Mekong River]] via [[Yunnan]]. Both the reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic and the archaeological record clearly show that early Austroasiatic speakers around 4,000 B.P. cultivated rice and [[millet]], kept livestock such as dogs, pigs, and chickens, and thrived mostly in estuarine rather than coastal environments. | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[
"Internal classification",
"Sidwell (2009, 2011)"
] | At 4,500 B.P., this "Neolithic package" suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures, with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4,100 B.P. and in southern Indochina by 3,800 B.P. However, Sidwell (2015c) found that iron is not reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic, since each Austroasiatic branch has different terms for iron that had been borrowed relatively lately from Tai, Chinese, Tibetan, Malay, and other languages. During the [[Iron Age]] about 2,500 B.P., relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Indochina such as [[Vietic languages|Vietic]], [[Katuic languages|Katuic]], [[Pearic languages|Pearic]], and [[Khmer language|Khmer]] were formed, while the more internally diverse [[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]] branch (dating to about 3,000 B.P.) underwent more extensive internal diversification. By the Iron Age, all of the Austroasiatic branches were more or less in their present-day locations, with most of the diversification within Austroasiatic taking place during the Iron Age. Paul Sidwell (2018) considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names, natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items (agriculture terms and words for cultural artifacts, which are reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic) form part of the later stratum. [[Roger Blench]] (2017) suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques) can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench (2017) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river, valley', 'boat', 'fish', 'catfish sp.', 'eel', 'prawn', 'shrimp' (Central Austroasiatic), 'crab', 'tortoise', 'turtle', 'otter', 'crocodile', 'heron, fishing bird', and 'fish trap'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern [[Indochina]] (northern Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas) dates back to only about 4,000 years B.P. (2,000 BC), with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated to 6,000 B.P. Hence, this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle, early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock, crops, and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways, they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area, such as Sino-Tibetan. | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[
"Internal classification",
"Possible extinct branches"
] | [[Roger Blench]] (2009) also proposes that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on [[Stratum (linguistics)|substrate]] evidence in modern-day languages. (-) '''Pre-[[Chamic language|Chamic]] languages''' (the languages of coastal Vietnam before the Chamic migrations). Chamic has various Austroasiatic loanwords that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches (Sidwell 2006, 2007). Larish (1999) also notes that [[Moklenic languages]] contain many Austroasiatic loanwords, some of which are similar to the ones found in Chamic. (-) '''[[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] substratum''' (Sidwell 2006). Acehnese has many basic words that are of Austroasiatic origin, suggesting that either Austronesian speakers have absorbed earlier Austroasiatic residents in northern Sumatra, or that words might have been borrowed from Austroasiatic languages in southern Vietnam – or perhaps a combination of both. Sidwell (2006) argues that Acehnese and Chamic had often borrowed Austroasiatic words independently of each other, while some Austroasiatic words can be traced back to Proto-Aceh-Chamic. Sidwell (2006) accepts that Acehnese and Chamic are related, but that they had separated from each other before Chamic had borrowed most of its Austroasiatic lexicon. (-) '''[[Bornean languages|Bornean]] substrate languages''' (Blench 2010). Blench cites Austroasiatic-origin words in modern-day Bornean branches such as [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]] ([[Bidayuh languages|Bidayuh]], [[Bakati’ language|Dayak Bakatiq]], etc.), [[Dusunic languages|Dusunic]] ([[Dusun language|Central Dusun]], [[Brunei Bisaya language|Visayan]], etc.), [[Kayan–Murik languages|Kayan]], and [[Kenyah languages|Kenyah]], noting especially resemblances with [[Aslian languages|Aslian]]. As further evidence for his proposal, Blench also cites ethnographic evidence such as musical instruments in Borneo shared in common with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in mainland Southeast Asia. Adelaar (1995) has also noticed phonological and lexical similarities between [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]] and [[Aslian languages|Aslian]]. (-) '''[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] substratum''' ("'''''Rongic'''''"). Many words of Austroasiatic origin have been noticed in [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]], suggesting a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] superstrate laid over an Austroasiatic substrate. Blench (2013) calls this branch "''Rongic''" based on the Lepcha autonym ''Róng''. Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are: (-) '''[[Jiamao language|Jiamao]]''', based on evidence from the register system of Jiamao, a [[Hlai languages|Hlai]] language (Thurgood 1992). Jiamao is known for its highly aberrant vocabulary in relation to other [[Hlai languages]]. (-) '''[[Kerinci language|Kerinci]]''': van Reijn (1974) notes that Kerinci, a [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] language of central [[Sumatra]], shares many phonological similarities with Austroasiatic languages, such as [[sesquisyllabic]] word structure and vowel inventory. John Peterson (2017) suggests that "pre-[[Munda languages|Munda]]" languages may have once dominated the eastern [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Peterson notes that eastern [[Indo-Aryan languages]] display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages, while western Indo-Aryan languages do not. | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[
"Writing systems"
] | Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the [[Khmer alphabet|Khmer]], [[Thai alphabet|Thai]], [[Lao alphabet|Lao]], and [[Burmese alphabet|Burmese]] alphabets. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages. (-) [[Chữ Nôm]] (-) [[Khmer alphabet]] (-) [[Khom script]] (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos) (-) [[Old Mon script]] (-) [[Mon language#Alphabet|Mon script]] (-) [[Pahawh Hmong]] was once used to write [[Khmu language|Khmu]], under the name "Pahawh Khmu" (-) [[Tai Le script|Tai Le]] ([[Palaung language|Palaung]], [[Blang language|Blang]]) (-) [[Tai Tham]] ([[Blang language|Blang]]) (-) [[Ol Chiki alphabet]] ([[Santali language|Santali]] alphabet) (-) Mundari Bani ([[Mundari language|Mundari]] alphabet) (-) [[Warang Citi]] ([[Ho language|Ho]] alphabet) (-) [[Sorang Sompeng alphabet]] ([[Sora language|Sora]] alphabet) | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[
"External relations",
"Austric languages"
] | Austroasiatic is an integral part of the controversial [[Austric languages|Austric hypothesis]], which also includes the [[Austronesian languages]], and in some proposals also the [[Kra–Dai languages]] and the [[Hmong–Mien languages]]. | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[
"External relations",
"Hmong-Mien"
] | Several lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by [[André-Georges Haudricourt|Haudricourt]] (1951). This could imply a relation or early language contact along the [[Yangtze]]. According to Cai (et al. 2011), [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]] is at least partially related to Austroasiatic but was heavily influenced by [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], especially [[Tibeto-Burman languages]]. | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[
"External relations",
"Indo-Aryan languages"
] | It is suggested that the Austroasiatic languages have some influence on Indo-Aryan languages including [[Sanskrit]] and middle Indo-Aryan languages. Indian linguist [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] pointed that a specific number of substantives in languages such as [[Hindi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] were borrowed from [[Munda languages]]. Additionally, French linguist [[Jean Przyluski]] suggested a similarity between the tales from the Austroasiatic realm and the Indian mythological stories of [[Satyavati|Matsyagandha]] (from ''[[Mahabharata]]'') and the [[Nāga]]. | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[
"Austroasiatic migrations"
] | [[:ja:崎谷満|Mitsuru Sakitani]] suggests that [[Haplogroup O-M95|Haplogroup O1b1]], which is common in Austroasiatic people and some other ethnic groups in [[southern China]], and haplogroup O1b2, which is common in today [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Koreans]] and some [[Manchu people|Manchu]], are the carriers of Yangtze civilization ([[Baiyue]]). Another study suggests that the haplogroup O1b1 is the major Austroasiatic paternal lineage and O1b2 the "para-Austroasiatic" lineage of the [[Yayoi people]]. A 2021 study by Tagore et al. found that proto-Austroasiatic likely originated from a "southern East Asian" source population, native to [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] and [[Northeast India]]. The "southern East Asian" component descended from a "basal East Asian" source population, which also gave rise to the "northern East Asian" component of East and Northeast Asia. From Mainland Southeast Asia, the Austroasiatic-speakers expanded into the Indian-subcontinent and [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. There is evidence that continuing migration of agriculturalists from more northerly East Asia merged with the "southern East Asians", forming modern day Southeast Asians, and contributed to the fragmentation observed among modern day Austroasiatic-speakers. Similarly, Austroasiatic-speakers in India intermixed with local tribals. The authors also found that the ancient [[Hoabinhian]] people likely spoke a variant of [[Proto-Austroasiatic language|Proto-Austroasiatic]], and had largely "southern East Asian ancestry". They concluded that their new genetic evidence does not support a partial relationship between Hoabinhians and [[Andamanese peoples|Andamanese (Onge)]]/[[Papuans]], as suggested by Mc.Coll 2018, but in contrary, points to genetic influence (geneflow) of "southern East Asians" towards the Onge/Andamanese (previous studies estimated about 32% East Asian-related ancestry in Andamanese people). Additionally, it was found that East Asian-like ancestry (East-Eurasian, including both "southern East Asian" and "northern East Asian" components) originated likely in Mainland Southeast Asia and southern China, and expanded from this region towards the South and North respectively. The authors finally concluded that genetics do not necessarily correspond with linguistic identity, pointing to the fragmentation of modern Austroasiatic-speakers. | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[
"Austroasiatic migrations",
"Migration into India"
] | According to Chaubey et al., "Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from [[Southeast Asia]], followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations." According to Riccio et al., the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from Southeast Asia. According to Zhang et al., Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia into India took place after the last Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago. Arunkumar et al. suggest Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia occurred into Northeast India 5.2 ± 0.6 kya and into East India 4.3 ± 0.2 kya. | 597 | Austroasiatic languages | [
"Austroasiatic languages",
"Agglutinative languages",
"Language families",
"Sino-Austronesian languages"
] | [] |
[] | '''Afroasiatic''' ('''Afro-Asiatic'''), also known as '''Afrasian''' or '''Hamito-Semitic''' or '''Semito-Hamitic''', is a large [[language family]] of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], the [[Horn of Africa]] and parts of the [[Sahel]]. With the exception of Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and in [[Malta]], all branches of the Afrosiatic family are spoken exclusively on the African continent. Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, the fourth largest number of any language family (after [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] and [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]). The phylum has six branches: [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Chadic languages|Chadic]], [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]], [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]. By far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum is [[Arabic]]. A ''[[de facto]]'' group of distinct [[Varieties of Arabic|language varieties]] within the Semitic branch, the languages that evolved from [[Proto-Arabic]] have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa. In addition to languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes several important ancient languages, such as [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]], which forms a distinct branch of the family, and [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], [[Biblical Hebrew]] and [[Old Aramaic language|Old Aramaic]], all of which are from the Semitic branch. The [[Afroasiatic Urheimat|original homeland]] of the Afroasiatic family, and when the parent language (i.e. [[Proto-Afroasiatic]]) was spoken, are yet to be agreed upon by [[historical linguistics|historical linguists]]. Proposed locations include the [[Horn of Africa]], [[North Africa]], the Eastern [[Sahara]] and the [[Levant]]. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Etymology"
] | In the early 19th century, linguists grouped the [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] and [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] languages within a "Hamitic" phylum, in acknowledgement of these languages' [[genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetic relation]] with each other and with those in the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] phylum. The terms "Hamitic" and "Semitic" were etymologically derived from the [[Book of Genesis]], which describes various Biblical tribes descended from [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]] and [[Shem]], two sons of [[Noah]]. By the 1860s, the main constituent elements within the broader Afroasiatic family had been worked out. [[Friedrich Müller (linguist)|Friedrich Müller]] introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" for the entire language family in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'' (1876). [[Maurice Delafosse]] (1914) later coined the term "Afroasiatic" (often now spelled "Afro-Asiatic"). However, it did not come into general use until [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1950) formally proposed its adoption. In doing so, Greenberg sought to emphasize the fact that 'Hamitic' was not a valid group and that language [[cladistics]] did not reflect race. Individual scholars have also called the family "Erythraean" (Tucker 1966) and "Lisramic" (Hodge 1972). In lieu of "Hamito-Semitic", the Russian linguist [[Igor Diakonoff]] later suggested the term "Afrasian", meaning "half African, half Asiatic", in reference to the geographic distribution of the family's constituent languages. The term "Hamito-Semitic" remains in use in the academic traditions of some European countries, as well as in the official census of the government of India. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Distribution and branches"
] | Scholars generally treat the Afroasiatic language family as including the following five branches, whereas Omotic is disputed: (-) [[Berber languages|Berber]] (-) [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] (-) [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] (-) [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] (-) [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] (-) [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] Although there is general agreement on these six families, [[linguistics|linguists]] who study Afroasiatic raise some points of disagreement, in particular: (-) The [[Omotic]] language branch is the most controversial member of Afroasiatic because the grammatical formatives to which most linguists have given the greatest weight in classifying languages in the family "are either absent or distinctly wobbly" (Hayward 1995). Greenberg (1963) and others considered it a subgroup of Cushitic, whereas others have raised doubts about its being part of Afroasiatic at all (e.g. Theil 2006). (-) The Afroasiatic identity of [[Ongota language|Ongota]] is also broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, due to the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. [[Harold C. Fleming|Harold Fleming]] (2006) proposes that Ongota constitutes a separate branch of Afroasiatic. finds the proposal by Savà and Tosco (2003) the most convincing: namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] [[substratum]]. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language but retained some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language. (-) [[Beja language|Beja]], sometimes listed as a separate branch of Afroasiatic, is more often included in the Cushitic branch, which has a substantial degree of internal diversity. (-) There is no consensus on the interrelationships of the five non-Omotic branches of Afroasiatic (see [[#Subgrouping|§ Subgrouping]] below). This situation is not unusual, even among long-established language families: scholars also frequently disagree on the internal classification of the [[Indo-European languages]], for instance. (-) The extinct [[Meroitic language]] has been proposed ([[Bruce Trigger]], 1964, 1977) as an unclassified Afroasiatic language, because it shares the [[phonotactics]] characteristic of the family, but there is not enough evidence to secure a classification (Fritz Hintze, 1974, (-) The classification of [[Kujargé language|Kujargé]] within Afroasiatic is not agreed upon. Blench (2008) notes that much of the basic vocabulary looks [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]], and speculates that Kujargé could even be a conservative language transitional between Chadic and Cushitic. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Demographics"
] | In descending order of the number of speakers, widely-spoken Afroasiatic languages include: (-) [[Arabic]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]), the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language, has over 300 million native speakers. (-) [[Hausa language|Hausa]] ([[Chadic languages|Chadic]]), the dominant language of northern [[Nigeria]] and southern [[Niger]], spoken as a first language by over 40 million people and used as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' by another 20 million across West Africa and the [[Sahel]]. (-) [[Oromo language|Oromo]] ([[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]), spoken in [[Ethiopia]] and [[Kenya]] by around 34 million people (-) [[Amharic]] (Semitic), spoken in Ethiopia, with over 25 million native speakers in addition to millions of other Ethiopians speaking it as a second language. (-) [[Somali language|Somali]] (Cushitic), spoken by 21.8 million people in [[Somalia]], [[Somaliland]], [[Djibouti]], [[Somali Region|eastern Ethiopia]] and [[North Eastern Province (Kenya)|northeastern Kenya]]. (-) [[Afar language|Afar]] (Cushitic), spoken by around 7.5 million people in Ethiopia, Djibouti, and [[Eritrea]]. (-) [[Shilha language|Shilha]] ([[Berber languages|Berber]]), spoken by around 7 million people in [[Morocco]]. (-) [[Tigre language|Tigre]] (Semitic), spoken by around 2 million people in [[Eritrea]] (-) [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] (Semitic), spoken by around 9.73 million people in [[Eritrea]] and Tigray (-) [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] (Berber), spoken by around 5.6 million people in [[Algeria]]. (-) [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (Semitic), spoken by around 9 million people (5 million native first-language speakers and 4 million second-language speakers) in [[Israel]] and the [[Jewish diaspora]]; premodern Hebrew is the [[liturgical language]] of [[Judaism]] and of the [[Samaritan]] people. (-) [[Central Atlas Tamazight]] (Berber), spoken by around 4.6 million people in Morocco. (-) [[Riffian language|Riffian]] (Berber), spoken by around 4.2 million people in Morocco. (-) [[Gurage languages]] (Semitic), a group of languages spoken by more than 2 million people in [[Ethiopia]]. (-) [[Maltese language|Maltese]] (Semitic), spoken by around half a million people in [[Malta]] and the [[Emigration from Malta|Maltese diaspora]]. It descended from [[Classical Arabic]] independently from modern [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic dialects]], features [[Romance languages|Romance]] [[Stratum (linguistics)|superstrates]] and has been written in the [[Latin script]] since at least the 14th century. (-) [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] (Semitic), a variety of [[modern Aramaic]], spoken by more than 500,000 people in the [[Assyrian diaspora]]. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Classification history"
] | In the 9th century, the Hebrew grammarian [[Judah ibn Kuraish|Judah ibn Quraysh]] of [[Tiaret]] in [[Algeria]] was the first to link two branches of Afroasiatic together; he perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic. He knew of Semitic through his study of Arabic, Hebrew, and [[Aramaic]]. In the course of the 19th century, Europeans also began suggesting such relationships. In 1844, [[Theodor Benfey]] suggested a language family consisting of Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter "Ethiopic"). In the same year, T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty. [[Friedrich Müller (linguist)|Friedrich Müller]] named the traditional Hamito-Semitic family in 1876 in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'' ("Outline of Linguistics"), and defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a "Hamitic" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; he excluded the Chadic group. It was the [[Egyptology|Egyptologist]] [[Karl Richard Lepsius]] (1810–1884) who restricted Hamitic to the non-Semitic languages in Africa, which are characterized by a grammatical [[Grammatical gender|gender system]]. This "Hamitic language group" was proposed to unite various, mainly North-African, languages, including the Ancient [[Egyptian language]], the [[Berber languages]], the [[Cushitic languages]], the [[Beja language]], and the [[Chadic languages]]. Unlike Müller, Lepsius considered that [[Hausa language|Hausa]] and [[Nama language|Nama]] were part of the Hamitic group. These classifications relied in part on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments. Both authors used the skin-color, mode of subsistence, and other characteristics of native speakers as part of their arguments that particular languages should be grouped together. In 1912, [[Carl Meinhof]] published ''Die Sprachen der Hamiten'' ("The Languages of the Hamites"), in which he expanded Lepsius's model, adding the [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Maasai language|Maasai]], [[Bari language|Bari]], [[Nandi languages|Nandi]], [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]] and [[Hadza language|Hadza]] languages to the Hamitic group. Meinhof's model was widely supported in the 1940s. Meinhof's system of classification of the Hamitic languages was based on a belief that "speakers of Hamitic became largely coterminous with cattle herding peoples with essentially Caucasian origins, intrinsically different from and superior to the 'Negroes of Africa'." However, in the case of the so-called [[Nilo-Hamitic languages]] (a concept he introduced), it was based on the typological feature of gender and a "fallacious theory of [[mixed language|language mixture]]." Meinhof did this although earlier work by scholars such as Lepsius and Johnston had substantiated that the languages which he would later dub "Nilo-Hamitic" were in fact Nilotic languages, with numerous similarities in vocabulary to other Nilotic languages. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Classification history"
] | [[Leo Reinisch]] (1909) had already proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic while urging their more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic. However, his suggestion found little acceptance. [[Marcel Cohen]] (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct "Hamitic" subgroup and included [[Hausa language|Hausa]] (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary. Finally, [[Joseph Greenberg]]'s 1950 work led to the widespread rejection of "Hamitic" as a language category by linguists. Greenberg refuted Meinhof's linguistic theories and rejected the use of racial and social evidence. In dismissing the notion of a separate "Nilo-Hamitic" language category, in particular, Greenberg was "returning to a view widely held a half-century earlier." He consequently rejoined Meinhof's so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages with their appropriate Nilotic siblings. He also added (and sub-classified) the Chadic languages, and proposed the new name Afroasiatic for the family. Almost all scholars have accepted this classification as the new and continued consensus. Greenberg's model was fully developed in his book ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'' (1963), in which he reassigned most of Meinhof's additions to Hamitic to other language families, notably [[Nilo-Saharan]]. Following [[Isaac Schapera]] and rejecting Meinhof, he classified the [[Hottentot language|Khoekhoe language]] as a member of the [[Khoisan languages]], a grouping that has since proven inaccurate and excessively motivated on the presence of [[Click consonant|click sounds]]. To Khoisan he also added the Tanzanian [[Hadza language|Hadza]] and [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]], though this view has been discredited as linguists working on these languages consider them to be [[Language isolate|linguistic isolates]]. Despite this, Greenberg's classification remains a starting point for modern work of many languages spoken in Africa, and the Hamitic category (and its extension to Nilo-Hamitic) has no part in this. Since the three traditional branches of the Hamitic languages (Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian) have not been shown to form an exclusive ([[Monophyly|monophyletic]]) phylogenetic unit of their own, separate from other Afroasiatic languages, linguists no longer use the term in this sense. Each of these branches is instead now regarded as an independent subgroup of the larger Afroasiatic family. In 1969, [[Harold C. Fleming|Harold Fleming]] proposed that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch of Afroasiatic, suggesting for it the new name [[Omotic languages|Omotic]]. This proposal and name have met with widespread acceptance. Based on typological differences with the other Cushitic languages, [[Robert Hetzron]] proposed that Beja has to be removed from Cushitic, thus forming an independent branch of Afroasiatic. Most scholars, however, reject this proposal, and continue to group Beja as the sole member of a Northern branch within Cushitic. ''[[Glottolog]]'' does not accept that the inclusion or even unity of Omotic has been established, nor that of Ongota or the unclassified Kujarge. It therefore splits off the following groups as small families: [[South Omotic languages|South Omotic]], [[Mao languages|Mao]], [[Dizoid languages|Dizoid]], [[Gonga–Gimojan languages|Gonga–Gimojan]] (North Omotic apart from the preceding), [[Ongota language|Ongota]], [[Kujarge language|Kujarge]]. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Classification history",
"Subgrouping"
] | Little agreement exists on the [[subgrouping (linguistics)|subgrouping]] of the five or six branches of Afroasiatic: Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic. However, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Otherwise: (-) [[Paul Newman (linguist)|Paul Newman]] (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic in Afroasiatic. Rolf Theil (2006) concurs with the exclusion of Omotic but does not otherwise address the structure of the family. (-) Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed [[Ongota language|Ongota]] as a new third branch of Erythraean. He thus divided Afroasiatic into two major branches, Omotic and Erythraean, with Erythraean consisting of three sub-branches, Cushitic, Chadic-Berber-Egyptian-Semitic-Beja, and Ongota. (-) Like Harold Fleming, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1995: 490) divides Afroasiatic into two branches, Omotic and Erythrean. He divides Omotic into two branches, North Omotic and South Omotic. He divides Erythrean into Cushitic, comprising Beja, Agaw, and East-South Cushitic, and North Erythrean, comprising Chadic and "Boreafrasian." According to his classification, Boreafrasian consists of Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic. (-) [[Vladimir Orel]] and Olga Stolbova (1995) group Berber with Semitic and Chadic with Egyptian. They split up Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afroasiatic, viewing Cushitic as a [[Sprachbund]] rather than a [[language family]]. (-) [[Igor M. Diakonoff]] (1996) subdivides Afroasiatic in two, grouping Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as East-West Afrasian (ESA), and Chadic with Egyptian as North-South Afrasian (NSA). He excludes Omotic from Afroasiatic. (-) [[Lionel Bender (linguist)|Lionel Bender]] (1997) groups Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as "Macro-Cushitic". He regards Chadic and Omotic as the branches of Afroasiatic most remote from the others. (-) Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of [[lexicostatistics]], groups Berber with Chadic and both more distantly with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. He places Ongota in South Omotic. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Position among the world's languages"
] | Afroasiatic is one of the four major [[Languages of Africa|language families]] spoken in Africa identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'' (1963). It is one of the few whose speech area is transcontinental, with languages from Afroasiatic's Semitic branch also spoken in the Middle East and Europe. There are no generally accepted relations between Afroasiatic and any other language family. However, several proposals grouping Afroasiatic with one or more other language families have been made. The best-known of these are the following: (-) [[Hermann Möller]] (1906) argued for a relation between [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] and the [[Indo-European languages]]. This proposal was accepted by a few linguists (e.g. [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] and [[Louis Hjelmslev]]). (For a fuller account, see [[Indo-Semitic languages]].) However, the theory has little currency today, although most linguists do not deny the existence of grammatical similarities between both families (such as [[grammatical gender]], noun-adjective [[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]], three-way [[Grammatical number|number]] distinction, and [[vowel alternation]] as a means of derivation). (-) Apparently influenced by Möller (a colleague of his at the [[University of Copenhagen]]), [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen]] included Hamito-Semitic (the term replaced by Afroasiatic) in his proposed [[Nostratic languages|Nostratic macro-family]] (cf. Pedersen 1931:336–338), also included the Indo-European, [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], [[Altaic languages|Altaic]], [[Yukaghir languages]], and [[Dravidian languages]]. This inclusion was retained by subsequent Nostraticists, starting with [[Vladislav Illich-Svitych]] and [[Aharon Dolgopolsky]]. (-) [[Joseph Greenberg]] (2000–2002) did not reject a relationship of Afroasiatic to these other languages, but he considered it more distantly related to them than they were to each other, grouping instead these other languages in a separate macro-family, which he called [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]], and to which he added [[Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages|Chukotian]], [[Nivkh language|Gilyak]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Japonic languages|Japanese-Ryukyuan]], [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]], and [[Ainu languages|Ainu]]. (-) Most recently, [[Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin|Sergei Starostin]]'s school has accepted Eurasiatic as a subgroup of Nostratic, with Afroasiatic, Dravidian, and Kartvelian in Nostratic outside of Eurasiatic. The even larger [[Borean languages|Borean super-family]] contains Nostratic as well as [[Dené–Caucasian languages|Dené-Caucasian]] and [[Austric languages|Austric]]. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Date of Afroasiatic"
] | The earliest written evidence of an Afroasiatic language is an [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]] inscription dated to c. 3400 BC (5,400 years ago). Symbols on [[Gerzeh culture|Gerzean]] (Naqada II) pottery resembling [[Egyptian hieroglyphs#History and evolution|Egyptian hieroglyphs]] date back to c. 4000 BC, suggesting an earlier possible dating. This gives us a minimum date for the age of Afroasiatic. However, Ancient Egyptian is highly divergent from [[Proto-Afroasiatic language|Proto-Afroasiatic]], and considerable time must have elapsed in between them. Estimates of the date at which the Proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely. They fall within a range between approximately 7,500 BC (9,500 years ago), and approximately 16,000 BC (18,000 years ago). According to [[Igor M. Diakonoff]] (1988: 33n), Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken [[circa|c.]] 10,000 BC. Christopher Ehret (2002: 35–36) asserts that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11,000 BC at the latest, and possibly as early as c. 16,000 BC. These dates are older than those associated with other [[proto-language]]. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Afroasiatic Urheimat"
] | The Afroasiatic ''[[urheimat]]'', the hypothetical place where [[Proto-Afroasiatic language]] speakers lived in a single linguistic community, or complex of communities, before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into distinct languages, is unknown. Afroasiatic languages are today primarily spoken in [[Western Asia|West Asia]], [[North Africa]], the [[Horn of Africa]], and parts of the [[Sahel]]. Their distribution seems to have been influenced by the [[Sahara pump theory|Sahara pump]] operating over the last 10,000 years. While there is no definitive agreement on when or where the original homeland of this language family existed, most scholarly work in linguistics favor an East African or Saharan origin. A Levant/Fertile Crescent origin has also been proposed. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Similarities in grammar and syntax"
] | Widespread (though not universal) features of the Afroasiatic languages include: (-) A set of [[emphatic consonant]], variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive. (-) [[Verb–subject–object|VSO]] [[linguistic typology|typology]] with [[subject–verb–object|SVO]] tendencies. (-) A two-[[grammatical gender|gender]] system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the sound /t/. (-) All Afroasiatic subfamilies show evidence of a [[causative]] affix ''s''. (-) Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic support [[possessive suffix]]. (-) [[Arabic nouns and adjectives#Nisba|Nisba]] derivation in ''-j'' (earlier Egyptian) or ''-ī'' (Semitic) (-) [[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphology]] in which words inflect by changes within the root (vowel changes or [[gemination]]) as well as with prefixes and suffixes. One of the most remarkable shared features among the Afroasiatic languages is the prefixing verb conjugation (see the table at the start of this section), with a distinctive pattern of prefixes beginning with /ʔ t n y/, and in particular a pattern whereby third-singular masculine /y-/ is opposed to third-singular feminine and second-singular /t-/. According to Ehret (1996), [[tonal language]] appear in the Omotic and Chadic branches of Afroasiatic, as well as in certain Cushitic languages. The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches generally do not use tones [[phoneme|phonemically]]. The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-āy; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Putten (2018)). Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established. | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Shared vocabulary"
] | The following are some examples of Afroasiatic [[cognate]], including ten [[pronoun]], three [[noun]], and three [[verb]]. '' Source:'' Christopher Ehret, ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). ''Note:'' Ehret does not make use of Berber in his etymologies, stating (1995: 12): "the kind of extensive reconstruction of proto-Berber lexicon that might help in sorting through alternative possible etymologies is not yet available." The Berber cognates here are taken from the previous version of the table in this article and need to be completed and referenced. ''Abbreviations:'' NOm = 'North Omotic', SOm = 'South Omotic'. MSA = 'Modern South Arabian', PSC = 'Proto-Southern Cushitic', PSom-II = 'Proto-Somali, stage 2'. masc. = 'masculine', fem. = 'feminine', sing. = 'singular', pl. = 'plural'. 1s. = 'first person singular', 2s. = 'second person singular'. ''Symbols:'' Following Ehret (1995: 70), a [[caron]] ˇ over a vowel indicates rising [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], and a [[circumflex]] ^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a [[vowel]] of unknown quality. Ɂ indicates a [[glottal stop]]. * indicates [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed forms]] based on [[Comparative method (linguistics)|comparison of related languages]]. There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova. The two dictionaries disagree on almost everything. The following table contains the thirty roots or so (out of thousands) that represent a fragile consensus of present research: | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[
"Shared vocabulary",
"Etymological bibliography"
] | Some of the main sources for Afroasiatic etymologies include: (-) Cohen, Marcel. 1947. ''Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique.'' Paris: Champion. (-) Diakonoff, Igor M. et al. 1993–1997. "Historical-comparative vocabulary of Afrasian," ''St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies'' 2–6. (-) Ehret, Christopher. 1995. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (= ''University of California Publications in Linguistics'' 126). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. (-) Orel, Vladimir E. and Olga V. Stolbova. 1995. ''Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction.'' Leiden: Brill. . | 599 | Afroasiatic languages | [
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Afroasiatic peoples",
"Language families",
"Ethnic groups in Africa",
"Ethnic groups in Asia",
"Ethnic groups in Europe"
] | [
"Languages of Asia",
"Indo-Semitic languages",
"Borean languages",
"Nostratic languages",
"Languages of Africa",
"Languages of Europe",
"Proto-Afroasiatic language",
"Indo-European languages"
] |
[] | '''Andorra''' (, ; ), officially the '''Principality of Andorra''' (), is a [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] landlocked [[microstate]] on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], in the eastern [[Pyrenees]], bordered by [[France]] to the north and [[Spain]] to the south. Believed to have been created by [[Charlemagne]], Andorra was ruled by the [[count of Urgell]] until 988, when it was transferred to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell]]. The present principality was formed by [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|a charter in 1278]]. It is headed by two co-princes: the [[Bishop of Urgell]] in [[Catalonia, Spain]] and the [[President of the French Republic|President of France]]. Andorra is the [[European microstates|sixth-smallest state in Europe]], having an area of and a population of approximately . The [[Andorran people]] are a [[Italic peoples|Romance]] ethnic group of originally [[Catalans|Catalan]] descent. Andorra is the 16th-smallest country in the world by land and the 11th-smallest by population. Its capital, [[Andorra la Vella]], is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of [[above mean sea level|above sea level]]. The official language is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], but Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken. [[Tourism in Andorra]] sees an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually. Andorra is not a member state of the [[European Union]], but the [[euro]] is its official currency. It has been a member of the [[United Nations]] since 1993. In 2013, Andorra had [[List of countries by life expectancy|the highest life expectancy in the world]] at 81 years, according to the [[Global Burden of Disease Study]]. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Etymology"
] | The origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been formulated. The oldest derivation of the word Andorra is from the Greek historian [[Polybius]] (''[[The Histories (Polybius)|The Histories]]'' III, 35, 1) who describes the Andosins, an [[Iberians|Iberian]] [[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|Pre-Roman tribe]], as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]] army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the [[Punic Wars]]. The word Andosini or Andosins (Ἀνδοσίνοι) may derive from the [[Basque language|Basque]] ''handia'' whose meaning is "big" or "giant". The Andorran [[toponymy]] shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains the Basque word ''ur'' (water). Another theory suggests that Andorra may derive from , meaning "the thickly wooded place". When the [[Arabs]] and [[Moors]] conquered the Iberian Peninsula, the valleys of the High Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest. These regions were not administered by Muslims, because of the geographic difficulty of direct rule. Other theories suggest that the term derives from the [[Navarro-Aragonese]] andurrial, which means "land covered with bushes" or "scrubland". The [[folk etymology]] holds that [[Charlemagne]] had named the region as a reference to the Biblical [[Canaan]] valley of [[Endor (village)|Endor]] or [[Endor (village)|Andor]] (where the [[Midianites]] had been defeated), a name bestowed by his heir and son [[Louis le Debonnaire]] after defeating the Moors in the "wild valleys of Hell". | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"Prehistory"
] | La Balma de la [[La Margineda|Margineda]], found by archaeologists at [[Sant Julià de Lòria]], was settled in 9,500 BC as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from [[Ariège (river)|Ariege]] and [[Segre (river)|Segre]]. During the [[Neolithic Age]], a group of people moved to the [[Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley|Valley of Madriu]] (the present-day Natural Parc located in [[Escaldes-Engordany]] declared [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]) as a permanent camp in 6640 BC. The population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock, and developed a commercial trade with people from the [[Sègre (department)|Segre]] and [[Occitania]]. Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs of [[Segudet]] ([[Ordino]]) and Feixa del Moro (Sant Julià de Lòria) both dated in 4900–4300 BC as an example of the [[Urnfield culture|Urn culture]] in Andorra. The model of small settlements began to evolve to a complex urbanism during the [[Bronze Age]]. [[Metallurgy|Metallurgical]] items of iron, ancient coins, and relicaries can be found in the [[Sanctuary|ancient sanctuaries]] scattered around the country. The sanctuary of Roc de les Bruixes (Stone of the Witches) is perhaps the most important archeological complex of this age in Andorra, located in the parish of [[Canillo]], about the rituals of funerals, ancient scripture and engraved stone [[mural]]. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"Iberian and Roman Andorra"
] | The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the [[Iberians]] and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini (Ἀνδοσίνους) during the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. Influenced by the [[Aquitanian language|Aquitanian]], [[Basque language|Basque]] and [[Iberian languages]], the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating to this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer [[Polybius]] in his ''Histories'' during the [[Punic Wars]]. Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the Roc d'Enclar (part of the early [[Marca Hispanica]]), l'Anxiu in [[Les Escaldes]] and Roc de L'Oral in [[Encamp]]. The presence of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] influence is recorded from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD. The places found with more Roman presence are in Camp Vermell (Red Field) in Sant Julià de Lòria, and in some places in Encamp, as well as in the Roc d'Enclar. People continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of [[Urgellet]] (the present-day [[La Seu d'Urgell]]) and all across Segre through the [[Roman roads|''via romana'']] Strata Ceretana (also known as Strata Confluetana). | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"Visigoths and Carolingians: the legend of Charlemagne"
] | After the [[fall of the Roman Empire]], Andorra came under the influence of the [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigoths]], the [[History of Toledo, Spain#Visigothic Toledo|Kingdom of Toledo]], and from the [[Diocese of Urgell]]. The Visigoths remained in the valleys for 200 years, during which time [[Gothic Christianity|Christianity]] spread. When the [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Empire of Al-Andalus]] replaced the ruling Visigoths in most of the Iberian Peninsula, Andorra was sheltered from these invaders by the [[Francia|Franks]]. Tradition holds that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) granted a charter to the Andorran people for a contingent of five thousand soldiers under the command of Marc Almugaver, in return for fighting against the [[Moors]] near [[Porté-Puymorens]] ([[Cerdanya]]). Andorra remained part of the [[Hispanic Marches|Frankish ''Marca Hispanica'']], the buffer-zone between the [[Francia|Frankish Empire]] and the Muslim territories, Andorra being part of the territory ruled by the [[Counts of Urgell|Count of Urgell]] and eventually by the [[Bishop of Urgel|bishop]] of the Diocese of Urgell. Also tradition holds that it was guaranteed by the son of Charlemagne, [[Louis the Pious]], writing the ''Carta de Poblament'' or a local [[municipal charter]] circa 805. In 988, [[Borrell II]], Count of Urgell, gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya. Since then, the Bishop of Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has been [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-prince]] of Andorra. The first document that mentions Andorra as a territory is the ''Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell'' (Deed of Consecration and Endowment of the Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell). The old document dated from 839 depicts the six old [[Parishes of Andorra|parishes]] of the Andorran valleys and therefore the administrative division of the country. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
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"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"Medieval Age: The Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality"
] | Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection and the Bishop of Urgell, who knew that the count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys, asked the [[lord of Caboet]] for help and protection. In 1095, the Lord of Caboet and the bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the viscount of Castellbò. Their daughter, Ermessenda, married the [[count of Foix]], [[Roger-Bernard II, Count of Foix|Roger-Bernard II]]. Roger-Bernard II and Ermessenda shared rule over Andorra with the bishop of Urgell. In the 13th century, a military dispute arose between the bishop of Urgell and the count of Foix as aftermath of the [[Cathar Crusade]]. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the [[king of Aragon]], [[Peter III of Aragon|Peter III]], between the bishop and the count, by the signing of the [[Paréage of Andorra 1278|first paréage]] which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the bishop of Urgell, in [[Catalonia]]. This gave the principality its territory and political form. A second paréage was signed in 1288 after a dispute when the count of Foix ordered the construction of a castle in Roc d'Enclar. The document was ratified by the noble notary [[County of Cerdanya|Jaume Orig of Puigcerdà]] and the construction of military structures in the country was prohibited. In 1364 the political organization of the country named the figure of the [[syndic]] (now spokesman and president of the parliament) as representative of the Andorrans to their co-princes making possible the creation of [[Parishes of Andorra|local departments]] (comuns, quarts and veïnats). After being ratified by Bishop Francesc Tovia and Count [[John I, Count of Foix|John I]], the Consell de la Terra or [[General Council (Andorra)|Consell General de les Valls]] (General Council of the Valleys) was founded in 1419, the second oldest parliament in Europe. The syndic Andreu d'Alàs and the General Council organized the creation of the [[Politics of Andorra#Judicial branch|Justice Courts]] (La Cort de Justicia) in 1433 with the co-Princes and the collection of taxes like foc i lloc (literally fire and site, a national tax active since then). Although there are remains of ecclesiastical works dating before the 9th century (Sant Vicenç d'Enclar or [[Església de Santa Coloma]]), Andorra developed exquisite [[Romanesque Art and Architecture|Romanesque Art]] during the 9th through 14th centuries, particularly in the construction of churches, bridges, religious murals and statues of the [[Virgin and Child]] ([[Our Lady of Meritxell]] being the most important). Nowadays, the [[List of regional characteristics of Romanesque churches#Romanesque churches in Spain, Portugal and Andorra|Romanesque]] buildings that form part of [[Cultural Heritage of Andorra|Andorra's cultural heritage]] stand out in a remarkable way, with an emphasis on [[Església de Sant Esteve]], [[Sant Joan de Caselles]], [[Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters]], [[Sant Martí de la Cortinada]] and the medieval bridges of [[Pont de la Margineda|Margineda]] and [[Pont dels Escalls|Escalls]] among many others. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Diarchies",
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"Medieval Age: The Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality"
] | The Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of the [[Catalan language]] at the end of the 11th century. Andorra was influenced by this language, which was adopted locally decades before it expanded to the rest of the Crown of Aragon. The local population based its economy during the Middle Ages in livestock and agriculture, as well as in furs and weavers. Later, at the end of the 11th century, the first [[Bloomery#Medieval Europe|iron foundries]] began to appear in Northern Parishes like [[Ordino]], much appreciated by the master artisans who developed the art of the forges, an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"16th to 18th centuries"
] | In 1601 the [[Andorra#Law and criminal justice|Tribunal de Corts]] (High Court of Justice) was created as a result of [[Huguenot rebellions]] in France, [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]] courts coming from Spain and [[Catalan mythology about witches|witchcraft-related beliefs native to the area]], in the context of the [[Reformation]] and [[Counter-Reformation]]. With the passage of time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]]. After [[Henry IV of France|Henry III of Navarre]] became [[king of France]], he issued an edict in 1607 that established the head of the French state and the bishop of Urgell as [[Co-Princes of Andorra|co-princes of Andorra]], a political arrangement that continues up to the present time. During 1617, communal councils form the sometent (popular militia or army) to deal with the rise of bandolerisme ([[brigandage]]) and the Consell de la Terra was defined and structured in terms of its composition, organization and competences current today. Andorra continued with the same economic system that it had during the 12th–14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy (fargues, a system similar to Farga Catalana) and with the introduction of tobacco circa 1692 and import trade. The fair of Andorra la Vella was ratified by the co-princes in 1371 and 1448 being the most important annual national festival commercially ever since. The country had a unique and experienced [[guild]] of weavers, Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors, located in [[Escaldes-Engordany]] founded in 1604 taking advantage of the thermal waters of the area. By this time, the country was characterized by the social system of prohoms (wealthy society) and casalers (rest of the population with smaller economic acquisition), deriving from the tradition of [[pubilla]] and [[Heir|hereu]]. Three centuries after its foundation the Consell de la Terra located its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in [[Casa de la Vall]] in 1702. The [[manor house]] built in 1580 served as a noble fortress of the Busquets family. Inside the parliament was placed the Closet of the six keys (Armari de les sis claus) representative of each Andorran parish and where the [[Andorran constitution]] and other documents and laws were kept later on. In both the [[Reapers' War]] and the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], the Andorran people (although professing to be a neutral country) supported the [[Catalans]] who saw their [[Catalan constitutions|rights]] reduced in [[Nueva Planta decrees|1716]]. The reaction was the promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra, with cultural works such as the ''Book of Privileges'' (''Llibre de Privilegis de 1674''), ''Manual Digest'' (1748) by Antoni Fiter i Rossell or the ''Polità andorrà'' (1763) by Antoni Puig. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"19th century: the New Reform and the Andorran Question"
] | After the [[French Revolution]], [[Napoleon I]] reestablished the Co-Principate in 1809 and removed the French medieval title. In 1812–1813, the [[First French Empire]] annexed Catalonia during the [[Peninsular War]] () and divided the region into four [[département]], with Andorra as a part of the district of [[Puigcerdà]]. In 1814, an imperial decree reestablished the independence and economy of Andorra. During this period, Andorra's late medieval institutions and rural culture remained largely unchanged. In 1866, the [[syndic]] [[Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit]] led the reformist group in a Council General of 24 members elected by suffrage limited to heads of families. The Council General replaced the aristocratic oligarchy that previously ruled the state. The New Reform () began after ratification by both Co-Princes and established the basis of the [[Constitution of Andorra|constitution]] and symbols—such as the [[Flag of Andorra|tricolour flag]]—of Andorra. A new [[service economy]] arose as a demand of the valley inhabitants and began to build infrastructure such as hotels, spa resorts, roads and telegraph lines. The authorities of the Co-Princes banned casinos and betting houses throughout the country. The ban resulted in an economic conflict for the Andorran people. The conflict led to the so-called revolution of 1881, when revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic on 8 December 1880, and established the Provisional Revolutionary Council led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Baró i Mas. The Provisional Revolutionary Council allowed for the construction of casinos and spas by foreign companies. From 7 to 9 June 1881, the loyalists of [[Canillo]] and [[Encamp]] reconquered the parishes of [[Ordino]] and [[La Massana]] by establishing contact with the revolutionary forces in [[Escaldes-Engordany]]. After a day of combat the [[Pont dels Escalls|Treaty of the Bridge of Escalls]] was signed on 10 June. The council was replaced and new elections were held. The economic situation worsened, as the populace was divided over the – the "Andorran Question" in relation to the [[Eastern Question]]). The struggles continued between pro-bishops, pro-French, and nationalists based on the troubles of Canillo in 1882 and 1885. Andorra participated in the cultural movement of the Catalan [[Renaixença]]. Between 1882 and 1887, the first academic schools were formed where trilingualism coexisted with the official language, Catalan. [[Romanticism|Romantic]] authors from France and Spain reported the awakening of the [[Romantic nationalism|national consciousness]] of the country. [[Jacint Verdaguer]] lived in Ordino during the 1880s where he wrote and shared works related to the Renaixença with writer and photographer, [[Casa Rossell|Joaquim de Riba]]. In 1848, [[Fromental Halévy]] had premiered the opera ''[[Le val d'Andorre|Le Val d'Andorre]]'' to great success in Europe, where the national consciousness of the valleys was exposed in the romantic work during the Peninsular War. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and the Constitutional Andorra"
] | In 1933 France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections due to the [[Andorran Revolution|Revolution of 1933]] and the FHASA strikes (Vagues de FHASA); the revolt led by [[Young Andorrans|Joves Andorrans]] (a [[Trade union|labour union group]] related to the Spanish [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|FAI]]) called for political reforms, the [[universal suffrage|universal suffrage vote]] of all Andorrans and acted in defense of the rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station in [[Encamp]]. On 5 April 1933 Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament. These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel René-Jules Baulard with 50 [[National Gendarmerie|gendarmes]] and the mobilization of 200 local militias or sometent led by the Síndic Francesc Cairat. On 6 July 1934, adventurer and nobleman [[Boris Skossyreff]], with his promise of freedoms and modernization of the country and wealth through the establishment of a tax haven and foreign investments, received the support of the members of the General Council to proclaim himself the sovereign of Andorra. On 8 July 1934 Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself Boris I, King of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell and approving the King's constitution on 10 July. He was arrested by the Co-Prince and Bishop [[Justí Guitart i Vilardebó]] and their authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment of [[Garde Mobile]] led by well-known Colonel René-Jules Baulard was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the [[Spanish Civil War]] and [[Francoist Spain]] and also face the rise of [[Republicanism]] in the aftermath of the 1933 Revolution. During the Spanish Civil War, the inhabitants of Andorra welcomed refugees from both sides, and many of them settled permanently in the country thus contributing to the subsequent economic boom and the entry into the [[Neoliberalism|capitalist era]] of Andorra. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between [[Vichy France]] and Francoist Spain, two fascist states. Many Andorrans criticized the passivity of the General Council for impeding both the entry and expulsion of foreigners and refugees, committing economic crimes, reducing the rights of citizens and being sympathetic to [[Francoism]]. General Council members justified the council's political and diplomatic actions as necessary for Andorra's survival and the protection of its sovereignty. Andorra was relatively unscathed by the two world wars and the Spanish Civil War. Certain [[Resistance during World War II|groups]] organized themselves to help victims of oppression in Nazi-occupied countries, while participating in smuggling to help Andorra survive. Among the groups that were most prominent there was the [[Hostal Palanques]] Evasion Network Command. The Evasion Network Command, in contact with the British [[Mi6]], helped almost 400 fugitives, among whom were [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] military personnel. The Command remained active between 1941 and 1944, although there were struggles with [[Axis powers|pro-Axis]] informers and [[Gestapo]] agents within Andorra. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"French-speaking countries and territories",
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"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and the Constitutional Andorra"
] | In the capital city there was a smuggling [[black market]] network of propaganda, culture and cinematic art not prone to totalitarian regimes, promulgated in some places as the Hotel Mirador or the Casino Hotel, as a meeting place for people of ideologies close to Andorran and [[Spanish republicanism|Spanish Republicanism]], and [[Free France]]. The network was maintained after the war, when film societies were formed, where movies, music and books [[Censorship in Francoist Spain|censored in Franco's Spain]] were imported, thus becoming an anti-censorship attraction for the Catalan or foreign public even within Andorra. Andorran Group (Agrupament Andorrà), an [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist organization]] linked to the Occitanie's [[French Resistance]], accused the French representative (veguer) of [[Collaboration with the Axis Powers|collaboration with Nazism]]. The Andorran opening to the [[capitalist economy]] resulted in two axes: mass tourism and the country's tax exemption. The first steps toward the capitalist boom date from the 1930s, with the construction of FHASA and the creation of professional banking with [[Andbank|Banc Agrícol]] (1930) and [[Crèdit Andorrà]] (1949), later with [[Mora Banc Grup|Banca Mora]] (1952), [[Banca Privada d'Andorra|Banca Cassany]] (1958) and [[SOBANCA]] (1960). Shortly after activities such as skiing and shopping become a tourist attraction, with the inauguration of ski resorts and cultural entities in the late 1930s. All in all, a renovated hotel industry has developed. In April 1968 a social health insurance system was created ([[Caixa Andorrana de Seguretat Social|CASS]]). The Andorran Government necessarily involved planning, projection and forecasts for the future: with the official visit of the French co-prince [[Charles de Gaulle]] in 1967 and 1969, it was given approval for the economic boom and national demands within the framework of [[Human rights in Andorra|human rights]] and international openness. Andorra lived an era commonly known as "Andorran dream" (in relation to the [[American Dream|American dream]]) along with the [[Trente Glorieuses]]: the [[mass culture]] rooted the country experiencing radical changes in the economy and culture. Proof of this event was [[Ràdio Andorra]], number one transmitter musical radio station in Europe in this period, with guests and speakers of great importance promoting musical hits of [[chanson française]], [[Swing (dance)|swing]], [[rhythm & blues]], [[jazz]], [[rock and roll]] or [[Country music|American country music]]. During this period Andorra achieved a [[GDP]] per capita and a life expectancy higher than the most standard countries of the current economy. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"History",
"20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and the Constitutional Andorra"
] | Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France, Spain and Portugal. In recent times, however, its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transport and communications have removed the country from its isolation. Since 1976 the country sees the need to reform Andorran institutions due to the anachronisms in the field of sovereignty, human rights and the balance of powers as well as the need to adapt legislation to modern demands. In 1982 a first separation of powers took place when instituting the Govern d'Andorra, under the name of Executive Board (Consell Executiu), chaired by the first prime minister [[Òscar Ribas Reig]] with the approval of the Co-Princes. In 1989 the Principality signed an agreement with the [[European Economic Community]] to regularize trade relations. Its political system was modernized in 1993 after the [[Andorran constitutional referendum, 1993|Andorran constitutional referendum]], when the [[Constitution of Andorra|constitution]] was drafted by the Co-Princes and the General Council and approved on 14 March by 74.2% of voters, with a 76% turnout. The [[Andorran parliamentary election, 1993|first elections]] under the new constitution were held later in the year. The same year Andorra became a member of the [[United Nations]] and the [[Council of Europe]]. Andorra formalized diplomatic relations with the United States in 1996 participating in the 51st [[UN General Assembly]], a very important fact in view of the normalization that the country aspired to. First General Syndic [[Marc Forné Molné|Marc Forné]] took part on a speech in Catalan in the General Assembly to defend the reform of the organization, and after three days Forné took part in the parliamentary assembly of the Council of Europe to defend the linguistic rights and the economy of Andorra. In mid-2006 the monetary agreement with the European Union is formalized, which allows Andorra to use the [[euro]] in an official way, as well as coin its own Euro currency. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
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[
"Politics"
] | Andorra is a parliamentary [[co-principality]] with the president of France and the Catholic [[bishop of Urgell]] ([[Catalonia]], Spain) as [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|co-princes]]. This peculiarity makes the president of France, in his capacity as [[prince of Andorra]], an elected monarch, although he is not elected by a popular vote of the Andorran people. The politics of Andorra take place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy]], whereby the [[List of heads of government of Andorra|head of government]] is the [[head of government|chief executive]], and of a [[wikt:pluriform|pluriform]] multi-party system. The current head of government is [[Xavier Espot Zamora]] of the [[Democrats for Andorra]] (DA). [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both government and parliament. The Parliament of Andorra is known as the General Council. The General Council consists of between 28 and 42 councillors. The councillors serve for four-year terms, and elections are held between the 30th and 40th days following the dissolution of the previous Council. Half are elected in equal numbers by each of the seven administrative parishes, and the other half of the councillors are elected in a single national constituency. Fifteen days after the election, the councillors hold their inauguration. During this session, the Syndic General, who is the head of the General Council, and the Subsyndic General, his assistant, are elected. Eight days later, the Council convenes once more. During this session the head of government is chosen from among the councillors. Candidates can be proposed by a minimum of one-fifth of the councillors. The Council then elects the candidate with the absolute majority of votes to be head of government. The Syndic General then notifies the co-princes, who in turn appoint the elected candidate as the head of government of Andorra. The General Council is also responsible for proposing and passing laws. Bills may be presented to the council as Private Members' Bills by three of the local Parish Councils jointly or by at least one tenth of the citizens of Andorra. The council also approves the annual budget of the principality. The government must submit the proposed budget for parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires. If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year, the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved. Once any bill is approved, the Syndic General is responsible for presenting it to the Co-Princes so that they may sign and enact it. If the head of government is not satisfied with the council, he may request that the co-princes dissolve the council and order new elections. In turn, the councillors have the power to remove the head of government from office. After a motion of censure is approved by at least one-fifth of the councillors, the council will vote and if it receives the absolute majority of votes, the head of government is removed. | 600 | Andorra | [
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Law and criminal justice"
] | The judiciary is composed of the Magistrates Court, the Criminal Law Court, the High Court of Andorra, and the Constitutional Court. The High Court of Justice is composed of five judges: one appointed by the head of government, one each by the co-princes, one by the Syndic General, and one by the judges and magistrates. It is presided over by the member appointed by the Syndic General and the judges hold office for six-year terms. The magistrates and judges are appointed by the High Court, as is the president of the Criminal Law Court. The High Court also appoints members of the Office of the Attorney General. The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties. It is composed of four judges, one appointed by each of the co-princes and two by the General Council. They serve eight-year terms. The Court is presided over by one of the judges on a two-year rotation so that each judge at one point will preside over the Court. | 600 | Andorra | [
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Foreign relations, defence, and security"
] | Andorra does not have its own armed forces, although there is a small ceremonial army. Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with France and Spain. However, in case of emergencies or natural disasters, the Sometent (an alarm) is called and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality must serve. This is why all Andorrans, and especially the head of each house (usually the eldest able-bodied man of a house) should, by law, keep a rifle, even though the law also states that the police will offer a firearm in case of need. Andorra is a full member of the United Nations (UN), the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE), and has a special agreement with the [[European Union]] (EU), it also has observer status at the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO). On 16 October 2020, Andorra became the 190th member of the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. | 600 | Andorra | [
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Foreign relations, defence, and security",
"Military"
] | Andorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding of the Sometent. Being a [[landlocked country]], Andorra has no navy. Before World War I, Andorra maintained an armed force of about 600 part-time militiamen under the supervision of a Captain (Capità or Cap de Sometent) and a Lieutenant (Desener or Lloctinent del Capità). This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (veguers) appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell. In the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertake ceremonial duties. Uniforms and weaponry were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities. The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of the [[Police Corps of Andorra]] in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French [[National Gendarmerie]], with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard. The Andorran Police was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles. The force consisted of six [[Corporal]], one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish. Today a small, twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of the Sometent, but all able-bodied men remain technically available for military service, with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. A shotgun per household is unregulated. Rifles and pistols require a license. The army has not fought for more than 700 years, and its main responsibility is to present the [[flag of Andorra]] at official ceremonial functions. According to [[Marc Forné Molné]], Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and the availability of full-time volunteers. In more recent times there has only been a general emergency call to the popular army of Sometent during the floods of 1982 in the Catalan Pyrenees, where 12 citizens perished in Andorra, to help the population and establish a public order along with the Local Police units. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
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[
"Foreign relations, defence, and security",
"Police Corps"
] | Andorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force, with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services supplied by the corps are uniformed community policing, criminal detection, border control, and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units including police dogs, mountain rescue, and a bomb disposal team. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
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[
"Foreign relations, defence, and security",
"Police Corps",
"GIPA"
] | The ''Grup d'Intervenció Policia d'Andorra'' (GIPA) is a small special forces unit trained in [[counter-terrorism]], and [[Hostage negotiator|hostage recovery]] tasks. Although it is the closest in style to an active military force, it is part of the [[Police Corps of Andorra|Police Corps]], and not the [[Military of Andorra|army]]. As terrorist and hostage situations are a rare threat to the country, the GIPA is commonly assigned to prisoner escort duties, and at other times to routine policing. | 600 | Andorra | [
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Foreign relations, defence, and security",
"Fire brigade"
] | The Andorran Fire Brigade, with headquarters at [[Santa Coloma d'Andorra|Santa Coloma]], operates from four modern fire stations, and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances (fire tenders, turntable ladders, and specialist four-wheel drive vehicles), four light support vehicles (cars and vans) and four ambulances. Historically, the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. Serious fires which lasted for two days in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service, and the Andorran Fire Brigade was formed on 21 April 1961. The fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time: two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma, and one crew at each of the other three fire stations. | 600 | Andorra | [
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Geography",
"Parishes"
] | Andorra consists of seven parishes: (-) [[Andorra la Vella]] (-) [[Canillo]] (-) [[Encamp]] (-) [[Escaldes-Engordany]] (-) [[La Massana]] (-) [[Ordino]] (-) [[Sant Julià de Lòria]] | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Geography",
"Physical geography"
] | Due to its location in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains, the highest being the [[Coma Pedrosa]] at , and the average elevation of Andorra is . These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the [[Gran Valira]] river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of ). Andorra's land area is . | 600 | Andorra | [
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] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Geography",
"Environment"
] | [[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], the territory of Andorra belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of [[Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests]]. Andorra had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 4.45/10, ranking it 127th globally out of 172 countries. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Geography",
"Important Bird Area"
] | The whole country has been recognised as a single [[Important Bird Area]] (IBA) by [[BirdLife International]], because it is important for forest and mountain birds and supports populations of [[red-billed chough]], [[citril finch]] and [[rock bunting]]. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
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[
"Geography",
"Climate"
] | Andorra has [[alpine climate|alpine]], [[continental climate|continental]] and [[oceanic climate]], depending on altitude. Its higher elevation means there is, on average, more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer. The diversity of landmarks, the different orientation of the valleys and the irregularity relief typical of the [[Mediterranean climate]] make the country have a great diversity of [[microclimate]] that hinder the general dominance of the [[Mountain climate|high mountain climate]]. The great differences of altitude in the minimum and maximum points, together with the influence of a Mediterranean climate, develop the climate of the Andorran Pyrenees. When in precipitation, a global model characterized by convective and abundant rains can be defined during spring and summer, which can last until autumn (May, June and August are usually the rainiest months); In winter, however, it is less rainy, except in the highlands, subject to the influence of fronts from the [[Atlantic Europe|Atlantic]], which explains the great amount of snowfall in the Andorran mountains. The temperature regime is characterized, broadly, by a temperate summer and a long and cold winter; in accordance with the mountainous condition of the Principality. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
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[
"Economy"
] | Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 10.2 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's [[duty-free shopping|duty-free]] status and by its summer and winter resorts. One of the main sources of income in Andorra is tourism from ski resorts which total over of ski ground. The sport brings in over 7 million visitors annually and an estimated 340 million euros per year, sustaining 2,000 direct and 10,000 indirect jobs at present since 2007. The banking sector, with its [[tax haven]] status, also contributes substantially to the economy with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs (the financial and insurance sector accounts for approximately 19% of GDP). However, during the [[European sovereign-debt crisis]] of the 21st century, the tourist industry suffered a decline, partly caused by a drop in the prices of goods in Spain, undercutting [[duty-free shop]] and increasing unemployment. On 1 January 2012, a business tax of 10% was introduced, followed by a sales tax of 2% a year later, which raised just over 14 million euros in its first quarter. Agricultural production is limited; only 1.7% of the land is arable, and most food has to be imported. Some tobacco is grown locally. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead. Andorra is not a member of the European Union, but enjoys a [[Andorra–European Union relations|special relationship]] with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both the [[French franc]] and the [[Spanish peseta]] in banking transactions until 31 December 1999, when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency, the euro. Coins and notes of both the franc and the peseta remained legal tender in Andorra until 31 December 2002. Andorra negotiated to issue its own euro coins, beginning in 2014. Andorra has traditionally had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates. In 2019 it stood at 2%. On 31 May 2013, it was announced that Andorra intended to legislate for the introduction of an income tax by the end of June, against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of tax havens among EU members. The announcement was made following a meeting in Paris between the Head of Government [[Antoni Martí]] and the French President and Prince of Andorra [[François Hollande]]. Hollande welcomed the move as part of a process of Andorra "bringing its taxation in line with international standards". By the mid-2010s, the financial system comprised five banking groups, one specialised credit entity, eight investment undertaking management entities, three asset management companies, and 29 insurance companies, 14 of which are branches of foreign insurance companies authorised to operate in the principality. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
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[
"Demographics",
"Population"
] | The population of Andorra is estimated at (). The [[Andorran people|Andorrans]] are a [[Romance-speaking world|Romance]] [[ethnic group]] of originally [[Catalans|Catalan]] descent. The population has grown from 5,000 in 1900. Two-thirds of residents lack Andorran nationality and do not have the right to vote in communal elections. Moreover, they are not allowed to be elected as prime minister or to own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company. | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
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[
"Demographics",
"Languages"
] | The historic and [[official language]] is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], a [[Romance language]]. The Andorran government encourages the use of Catalan. It funds a Commission for Catalan [[Toponymy]] in Andorra (Catalan: ), and provides free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations use Catalan. Because of immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity, Spanish, Portuguese and French are commonly spoken. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these, in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population, though it is understood to varying degrees in the major tourist resorts. Andorra is one of only four European countries (together with France, [[Monaco]], and [[Turkey]]) that have never signed the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities|Council of Europe Framework Convention on National Minorities]]. According to mother tongue percentage statistics by the Andorran Government released in 2018 the principality has the following: | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Demographics",
"Religion"
] | The population of Andorra is predominantly (88.2%) Catholic. Their patron saint is [[Our Lady of Meritxell]]. Though it is not an official state religion, the constitution acknowledges a special relationship with the Catholic Church, offering some special privileges to that group. Other Christian denominations include the [[Anglican Church]], the [[Unification Church]], the [[New Apostolic Church]], and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The small [[Islam in Andorra|Muslim community]] is primarily made up of North African immigrants. There is a small community of [[Hinduism|Hindus]] and [[Bahá'í Faith in Andorra|Bahá'ís]], and roughly 100 Jews live in Andorra. (See [[History of the Jews in Andorra]].) | 600 | Andorra | [
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"Bibliography of Andorra"
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[
"Education",
"Schools"
] | Children between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is provided free of charge by the government. There are three systems of school, Andorran, French and Spanish, which use Catalan, French and Spanish languages respectively, as the main language of instruction. Parents may choose which system their children attend. All schools are built and maintained by Andorran authorities, but teachers in the French and Spanish schools are paid for the most part by France and Spain. 39% of Andorran children attend Andorran schools, 33% attend French schools, and 28% Spanish schools. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Education",
"University of Andorra"
] | The [[Universitat d'Andorra]] (UdA) is the state public university and is the only university in Andorra. It was established in 1997. The university provides first-level degrees in nursing, computer science, business administration, and educational sciences, in addition to higher professional education courses. The only two graduate schools in Andorra are the Nursing School and the School of Computer Science, the latter having a PhD programme. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Education",
"University of Andorra",
"Virtual Studies Centre"
] | The geographical complexity of the country as well as the small number of students prevents the University of Andorra from developing a full academic programme, and it serves principally as a centre for virtual studies, connected to Spanish and French universities. The Virtual Studies Centre (Centre d'Estudis Virtuals) at the University runs approximately 20 different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in fields including tourism, law, Catalan [[philology]], humanities, psychology, political sciences, audiovisual communication, telecommunications engineering, and East Asia studies. The centre also runs various postgraduate programmes and continuing-education courses for professionals. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Transport"
] | Until the 20th century, Andorra had very limited transport links to the outside world, and development of the country was affected by its physical isolation. Even now, the nearest major airports at Toulouse and Barcelona are both three hours' drive from Andorra. Andorra has a road network of , of which is unpaved. The two main roads out of [[Andorra la Vella]] are the CG-1 to the Spanish border near [[Sant Julià de Lòria]], and the CG-2 to the French border via the Envalira Tunnel near [[El Pas de la Casa]]. Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities, with services on most major routes running half-hourly or more frequently during peak travel times. There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra to [[Barcelona]] and [[Toulouse]], plus a daily tour from the former city. Bus services mostly are run by private companies, but some local ones are operated by the government. There are no airports for fixed-wing aircraft within Andorra's borders but there are, however, heliports in [[La Massana]] (Camí Heliport), [[Arinsal]] and [[Escaldes-Engordany]] with commercial helicopter services and an airport located in the neighbouring Spanish comarca of [[Alt Urgell]], south of the Andorran-Spanish border. Since July 2015, [[Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport]] has operated commercial flights to [[Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport|Madrid]] and [[Palma de Mallorca Airport|Palma de Mallorca]], and is the [[airline hub|main hub]] for [[Air Andorra]] and [[Andorra Airlines]]. As of 11 July 2018, there are no regular commercial flights at the airport. Nearby airports located in Spain and France provide access to international flights for the principality. The nearest airports are at [[Perpignan–Rivesaltes Airport|Perpignan]], France ( from Andorra) and [[Lleida-Alguaire Airport|Lleida]], Spain ( from Andorra). The largest nearby airports are at Toulouse, France ( from Andorra) and Barcelona, Spain ( from Andorra). There are hourly bus services from both Barcelona and Toulouse airports to Andorra. The nearest railway station is [[L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre]] east of Andorra which is on the [[Standard gauge|-gauge]] line from [[Latour-de-Carol]] () southeast of Andorra, to [[Toulouse]] and on to Paris by the French [[TGV|high-speed trains]]. This line is operated by the [[SNCF]]. Latour-de-Carol has a scenic [[Yellow Train|trainline]] to [[Villefranche-de-Conflent]], as well as the SNCF's gauge line connecting to [[Perpignan]], and the [[RENFE|RENFE's]] [[Iberian gauge|-gauge]] line to Barcelona. There are also direct [[Intercités#Night trains|Intercités de Nuit]] trains between L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre and Paris on certain dates. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Media and telecommunications"
] | In Andorra, mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by the Andorran national telecommunications company, SOM, also known as [[Andorra Telecom]] (STA). The same company also manages the technical infrastructure for national broadcasting of digital television and radio. In 2010 Andorra became the first country to provide a direct [[optical fiber]] link to all homes ([[FTTx|FTTH]]) and businesses. The first commercial radio station to broadcast was [[Radio Andorra]], which was active from 1939 to 1981. On 12 October 1989, the General Council established radio and television as essential public services creating and managing the entity ORTA, becoming on 13 April 2000, in the public company [[Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra]] (RTVA). In 1990, the public radio was founded on the Radio Nacional d'Andorra. As an autochthonous television channel, there is only the national public television network Andorra Televisió, created in 1995. Additional TV and radio stations from Spain and France are available via digital terrestrial television and IPTV. There are three national newspapers, ''[[Diari d'Andorra]]'', ''[[El Periòdic d'Andorra]]'', and ''[[Bondia (newspaper)|Bondia]]'' as well as several local newspapers. The history of the Andorran press begins in the period between 1917 and 1937 with the appearance of several periodicals papers such as ''Les Valls d'Andorra'' (1917), ''Nova Andorra'' (1932) and ''Andorra Agrícola'' (1933). In 1974, the ''Poble Andorrà'' became the first regular newspaper in Andorra. There is also an [[amateur radio]] society and news agency ANA with independent management. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Culture"
] | Andorra is home to folk dances like the contrapàs and marratxa, which survive in [[Sant Julià de Lòria]] especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to the music of its neighbours, but is especially [[music of Catalonia|Catalan]] in character, especially in the presence of dances such as the [[sardana]]. Other Andorran folk dances include contrapàs in [[Andorra la Vella]] and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany. Andorra's national holiday is [[Our Lady of Meritxell]] Day, 8 September. Among the more important festivals and traditions are the [[Canòlic|Canólich Gathering]] in May, the Roser d'Ordino in July, the Meritxell Day (National Day of Andorra), the Andorra la Vella Fair, the [[Sant Jordi|Sant Jordi Day]], the Santa Llúcia Fair, the Festivity from La Candelera to Canillo, the [[Carnival]] of Encamp, the sung of caramelles, the Festivity of [[Saint Stephen|Sant Esteve]] and the Festa del Poble. Andorra participated regularly in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] between 2004 and 2009, being the only [[List of countries in the Eurovision Song Contest|participating country]] presenting songs in [[Catalan language|Catalan]]. In popular folklore, the best-known Andorran legends are the legend of Charlemagne, according to which this Frankish King would have founded the country, the White Lady of [[Auvinyà]], the [[El buner d'Ordino|Buner d'Ordino]], the legend of [[Engolasters|Engolasters Lake]] and the legend of [[Our Lady of Meritxell]]. Andorran gastronomy is mainly [[Catalan cuisine|Catalan]], although it has also adopted other elements of [[French cuisine|French]] and [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] cuisines. The cuisine of the country has similar characteristics with the neighbours of the [[Cerdanya]] and the [[Alt Urgell]], with whom it has a strong cultural ties. Andorra's cuisine is marked by its nature as mountain valleys. Typical dishes of the country are the [[quince]] [[Aioli|all-i-oli]], the duck with winter pear, the lamb in the oven with nuts, pork civet, the massegada cake, the escarole with pear trees, confited duck and mushrooms, [[escudella]], spinach with raisins and pine nuts, jelly marmalade, stuffed murgues (mushrooms) with pork, [[dandelion]] salad and the Andorran [[trout|trout of river]]. To drink, the [[mulled wine]] and [[beer]] are also popular. Some of the dishes are very common in the [[Alt Pirineu i Aran|mountainous regions of Catalonia]], such as [[trinxat]], [[Embutido|embotits]], cooked snails, rice with mushrooms, mountain rice and [[mató]]. [[Pre-Romanesque]] and [[Romanesque art]] are one of the most important artistic manifestations and characteristics of the Principality. The Romanesque one allows to know the formation of the [[Parishes of Andorra|parochial communities]], the relations of (social and political) power and the national culture. There are a total of forty Romanesque churches that stand out as being small austere ornamentation constructions, as well as [[Romanesque architecture|bridges]], fortresses and [[manor houses]] of the same period. [[Summer solstice fire festivals]] in the Pyrenees was included as [[Intangible cultural heritage|UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage]] in 2015. Also the [[Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley]] became Andorra's first, and to date its only, [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 2004, with a small extension in 2006. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[
"Culture",
"Sports"
] | Andorra is famous for the practice of [[winter sports]]. Andorra has the largest territory of ski slopes in the [[Pyrenees]] (3100 hectares and about 350 km of slopes) and two ski resorts. Grandvalira is the largest and most popular resort. Other popular sports played in Andorra include [[Association football|football]], [[rugby union]], [[basketball]], and [[Roller hockey (quad)|roller hockey]]. For [[Roller hockey (quad)|roller hockey]], [[Andorra national roller hockey team|Andorra]] usually plays in [[CERH European Roller Hockey Championship|CERH Euro Cup]] and in [[FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup]]. In 2011, Andorra was the host country to the [[2011 European League Final Eight]]. The country is represented in association football by the [[Andorra national football team]]. The team gained its first competitive win in a European Championship qualifier on 11 October 2019, against Moldova. Football is governed in Andorra by the [[Andorran Football Federation]] - founded in 1994, it organizes the national competitions of association football ([[Primera Divisió]], [[Copa Constitució]] and [[Andorran Supercup|Supercopa]]) and [[futsal]]. Andorra was admitted to [[UEFA]] and [[FIFA]] in the same year, 1996. [[FC Andorra]], a club based in [[Andorra la Vella]] founded in 1942, compete in the [[Spanish football league system]]. [[Rugby union|Rugby]] is a traditional sport in Andorra, mainly influenced by the popularity in southern France. The [[Andorra national rugby union team]], nicknamed Els Isards, plays on the international stage in [[rugby union]] and [[rugby sevens]]. [[VPC Andorra XV]] is a rugby team based in Andorra la Vella actually playing in the French championship. Basketball popularity has increased in the country since the 1990s, when the Andorran team [[BC Andorra]] played in the top league of Spain ([[Liga ACB]]). After 18 years the club returned to the top league in 2014. Other sports practised in Andorra include cycling, volleyball, judo, Australian Rules football, handball, swimming, gymnastics, tennis, and motorsports. In 2012, Andorra raised its first national cricket team and played a home match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club, the first match played in the history of Andorra at an altitude of . Andorra first participated at the [[Olympic Games]] in 1976. The country has appeared in every [[Winter Olympic]] Games since [[1976 Winter Olympics|1976]]. Andorra competes in the [[Games of the Small States of Europe]], being twice the host country in [[1991 Games of the Small States of Europe|1991]] and [[2005 Games of the Small States of Europe|2005]]. As one of the [[Catalan Countries]], Andorra is home to a team of [[castell]], or Catalan human tower builders. The , based in the town of [[Santa Coloma d'Andorra]], are recognized by the , the governing body of castells. | 600 | Andorra | [
"Andorra",
"Diarchies",
"Duty-free zones of Europe",
"French-speaking countries and territories",
"Iberian Peninsula",
"Landlocked countries",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Monarchies of Europe",
"Catalan Countries",
"Prince-bishoprics",
"Pyrenees",
"Southwestern European countries",
"Spanish-speaking countries and territories",
"Special economic zones",
"States and territories established in 1278",
"1278 establishments in Europe",
"Southern European countries",
"Principalities",
"Countries in Europe",
"Christian states",
"Important Bird Areas of Andorra"
] | [
"Index of Andorra-related articles",
"Outline of Andorra",
"Bibliography of Andorra"
] |
[] | In [[mathematics]] and [[statistics]], the '''arithmetic mean''' (, stress on first and third syllables of "arithmetic"), or simply the [[mean]] or the '''average''' (when the context is clear), is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the count of numbers in the collection. The collection is often a set of results of an [[experiment]] or an [[observational study]], or frequently a set of results from a [[Survey (statistics)|survey]]. The term "arithmetic mean" is preferred in some contexts in mathematics and statistics, because it helps distinguish it from other [[average|mean]], such as the [[geometric mean]] and the [[harmonic mean]]. In addition to mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean is used frequently in many diverse fields such as [[economics]], [[anthropology]] and [[history]], and it is used in almost every academic field to some extent. For example, [[per capita income]] is the arithmetic average income of a nation's population. While the arithmetic mean is often used to report [[central tendency|central tendencies]], it is not a [[robust statistic]], meaning that it is greatly influenced by [[outlier]] (values that are very much larger or smaller than most of the values). For [[skewed distribution]], such as the [[distribution of income]] for which a few people's incomes are substantially greater than most people's, the arithmetic mean may not coincide with one's notion of "middle", and robust statistics, such as the [[median]], may provide better description of central tendency. | 612 | Arithmetic mean | [
"Means"
] | [] |
[
"Definition"
] | Given a [[data set]] formula_1, the '''arithmetic mean''' (or '''mean''' or '''average'''), denoted formula_2 (read formula_3 ''bar''), is the mean of the formula_4 values formula_5. The arithmetic mean is the most commonly used and readily understood measure of central tendency in a data set. In statistics, the term [[average]] refers to any of the measures of central tendency. The arithmetic mean of a set of observed data is defined as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each and every observation, divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, if we have a data set consisting of the values formula_6, then the arithmetic mean formula_7 is defined by the formula: formula_8 For example, consider the monthly salary of 10 employees of a firm: 2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400. The arithmetic mean is formula_9 If the data set is a [[statistical population]] (i.e., consists of every possible observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean of that population is called the '''population mean''', and denoted by the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] formula_10. If the data set is a [[sampling (statistics)|statistical sample]] (a subset of the population), then we call the statistic resulting from this calculation a '''sample mean''' (which for a data set formula_11 is denoted as formula_12). The arithmetic mean can be similarly defined for [[Vector (mathematics and physics)|vectors]] in multiple dimension, not only [[Scalar (mathematics)|scalar]] values; this is often referred to as a [[centroid]]. More generally, because the arithmetic mean is a [[convex combination]] (coefficients sum to 1), it can be defined on a [[convex space]], not only a vector space. | 612 | Arithmetic mean | [
"Means"
] | [] |
[
"Motivating properties"
] | The arithmetic mean has several properties that make it useful, especially as a measure of central tendency. These include: (-) If numbers formula_13 have mean formula_2, then formula_15. Since formula_16 is the distance from a given number to the mean, one way to interpret this property is as saying that the numbers to the left of the mean are balanced by the numbers to the right of the mean. The mean is the only single number for which the [[errors and residuals in statistics|residuals]] (deviations from the estimate) sum to zero. (-) If it is required to use a single number as a "typical" value for a set of known numbers formula_13, then the arithmetic mean of the numbers does this best, in the sense of minimizing the sum of squared deviations from the typical value: the sum of formula_18. (It follows that the sample mean is also the best single predictor in the sense of having the lowest [[root mean squared error]].) If the arithmetic mean of a population of numbers is desired, then the estimate of it that is [[unbiased estimate|unbiased]] is the arithmetic mean of a sample drawn from the population. | 612 | Arithmetic mean | [
"Means"
] | [] |
[
"Contrast with median"
] | The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the [[median]]. The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger than, and no more than half are smaller than, the median. If elements in the data [[arithmetic progression|increase arithmetically]], when placed in some order, then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample formula_19. The average is formula_20, as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged so as to increase arithmetically, such as formula_21, the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is 6.2, while the median is 4. In general, the average value can vary significantly from most values in the sample, and can be larger or smaller than most of them. There are applications of this phenomenon in many fields. For example, since the 1980s, the median income in the United States has increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income. | 612 | Arithmetic mean | [
"Means"
] | [] |
[
"Generalizations",
"Weighted average"
] | A weighted average, or weighted mean, is an average in which some data points count more heavily than others, in that they are given more weight in the calculation.<ref> | 612 | Arithmetic mean | [
"Means"
] | [] |
[] | The '''American Football Conference''' ('''AFC''') is one of the two [[Athletic conference|conferences]] of the [[National Football League]] (NFL), the highest professional level of American football in the United States. This conference currently contains 16 teams organized into 4 [[Division (sport)|divisions]], as does its counterpart, the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC). Both conferences were created as part of the [[AFL–NFL merger|1970 merger]] between the National Football League, and the [[American Football League]] (AFL). All ten of the AFL teams, and three NFL teams, became members of the new AFC, with the remaining thirteen NFL teams forming the NFC. A series of league expansions and division realignments have occurred since the merger, thus making the current total of 16 teams in each conference. The current AFC champions are the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], who defeated the [[Buffalo Bills]] in the 2020 [[AFC Championship Game]] for their second consecutive conference championship. | 615 | American Football Conference | [
"National Football League",
"American Football League",
"Sports organizations established in 1970"
] | [] |
[
"Teams"
] | Like the NFC, the conference has 16 teams organized into four [[Division (sport)|divisions]] each with four teams: [[AFC East|East]], [[AFC North|North]], [[AFC South|South]] and [[AFC West|West]]. | 615 | American Football Conference | [
"National Football League",
"American Football League",
"Sports organizations established in 1970"
] | [] |
[
"Season structure"
] | Currently, the fourteen opponents each team faces over the 17-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula: Each AFC team plays the other teams in their respective division twice (home and away) during the regular season, in addition to eleven other games assigned to their schedule by the NFL: three games are assigned on the basis of a particular team's final divisional standing from the previous season, and the remaining eight games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year and will follow a standard cycle. Using the 2021 regular season schedule as an example, each team in the AFC West plays against every team in the AFC North and NFC East. In this way, non-divisional competition will be mostly among common opponents – the exception being the three games assigned based on the team's prior-season divisional standing. At the end of each season, the four division winners and three [[Wild card (sports)|wild cards]] (non-division winners with best regular season record) in the AFC qualify for the [[NFL playoffs|playoffs]]. The AFC playoffs culminate in the [[AFC Championship Game]], with the winner receiving the [[Lamar Hunt]] Trophy. The AFC champion then plays the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] champion in the [[Super Bowl]]. | 615 | American Football Conference | [
"National Football League",
"American Football League",
"Sports organizations established in 1970"
] | [] |
[
"History"
] | Both the AFC and the NFC were created after the NFL [[AFL–NFL merger|merged]] with the [[American Football League]] (AFL) in 1970. The AFL began play in 1960 with eight teams, and added two more expansion clubs (the [[Miami Dolphins]] in 1966 and the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] in 1968) before the merger. In order to equalize the number of teams in each conference, three NFL teams that predated the AFL's launch (the [[Cleveland Browns]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], and the then-[[Baltimore Colts]]) joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC. The two AFL divisions [[AFL East]] and [[AFL West]] were more or less intact, while the NFL's [[National Football League Century Division|Century Division]], in which the Browns and the Steelers had played since 1967, was moved from the NFL to become the new AFC Central. Upon the completion of the merger of the AFL and NFL in 1970, the newly minted American Football Conference had already agreed upon their divisional setup along mostly geographical lines for the [[1970 NFL season|1970 season]]; the National Football Conference, however, could not agree upon their setup, and one was chosen from a fishbowl on January 16, 1970. Since the merger, five expansion teams have joined the AFC and two have left, thus making the current total 16. When the [[Seattle Seahawks]] and the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC respectively. This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences. The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the [[2002 NFL season#Expansion and realignment|2002 realignment]]. The expansion [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] joined the AFC in 1995. There have been five teams that have relocated at least once. In 1984, the [[History of the Baltimore Colts|Baltimore Colts]] [[Baltimore Colts relocation to Indianapolis|relocated]] to Indianapolis. In 1995, the [[Cleveland Browns]] had attempted to move to Baltimore; the resulting [[Cleveland Browns relocation controversy|dispute]] between Cleveland and the team led to Modell establishing the [[Baltimore Ravens]] with the players and personnel from the Browns, while the Browns were placed in suspended operations before they were reinstated by the NFL. The Ravens were treated as an expansion team. In [[California]], the [[Oakland Raiders]] relocated to [[Los Angeles]] in 1982, back to Oakland in 1995, and then to [[Las Vegas]] in 2020, while the [[History of the San Diego Chargers|San Diego Chargers]] returned to [[Los Angeles]] in 2017 after 56 years in [[San Diego]]. The [[History of the Houston Oilers|Houston Oilers]] moved to [[Tennessee]] in 1997, where they were renamed the Tennessee Oilers. The team would change its name again, two years later, to the [[Tennessee Titans]]. The NFL would again expand in 2002, adding the [[Houston Texans]] to the AFC. With the exception of the aforementioned relocations since that time, the divisional setup has remained static ever since. | 615 | American Football Conference | [
"National Football League",
"American Football League",
"Sports organizations established in 1970"
] | [] |
[
"History"
] | Between 1995 and 2019, the AFC has sent only half of its 16 teams to the [[Super Bowl]]: [[New England Patriots]] (10 times), [[Denver Broncos]] (4 times), [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] (4 times), [[Baltimore Ravens]] (2 times), [[Indianapolis Colts]] (2 times), [[Kansas City Chiefs]] (1 time), [[Las Vegas Raiders]] (1 time), and [[Tennessee Titans]] (1 time). By contrast, the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] has sent 13 of the 16 NFC teams during that same time frame with only the [[Detroit Lions]], [[Minnesota Vikings]], and [[Washington Football Team]] missing out on an appearance in the [[Super Bowl]]. 16 of the last 19 AFC champions have started one of just three quarterbacks - [[Tom Brady]], [[Peyton Manning]] and [[Ben Roethlisberger]] - in the Super Bowl. The AFC has started 6 quarterbacks in the last 19 Super Bowls, while the NFC has started 16. | 615 | American Football Conference | [
"National Football League",
"American Football League",
"Sports organizations established in 1970"
] | [] |
[
"Logo"
] | [[Image:American Football Conference logo old.svg|right|thumb|2nd American Football Conference logo used from 1970 to 2009|216x216px]] The merged league created a new logo for the AFC that took elements of the old AFL logo, specifically the "A" and the six stars surrounding it. The AFC logo basically remained unchanged from 1970 to 2009. The 2010 NFL season introduced an updated AFC logo, with the most notable revision being the removal of two stars (leaving four representing the four divisions of the AFC), and moving the stars inside the letter, similar to the NFC logo. | 615 | American Football Conference | [
"National Football League",
"American Football League",
"Sports organizations established in 1970"
] | [] |
[
"Television"
] | [[NFL on NBC|NBC]] aired the AFC's Sunday afternoon and playoff games from 1970 through the 1997 season. From 1998 to 2013, [[NFL on CBS|CBS]] was the primary broadcast rightsholder to the AFC; in those years, all interconference games in which the AFC team was the visiting team were broadcast on either NBC or CBS. Since 2014, the cross-flex policy allows select AFC games (that involve them playing an NFC team at home or intraconference games) to be moved from CBS to Fox. Since 1990, select AFC playoffs games have been seen on ABC or ESPN. | 615 | American Football Conference | [
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[] | '''''Animal Farm''''' is an [[allegory|allegorical]] [[novella]] by [[George Orwell]], first published in England on 17 August 1945. The book tells the story of a group of farm animals who rebel against their human farmer, hoping to create a society where the animals can be equal, free, and happy. Ultimately, however, the rebellion is betrayed, and the farm ends up in a state as bad as it was before, under the dictatorship of a pig named [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]]. According to Orwell, the [[fable]] reflects events leading up to the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] and then on into the [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)|Stalinist era]] of the [[Soviet Union]]. Orwell, a [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]], was a critic of [[Joseph Stalin]] and hostile to Moscow-directed [[Stalinism]], an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the [[May Days]] conflicts between the [[POUM]] and Stalinist forces during the [[Spanish Civil War]]. The Soviet Union had become a totalitarian autocracy built upon a [[cult of personality]] while engaging in the practice of mass incarcerations and secret summary trials and executions. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described ''Animal Farm'' as a [[satire|satirical]] tale against Stalin ("''''"), and in his essay "[[Why I Write]]" (1946), wrote that ''Animal Farm'' was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, "to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole". The original title was ''Animal Farm: A Fairy Story,'' but U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like "A Satire" and "A Contemporary Satire". Orwell suggested the title '''' for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the [[Latin]] word for "bear", a [[Russian bear|symbol of Russia]]. It also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, ''''. Orwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the United Kingdom was in its [[Allies of World War II|wartime alliance]] with the Soviet Union against [[Nazi Germany]], and the British intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, [[Victor Gollancz]], which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the [[Cold War]]. ''Time'' magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the [[Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels]], and number 46 on the [[BBC]]'s [[The Big Read]] poll. It won a [[Retro-Hugo|Retrospective Hugo Award]] in 1996 and is included in the [[Great Books of the Western World]] selection. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Plot summary"
] | The poorly-run Manor Farm near [[Willingdon and Jevington|Willingdon]], [[England]], is ripened for rebellion from its animal populace by neglect at the hands of the irresponsible and alcoholic farmer, [[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]]. One night, the exalted boar, [[Old Major]], holds a conference, at which he calls for the overthrow of humans and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called "[[Beasts of England]]". When Old Major dies, two young pigs, [[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] and [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]], assume command and stage a revolt, driving Mr. Jones off the farm and renaming the property "Animal Farm". They adopt the Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, "All animals are equal". The decree is painted in large letters on one side of the barn. Snowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of [[#Animalism|Animalism]]. To commemorate the start of Animal Farm, Snowball raises a green flag with a white hoof and horn. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health. Following an unsuccessful attempt by Mr. Jones and his associates to retake the farm (later dubbed the "Battle of the Cowshed"), Snowball announces his plans to modernise the farm by building a [[windmill]]. Napoleon disputes this idea, and matters come to head, which culminate in Napoleon's dogs chasing Snowball away and Napoleon declaring himself supreme commander. Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young porker named [[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]], Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea, claiming that Snowball was only trying to win animals to his side. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer persuade the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project and begin to [[purge]] the farm of animals Napoleon accuses of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) gradually smears Snowball to the point of saying he is a collaborator of Mr. Jones, even dismissing the fact that Snowball was given an award of courage while falsely representing himself as the main hero of the battle. "Beasts of England" is replaced with "Animal Farm", while an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man ("Comrade Napoleon"), is composed and sung. Napoleon then conducts a second purge, during which many animals who are alleged to be helping Snowball in plots are executed by Napoleon's dogs, which troubles the rest of the animals. Despite their hardships, the animals are easily placated by Napoleon's retort that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones, as well as by the sheep's continual bleating of “four legs good, two legs bad”. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Plot summary"
] | Mr. Frederick, a neighbouring farmer, attacks the farm, using [[Explosive material|blasting powder]] to blow up the restored windmill. Although the animals win the battle, they do so [[Pyrrhic victory|at great cost]], as many, including [[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer the workhorse]], are wounded. Although he recovers from this, Boxer eventually collapses while working on the windmill (being almost 12 years old at that point). He is taken away in a [[knacker]]'s van, and a donkey called Benjamin alerts the animals of this, but Squealer quickly waves off their alarm by persuading the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital and that the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. Squealer subsequently reports Boxer's death and honours him with a festival the following day. (However, Napoleon had in fact engineered the sale of Boxer to the knacker, allowing him and his inner circle to acquire money to buy [[whisky]] for themselves.) Years pass, the windmill is rebuilt, and another windmill is constructed, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the ideals that Snowball discussed, including stalls with electric lighting, heating, and running water, are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. Snowball has been forgotten, alongside Boxer, with "the exception of the few who knew him". Many of the animals who participated in the rebellion are dead or old. Mr. Jones is also dead, saying he "died in an inebriates' home in another part of the country". The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, drink alcohol, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to just one phrase: ''"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others."'' The maxim ''"Four legs good, two legs bad"'' is similarly changed to ''"Four legs good, two legs better."'' Other changes include the Hoof and Horn flag being replaced with a plain green banner and Old Major's skull, which was previously put on display, being reburied. Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name "The Manor Farm". The men and pigs start playing cards, flattering and praising each other while cheating at the game. Both Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington, one of the farmers, play the [[Ace of spades|Ace of Spades]] at the same time and both sides begin fighting loudly over who cheated first. When the animals outside look at the pigs and men, they can no longer distinguish between the two. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Characters",
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] | (-) [[Old Major]] – An aged prize [[Middle White|Middle White boar]] provides the inspiration that fuels the rebellion. He is also called Willingdon Beauty when [[Show (animal)|showing]]. He is an allegorical combination of [[Karl Marx]], one of the creators of communism, and [[Vladimir Lenin]], the communist leader of the [[Russian Revolution]] and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose [[Lenin's Mausoleum|embalmed body was put on display]]. By the end of the book, the skull is reburied. (-) [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]] – "A large, rather fierce-looking [[Berkshire pig|Berkshire]] boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way". An allegory of [[Joseph Stalin]], Napoleon is the leader of Animal Farm. (-) [[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones' overthrow. His life parallels that of [[Leon Trotsky]], but may also combine elements from Lenin. (-) [[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] – A small, white, fat porker who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of [[Vyacheslav Molotov]]. (-) Minimus – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after the singing of "Beasts of England" is banned. Rodden compares him to the poet [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]]. (-) The piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. (-) The young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed, the first animals killed in Napoleon's farm purge. Probably based on the [[Great Purge]] of [[Grigori Zinoviev]], [[Lev Kamenev]], [[Nikolai Bukharin]], and [[Alexei Rykov]]. (-) Pinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the taste tester that samples Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
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] | (-) [[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]] – A heavy drinker who is the original owner of Manor Farm, a farm in disrepair with farmhands who often loaf on the job. He is an allegory of Russian [[Tsar Nicholas II]], who abdicated following the [[February Revolution]] of 1917 and was murdered, along with the rest of his family, by the [[Bolsheviks]] on 17 July 1918. The animals revolt after Jones drinks so much he does not care for them. (-) Mr. Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield Farm, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an alliance with Napoleon. Animal Farm shares land boundaries with Pinchfield on one side and Foxwood on another, making Animal Farm a "buffer zone" between the two bickering farmers. The animals of Animal Farm are terrified of Frederick, as rumours abound of him abusing his animals and entertaining himself with [[cockfighting]] (a likely allegory for the human rights abuses of [[Adolf Hitler]]). Napoleon enters into an alliance with Frederick in order to sell surplus timber that Pilkington also sought, but is enraged to learn Frederick paid him in counterfeit money. Shortly after the swindling, Frederick and his men invade Animal Farm, killing many animals and destroying the windmill. The brief alliance and subsequent invasion may allude to the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] and [[Operation Barbarossa]]. (-) Mr. Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood Farm, a large neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. Pilkington is wealthier than Frederick and owns more land, but his farm is in need of care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is also concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones and worried that this could also happen to him. (-) Mr. Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first, he is used to acquire necessities that cannot be produced on the farm, such as dog biscuits and [[paraffin wax]], but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
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] | (-) [[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] – A loyal, kind, dedicated, extremely strong, hard-working, and respectable cart-horse, although quite naive and gullible. Boxer does a large share of the physical labour on the farm. He is shown to hold the belief that "Napoleon is always right." At one point, he had challenged Squealer's statement that Snowball was always against the welfare of the farm, earning him an attack from Napoleon's dogs. But Boxer's immense strength repels the attack, worrying the pigs that their authority can be challenged. Boxer has been compared to [[Alexey Stakhanov]], a diligent and enthusiastic role model of the [[Stakhanovite movement]]. He has been described as "faithful and strong"; he believes any problem can be solved if he works harder. When Boxer is injured, Napoleon sells him to a local [[knacker]] to buy himself whisky, and Squealer gives a moving account, falsifying Boxer's death. (-) Mollie – A self-centred, self-indulgent, and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution, in a manner similar to those who left Russia after the fall of the Tsar. She is only once mentioned again. (-) Clover – A gentle, caring mare, who shows concern especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. Clover can read all the letters of the alphabet, but cannot "put words together". She seems to catch on to the sly tricks and schemes set up by Napoleon and Squealer. (-) [[Benjamin (Animal Farm)|Benjamin]] – A donkey, one of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is sceptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, "Life will go on as it has always gone on – that is, badly." The academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is "a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless scepticism" and indeed, friends called Orwell "Donkey George", "after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in ''Animal Farm''." | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Genre and style"
] | George Orwell's ''Animal Farm'' is an example of a political satire that was intended to have a "wider application," according to Orwell himself, in terms of its relevance. Stylistically, the work shares many similarities with some of Orwell's other works, most notably ''1984,'' as both have been considered works of Swiftian Satire. Furthermore, these two prominent works seem to suggest Orwell's bleak view of the future for humanity; he seems to stress the potential/current threat of dystopias similar to those in ''Animal Farm'' and ''1984''. In these kinds of works, Orwell distinctly references the disarray and traumatic conditions of Europe following the Second World War. Orwell's style and writing philosophy as a whole were very concerned with the pursuit of truth in writing. Orwell was committed to communicating in a way that was straightforward, given the way that he felt words were commonly used in politics to deceive and confuse. For this reason, he is careful, in ''Animal Farm'', to make sure the narrator speaks in an unbiased and uncomplicated fashion. The difference is seen in the way that the animals speak and interact, as the generally moral animals seem to speak their minds clearly, while the wicked animals on the farm, such as Napoleon, twist language in such a way that it meets their own insidious desires. This style reflects Orwell's close proximation to the issues facing Europe at the time and his determination to comment critically on Stalin's Soviet Russia. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Background",
"Origin and writing"
] | George Orwell wrote the manuscript between November 1943 and February 1944 after his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]], which he described in ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of ''Animal Farm'', he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him "how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries." This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original socialist ideals. ''Homage to Catalonia'' sold poorly; after seeing [[Arthur Koestler]]'s best-selling, ''[[Darkness at Noon]],'' about the [[Moscow Trials]], Orwell decided that fiction was the best way to describe totalitarianism. Immediately prior to writing the book, Orwell had quit the [[BBC]]. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination. In the preface, Orwell described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm: In 1944 the manuscript was almost lost when a German [[V-1 flying bomb]] destroyed his London home. Orwell spent hours sifting through the rubble to find the pages intact. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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"History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)",
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[
"Publication",
"Publishing"
] | Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused to publish ''Animal Farm'', yet one had initially accepted the work, but declined it after consulting the [[Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Information]]. Eventually, [[Secker and Warburg]] published the first edition in 1945. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch – including his regular publisher [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]]. He also submitted the manuscript to [[Faber and Faber]], where the poet [[T. S. Eliot]] (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's "good writing" and "fundamental integrity", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint "which I take to be generally [[Deformed workers' state|Trotskyite]]". Eliot said he found the view "not convincing", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue "what was needed... was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs". Orwell let [[André Deutsch]], who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and "lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in ''Animal Farm''." In his ''London Letter'' on 17 April 1944 for ''[[Partisan Review]]'', Orwell wrote that it was "now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle." The publisher [[Jonathan Cape]], who had initially accepted ''Animal Farm'', subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off – although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] spy. Writing to [[Leonard Moore (literary agent)|Leonard Moore]], a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the "important official" was a man named [[Peter Smollett]], who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell [[Orwell's list|included in his list]] of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the [[Information Research Department]] in 1949. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying: | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Publication",
"Publishing"
] | [[Frederic Warburg]] also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic [[Red Army]], which had [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|played a major part]] in defeating [[Adolf Hitler]]. A Russian translation was printed in the paper ''Posev'', and in giving permission for a Russian translation of ''Animal Farm'', Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission. In October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist [[David Low (cartoonist)|David Low]] might illustrate ''Animal Farm''. Low had written a letter saying that he had had "a good time with ''ANIMAL FARM'' – an excellent bit of satire – it would illustrate perfectly." Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the [[Folio Society]] published an edition in 1984 illustrated by [[Quentin Blake]] and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist [[Ralph Steadman]] was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of ''Animal Farm''. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Publication",
"Preface"
] | Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British [[self-censorship]] and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally: Although the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included, and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it. Secker and Warburg published the first edition of ''Animal Farm'' in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute. In 1972, [[Ian Angus (librarian)|Ian Angus]] found the original typescript titled "The Freedom of the Press", and [[Bernard Crick]] published it, together with his own introduction, in ''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'' on 15 September 1972 as "How the essay came to be written". Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of ''Animal Farm'' with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Reception"
] | Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American ''[[The New Republic|New Republic]]'' magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it "puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly." Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real-world inspirations, and said, "It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well". ''[[The Guardian]]'' on 24 August 1945 called ''Animal Farm'' "a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few". [[Tosco Fyvel]], writing in ''[[Tribune (magazine)|Tribune]]'' on the same day, called the book "a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us." [[Julian Symons]] responded, on 7 September, "Should we not expect, in ''Tribune'' at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State – Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, ''Animal Farm'' may be simply a fairy story; today it is a political satire with a good deal of point." ''Animal Farm'' has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks. The [[CIA]], from 1952 to 1957 in Operation Aedinosaur, sent millions of balloons carrying copies of the novel into Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, whose air forces tried to shoot the balloons down. ''Time'' magazine chose ''Animal Farm'' as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the [[Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels]]. It won a [[Retro-Hugo|Retrospective Hugo Award]] in 1996 and is included in the [[Great Books of the Western World]] selection. Popular reading in schools, ''Animal Farm'' was ranked the nation's favourite book from school in a 2016 UK poll. ''Animal Farm'' has also faced an array of challenges in school settings around the US. The following are examples of this controversy that has existed around Orwell's work: (-) The [[John Birch Society]] in Wisconsin challenged the reading of ''Animal Farm'' in 1965 because of its reference to masses revolting. (-) New York State English Council's Committee on Defense Against Censorship found that in 1968, ''Animal Farm'' had been widely deemed a "problem book." (-) A censorship survey conducted in DeKalb County, Georgia, relating to the years 1979–1982, revealed that many schools had attempted to limit access to ''Animal Farm'' due to its "political theories." | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Reception"
] | (-) Superintendent in Bay County, Florida, bans ''Animal Farm'' at the middle school and high school levels in 1987. (-) The Board quickly brought back the book, however, after receiving complaints of the ban as "unconstitutional". (-) ''Animal Farm'' was removed from the Stonington, Connecticut school district curriculum in 2017. ''Animal Farm'' has also faced similar forms of resistance in other countries. The ALA also mentions the way that the book was prevented from being featured at the International Book Fair in Moscow, Russia, in 1977 and banned from schools in the United Arab Emirates for references to practices or actions that defy Arab or Islamic beliefs, such as pigs or alcohol. In the same manner, ''Animal Farm'' has also faced relatively recent issues in China. In 2018, the government made the decision to censor all online posts about or referring to ''Animal Farm''. However the book itself, as of 2019, remains sold in stores. Amy Hawkins and Jeffrey Wasserstrom of ''[[The Atlantic]]'' stated in 2019 that the book is widely available in Mainland China for several reasons: the general public by and large no longer reads books, because the elites who do read books feel connected to the ruling party anyway, and because the Communist Party sees being too aggressive in blocking cultural products as a liability. The authors stated "It was—and remains—as easy to buy ''1984'' and ''Animal Farm'' in [[Shenzhen]] or [[Shanghai]] as it is in London or Los Angeles." An enhanced version of the book, launched in India in 2017, was widely praised for capturing the author's intent, by republishing the proposed preface of the First Edition and the preface he wrote for the Ukrainian edition. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Analysis",
"Animalism"
] | The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into "a complete system of thought", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to [[Communism]], not to be confused with [[Animalism (philosophy)|the philosophy Animalism]]. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an [[allusion]] to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society. The original commandments are: (1) Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. (2) Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend. (3) No animal shall wear clothes. (4) No animal shall sleep in a bed. (5) No animal shall drink alcohol. (6) No animal shall kill any other animal. (7) All animals are equal. These commandments are also distilled into the maxim "Four legs good, two legs bad!" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism. Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded: Eventually, these are replaced with the maxims, "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others", and "Four legs good, two legs better" as the pigs become more human. This is an [[Irony|ironic]] twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political [[dogma]] can be turned into malleable [[propaganda]]. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Analysis",
"Significance and allegory"
] | Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, "virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory." Orwell himself wrote in 1946, "Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution... [and] ''that kind'' of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power-hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [-] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert." In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, "... for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages." The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the [[October Revolution|October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution]]. The ''Battle of the Cowshed'' has been said to represent the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|allied invasion]] of [[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]] in 1918, and the defeat of the [[White movement|White Russians]] in the [[Russian Civil War]]. The pigs' rise to preeminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, "the turning point of the story" as Orwell termed it in a letter to [[Dwight Macdonald]], stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion|Kronstadt revolt]] against the Bolsheviks, and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various [[Five-Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|Five Year Plans]]. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s. In chapter seven, when the animals confess their non-existent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and [[Moscow show trials|show trials]] of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten. [[Peter Edgerly Firchow]] and [[Peter Davison (professor)|Peter Davison]] contend that the ''Battle of the Windmill,'' specifically referencing ''the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] and the [[Battle of Moscow]],'' represents [[World War II]]. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, "All the animals, including Napoleon" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to "All the animals except Napoleon" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met [[Józef Czapski]] in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the [[Katyn Massacre]] and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to [[Arthur Koestler]], that it had been "the character [and] greatness of Stalin" that saved Russia from the German invasion. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Analysis",
"Significance and allegory"
] | Other connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943 include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions [[Hungarian Revolution of 1919|in Hungary]] and [[German Revolution of 1918–19|in Germany]] (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), parallelling "the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: [[Trotskyism]], with its faith in the [[Permanent revolution|revolutionary vocation]] of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of [[socialism in one country|Russia's socialist destiny]]"; Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1922)|Treaty of Rapallo]]; and Frederick's forged bank notes, parallelling the [[Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union|Hitler-Stalin pact of August 1939]], after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill. The book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of [[rapprochement]], reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 [[Tehran Conference]] that seemed to display the establishment of "the best possible relations between the USSR and the West" – but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the [[Cold War]] is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, "played an ace of spades simultaneously". Similarly, the music in the novel, starting with "Beasts of England" and the later anthems, parallels "[[The Internationale]]" and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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[
"Adaptations",
"Films"
] | ''Animal Farm'' has been adapted to film twice. Both differ from the novel and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. (-) [[Animal Farm (1954 film)|''Animal Farm'']] (1954) is an animated film, in which Napoleon is eventually overthrown in a second revolution. In 1974, [[E. Howard Hunt]] revealed that he had been sent by the [[CIA]]'s [[Psychological Warfare]] department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency. (-) [[Animal Farm (1999 film)|''Animal Farm'']] (1999) is a live-action TV version that shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism. In 2012, an HFR-3D version of ''Animal Farm'' was announced. [[Andy Serkis]] is directing the film after [[Netflix]] acquired the rights in 2018. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
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"Adaptations",
"Radio dramatizations"
] | A BBC radio version, produced by [[Rayner Heppenstall]], was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square, London, with [[Hugh Gordon Porteus|Hugh Gordon Porteous]], amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, "who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes." A further radio production, again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC [[Radio Four|Radio 4]]. [[Tamsin Greig]] narrated, and the cast included [[Nicky Henson]] as Napoleon, [[Toby Jones]] as the propagandist Squealer, and [[Ralph Ineson]] as Boxer. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
"Animal Farm",
"1945 British novels",
"Allegory",
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"Novels adapted into radio programs",
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[
"Adaptations",
"Stage productions"
] | A theatrical version, with music by [[Richard Peaslee]] and lyrics by [[Adrian Mitchell]], was staged at the [[Royal National Theatre|National Theatre]] London on 25 April 1984, directed by [[Peter Hall (director)|Peter Hall]]. It toured nine cities in 1985. A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the [[Traverse Theatre]] Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since. A new theatrical stage adaptation is in development. [[Alan Menken]] and [[Glenn Slater]] will write songs for the musical, with the book written by [[James Graham (playwright)|James Graham]]. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
"Animal Farm",
"1945 British novels",
"Allegory",
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"Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works",
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"Novels adapted into radio programs",
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"Władysław Reymont",
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"Information Research Department",
"Animals",
"History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)",
"Revolt",
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] |
[
"Adaptations",
"Comic strip"
] | In 1950 [[Norman Pett]] and his writing partner [[Don Freeman]] were secretly hired by the [[Information Research Department|Information Research Department (IRD)]], a secret wing of the [[British Foreign Office]], to adapt ''Animal Farm'' into a comic strip. This comic was not published in the U.K. but ran in Brazilian and Burmese newspapers. | 620 | Animal Farm | [
"Animal Farm",
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"Allegory",
"Dystopian novels",
"English novels",
"Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works",
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"Pigs in literature",
"Cattle in literature",
"Cats in literature",
"Dogs in literature",
"British novels adapted into films",
"British novels adapted into plays",
"Novels adapted into radio programs",
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] | [
"History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)",
"New class",
"Authoritarian personality",
"Anthems in ''Animal Farm''",
"Władysław Reymont",
"Ideocracy",
"Information Research Department",
"Animals",
"History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)",
"Revolt",
"Nobel laureate"
] |
[] | '''Amphibians''' are [[ectotherm]], [[tetrapod]] [[vertebrate]] of the [[Class (biology)|class]] '''Amphibia'''. All living amphibians belong to the group [[Lissamphibia]]. They inhabit a wide variety of [[habitat]], with most species living within [[terrestrial animal|terrestrial]], [[fossorial]], [[arboreal]] or freshwater [[aquatic ecosystems]]. Thus amphibians typically start out as [[larva]] living in water, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this. The young generally undergo [[metamorphosis]] from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with [[lung]]. Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory surface and some small terrestrial [[salamander]] and [[frog]] lack lungs and rely entirely on their skin. They are superficially similar to [[lizard]] but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are [[amniote]] and do not require water bodies in which to breed. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often [[ecological indicator]]; in recent decades there has been a dramatic [[decline in amphibian populations]] for many species around the globe. The earliest amphibians [[evolution of tetrapods|evolved]] in the [[Devonian]] period from [[sarcopterygian]] fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the [[Carboniferous]] and [[Permian]] periods, but were later displaced by reptiles and other vertebrates. Over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia. The three modern orders of amphibians are [[Anura (frog)|Anura]] (the frogs and toads), [[Urodela]] (the salamanders), and [[caecilian|Apoda]] (the caecilians). The number of known amphibian species is approximately 8,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a frog from [[New Guinea]] (''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'') with a length of just . The largest living amphibian is the [[South China giant salamander]] (''Andrias sligoi''), but this is dwarfed by the extinct ''[[Prionosuchus]]'' from the [[Guadalupian|middle Permian]] of Brazil. The study of amphibians is called [[batrachology]], while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called [[herpetology]]. | 621 | Amphibian | [
"Amphibians",
"Amphibious organisms",
"Animal classes",
"Extant Late Devonian first appearances",
"Taxa named by John Edward Gray"
] | [
"List of amphibian genera",
"List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States",
"List of amphibians"
] |
[
"Classification"
] | The word "amphibian" is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] term ἀμφίβιος (''amphíbios''), which means "both kinds of life", ''ἀμφί'' meaning "of both kinds" and ''βιος'' meaning "life". The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes. Amphibia in its widest sense (''[[sensu lato]]'') was divided into three [[Class (biology)|subclasses]], two of which are extinct: (-) Subclass [[Lepospondyli]]† (small Paleozoic group, which are more closely related to amniotes than Lissamphibia) (-) Subclass [[Temnospondyli]]† (diverse Paleozoic and early Mesozoic grade) (-) Subclass [[Lissamphibia]] (all modern amphibians, including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians) (-) Salientia ([[frog]], [[toad]] and relatives): Jurassic to present—7,299 current species in 53 families (-) Caudata ([[salamander]], [[newt]] and relatives): Jurassic to present—760 current species in 9 families (-) Gymnophiona ([[caecilian]] and relatives): Jurassic to present—214 current species in 10 families (-) Allocaudata† ([[Albanerpetontidae]]) Middle Jurassic - Early Pleistocene The actual number of species in each group depends on the taxonomic classification followed. The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb, [[University of California, Berkeley]] and the classification by [[Herpetology|herpetologist]] [[Darrel Frost]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]], available as the online reference database "Amphibian Species of the World". The numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species as of March 31, 2019 is exactly 8,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. With the [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] classification, the taxon [[Labyrinthodontia]] has been discarded as it is a [[Paraphyly|polyparaphyletic]] group without unique defining features apart from [[Cladistics#plesiomorphy|shared primitive characteristics]]. Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a [[Cladistics#Three definitions of clade|stem-based or a node-based]] classification. Traditionally, amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage, while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians (frogs, salamanders and caecilians) and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups, like the Temnospondyli (traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia) or the Lepospondyli, and in some analyses even in the amniotes. This means that advocates of [[phylogenetic nomenclature]] have removed a large number of [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in [[Linnaean taxonomy]], and included them elsewhere under [[cladistic taxonomy]]. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, it becomes a paraphyletic group. | 621 | Amphibian | [
"Amphibians",
"Amphibious organisms",
"Animal classes",
"Extant Late Devonian first appearances",
"Taxa named by John Edward Gray"
] | [
"List of amphibian genera",
"List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States",
"List of amphibians"
] |
[
"Classification"
] | All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a [[clade]], a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura (the frogs and toads), Caudata (or Urodela, the salamanders), and Gymnophiona (or Apoda, the caecilians). It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a Temnospondyl-like ancestor, and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced [[reptiliomorpha|reptiliomorph]] amphibians, and thus of amniotes. Although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest "true frog" is ''[[Prosalirus bitis]]'', from the [[Early Jurassic]] [[Kayenta Formation]] of Arizona. It is anatomically very similar to modern frogs. The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, ''[[Eocaecilia micropodia]]'', also from Arizona. The earliest salamander is ''[[Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis]]'' from the [[Late Jurassic]] of northeastern China. Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three [[Order (biology)|orders]], but an extinct salamander-like family, the Albanerpetontidae, is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia. Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto-frog, ''[[Triadobatrachus]]''. | 621 | Amphibian | [
"Amphibians",
"Amphibious organisms",
"Animal classes",
"Extant Late Devonian first appearances",
"Taxa named by John Edward Gray"
] | [
"List of amphibian genera",
"List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States",
"List of amphibians"
] |
[
"Evolutionary history"
] | The first major groups of amphibians developed in the [[Devonian]] period, around 370 million years ago, from [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned fish]] which were similar to the modern [[coelacanth]] and [[lungfish]]. These ancient lobe-finned fish had evolved multi-jointed leg-like fins with digits that enabled them to crawl along the sea bottom. Some fish had developed primitive lungs that help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen. They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required. Eventually, their bony fins would [[evolution|evolve]] into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all [[tetrapod]], including modern amphibians, reptiles, birds, and [[mammal]]. Despite being able to crawl on land, many of these prehistoric [[tetrapodomorph]] fish still spent most of their time in the water. They had started to develop lungs, but still breathed predominantly with gills. Many examples of species showing [[transitional fossil|transitional features]] have been discovered. ''[[Ichthyostega]]'' was one of the first primitive amphibians, with nostrils and more efficient lungs. It had four sturdy limbs, a neck, a tail with fins and a skull very similar to that of the lobe-finned fish, ''[[Eusthenopteron]]''. Amphibians evolved adaptations that allowed them to stay out of the water for longer periods. Their lungs improved and their skeletons became heavier and stronger, better able to support the weight of their bodies on land. They developed "hands" and "feet" with five or more digits; the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation. The fish's [[hyomandibula]] bone in the [[hyoid bone|hyoid]] region behind the gills diminished in size and became the [[stapes]] of the amphibian ear, an adaptation necessary for hearing on dry land. An affinity between the amphibians and the [[teleost]] fish is the multi-folded structure of the teeth and the paired [[Occipital bone|supra-occipital bones]] at the back of the head, neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom. | 621 | Amphibian | [
"Amphibians",
"Amphibious organisms",
"Animal classes",
"Extant Late Devonian first appearances",
"Taxa named by John Edward Gray"
] | [
"List of amphibian genera",
"List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States",
"List of amphibians"
] |
[
"Evolutionary history"
] | At the end of the Devonian period (360 million years ago), the seas, rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates, though some, such as ''Ichthyostega'', may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water. It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs, dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the [[elephant seal]]. In the early [[Carboniferous]] (360 to 345 million years ago), the climate became wet and warm. Extensive swamps developed with [[moss]], [[fern]], [[horsetail]] and [[calamites]]. Air-breathing [[arthropod]] evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the [[Carnivore|carnivorous]] amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment. There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain, occupying the ecological position currently held by the crocodile. Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air, most still had a long tapering body and strong tail. They were the top land predators, sometimes reaching several metres in length, preying on the large insects of the period and the many types of fish in the water. They still needed to return to water to lay their shell-less eggs, and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors. It was the development of the [[amniote|amniotic]] egg, which prevents the developing embryo from drying out, that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their [[Dominance (ecology)|dominance]] in the period that followed. After the [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse]] amphibian dominance gave way to reptiles, and amphibians were further devastated by the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]]. During the [[Triassic|Triassic Period]] (250 to 200 million years ago), the reptiles continued to out-compete the amphibians, leading to a reduction in both the amphibians' size and their importance in the [[biosphere]]. According to the fossil record, [[Lissamphibia]], which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage, may have branched off from the extinct groups [[Temnospondyli]] and [[Lepospondyli]] at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic. The relative scarcity of fossil evidence precludes precise dating, but the most recent molecular study, based on [[multilocus sequence typing]], suggests a Late Carboniferous/[[Cisuralian|Early Permian]] origin for extant amphibians. | 621 | Amphibian | [
"Amphibians",
"Amphibious organisms",
"Animal classes",
"Extant Late Devonian first appearances",
"Taxa named by John Edward Gray"
] | [
"List of amphibian genera",
"List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States",
"List of amphibians"
] |
[
"Evolutionary history"
] | The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate. A 2005 molecular phylogeny, based on [[Ribosomal DNA|rDNA]] analysis, suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs. It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the [[Paleozoic]] or early [[Mesozoic]] (around 250 million years ago), before the breakup of the supercontinent [[Pangaea]] and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fish. The briefness of this period, and the swiftness with which radiation took place, would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils. There are large gaps in the [[fossil record]], but the discovery of a [[Gerobatrachus hottoni]] from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs. [[Molecular phylogenetics|Molecular analysis]] suggests that the frog–salamander divergence took place considerably earlier than the [[Paleontology|palaeontological]] evidence indicates. Newer research indicates that the common ancestor of all Lissamphibians lived about 315 million years ago, and that [[Stereospondyli|stereospondyls]] are the closest relatives to the caecilians. As they evolved from lunged fish, amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land, including the need to develop new means of locomotion. In the water, the sideways thrusts of their tails had propelled them forward, but on land, quite different mechanisms were required. Their vertebral columns, limbs, limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them off the ground for locomotion and feeding. Terrestrial adults discarded their [[lateral line]] systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via the medium of the air. They needed to develop new methods to regulate their body heat to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature. They developed behaviours suitable for reproduction in a terrestrial environment. Their skins were exposed to harmful [[ultraviolet]] rays that had previously been absorbed by the water. The skin changed to become more protective and prevent excessive water loss. | 621 | Amphibian | [
"Amphibians",
"Amphibious organisms",
"Animal classes",
"Extant Late Devonian first appearances",
"Taxa named by John Edward Gray"
] | [
"List of amphibian genera",
"List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States",
"List of amphibians"
] |
[
"Characteristics"
] | The superclass [[Tetrapoda]] is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs. Reptiles, birds and mammals are amniotes, the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes, some of which are impervious. Lacking these membranes, amphibians require water bodies for reproduction, although some species have developed various strategies for protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage. They are not found in the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in [[brackish water]] in [[mangrove]] swamps; the [[Anderson's salamander]] meanwhile occurs in brackish or salt water lakes. On land, amphibians are restricted to moist habitats because of the need to keep their skin damp. Modern amphibians have a simplified anatomy compared to their ancestors due to [[Neoteny|paedomorphosis]], caused by two evolutionary trends: miniaturization and an unusually large genome, which result in a slower growth and development rate compared to other vertebrates. Another reason for their size is associated with their rapid metamorphosis, which seems to have evolved only in the ancestors of lissamphibia; in all other known lines the development was much more gradual. Because a remodeling of the feeding apparatus means they don't eat during the metamorphosis, the metamorphosis has to go faster the smaller the individual is, so it happens at an early stage when the larvae are still small. (The largest species of salamanders don't go through a metamorphosis.) Amphibians that lay eggs on land often go through the whole metamorphosis inside the egg. An anamniotic terrestrial egg is less than 1 cm in diameter due to diffusion problems, a size which puts a limit on the amount of posthatching growth. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a [[microhylid]] frog from [[New Guinea]] (''[[Paedophryne amauensis]]'') first discovered in 2012. It has an average length of and is part of a genus that contains four of the world's ten smallest frog species. The largest living amphibian is the [[Chinese giant salamander]] (''Andrias davidianus'') but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed—the extinct ''[[Prionosuchus]]'', a crocodile-like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Brazil. The largest frog is the African [[Goliath frog]] (''Conraua goliath''), which can reach and weigh . | 621 | Amphibian | [
"Amphibians",
"Amphibious organisms",
"Animal classes",
"Extant Late Devonian first appearances",
"Taxa named by John Edward Gray"
] | [
"List of amphibian genera",
"List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States",
"List of amphibians"
] |
[
"Characteristics"
] | Amphibians are ectothermic (cold-blooded) vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal [[Physiology|physiological]] processes. Their [[Basal metabolic rate|metabolic rate]] is low and as a result, their food and energy requirements are limited. In the adult state, they have tear ducts and movable eyelids, and most species have ears that can detect airborne or ground vibrations. They have muscular tongues, which in many species can be protruded. Modern amphibians have fully [[Ossification|ossified]] vertebrae with [[articular processes]]. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little [[keratin]] and lacks scales, apart from a few fish-like scales in certain caecilians. The skin contains many [[mucous gland]] and in some species, [[Skin|poison glands]] (a type of granular gland). The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two [[atrium (heart)|atria]] and one [[ventricle (heart)|ventricle]]. They have a [[urinary bladder]] and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as [[urea]]. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults. Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the [[Buccopharyngeal membrane|buccopharyngeal]] region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with [[gas exchange]] through the skin. | 621 | Amphibian | [
"Amphibians",
"Amphibious organisms",
"Animal classes",
"Extant Late Devonian first appearances",
"Taxa named by John Edward Gray"
] | [
"List of amphibian genera",
"List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States",
"List of amphibians"
] |
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