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[
"Mobility impairments",
"Transfer devices"
] | Patient transfer devices generally allow patients with impaired mobility to be moved by caregivers between beds, wheelchairs, commodes, toilets, chairs, stretchers, shower benches, automobiles, swimming pools, and other patient support systems (i.e., radiology, surgical, or examining tables). The most common devices are [[Patient lift]] (for vertical transfer), [[Transfer bench]], stretcher or convertible chairs (for lateral, supine transfer), sit-to-stand lifts (for moving patients from one seated position to another i.e., from wheelchairs to commodes), air bearing inflatable mattresses (for supine transfer i.e., transfer from a gurney to an operating room table), and sliding boards (usually used for transfer from a bed to a wheelchair). Highly dependent patients who cannot assist their caregiver in moving them often require a [[Patient lift]] (a floor or ceiling-suspended sling lift) which though invented in 1955 and in common use since the early 1960s is still considered the state-of-the-art transfer device by OSHA and the American Nursing Association. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Mobility impairments",
"Walkers"
] | A [[walker (mobility)|walker]] or walking frame or Rollator is a tool for disabled people who need additional support to maintain balance or stability while walking. It consists of a frame that is about waist high, approximately twelve inches deep and slightly wider than the user. Walkers are also available in other sizes, such as for children, or for heavy people. Modern walkers are height-adjustable. The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached depending on the strength and abilities of the person using it. It is also common to see caster wheels or glides on the back legs of a walker with wheels on the front. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Mobility impairments",
"Prosthesis"
] | A '''prosthesis''', '''prosthetic''', or '''prosthetic limb''' is a device that replaces a missing [[Human body|body]] part. It is part of the field of [[biomechatronics]], the science of using [[Mechanical system|mechanical]] devices with human [[muscle]], [[skeleton]], and [[nervous systems]] to assist or enhance motor control lost by [[Trauma (medicine)|trauma]], [[disease]], or [[Congenital disorder|defect]]. Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury (traumatic) or missing from birth ([[Birth defect|congenital]]) or to supplement defective body parts. Inside the body, [[artificial heart valve]] are in common use with [[artificial heart]] and [[artificial lung|lungs]] seeing less common use but under active technology development. Other medical devices and aids that can be considered prosthetics include [[hearing aids]], [[visual prosthesis|artificial eyes]], [[palatal obturator]], [[Adjustable gastric band|gastric bands]], and [[dentures]]. Prostheses are specifically ''not'' [[orthoses]], although given certain circumstances a prosthesis might end up performing some or all of the same functionary benefits as an orthosis. Prostheses are technically the complete finished item. For instance, a C-Leg knee alone is ''not'' a prosthesis, but only a prosthetic ''component''. The complete prosthesis would consist of the attachment system to the residual limb — usually a "socket", and all the attachment hardware components all the way down to and including the terminal device. Keep this in mind as nomenclature is often interchanged. The terms "prosthetic" and "orthotic" are adjectives used to describe devices such as a prosthetic knee. The terms "prosthetics" and "orthotics" are used to describe the respective allied health fields. An Occupational Therapist's role in prosthetics include therapy, training and evaluations. Prosthetic training includes orientation to prosthetics components and terminology, donning and doffing, wearing schedule, and how to care for residual limb and the prosthesis. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Mobility impairments",
"Exoskeletons"
] | A [[powered exoskeleton]] is a wearable mobile machine that is powered by a system of electric motors, pneumatics, levers, hydraulics, or a combination of technologies that allow for limb movement with increased strength and endurance. Its design aims to provide back support, sense the user's motion, and send a signal to motors which manage the gears. The exoskeleton supports the shoulder, waist and thigh, and assists movement for lifting and holding heavy items, while lowering back stress. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Mobility impairments",
"Adaptive Seating and Positioning"
] | People with balance and motor function challenges often need specialized equipment to sit or stand safely and securely. This equipment is frequently specialized for specific settings such as in a classroom or nursing home. Positioning is often important in seating arrangements to ensure that user's body pressure is distributed equally without inhibiting movement in a desired way. Positioning devices have been developed to aid in allowing people to [[Standing frame|stand]] and bear weight on their legs without risk of a fall. These standers are generally grouped into two categories based on the position of the occupant. Prone standers distribute the body weight to the front of the individual and usually have a tray in front of them. This makes them good for users who are actively trying to carry out some task. Supine standers distribute the body weight to the back and are good for cases where the user has more limited mobility or is recovering from injury. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Visual impairments"
] | Many people with serious visual impairments live independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Examples of assistive technology for visually impairment include screen readers, screen magnifiers, Braille embossers, desktop video magnifiers, and voice recorders. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Visual impairments",
"Screen readers"
] | Screen readers are used to help the visually impaired to easily access electronic information. These software programs run on a computer in order to convey the displayed information through voice ([[text-to-speech]]) or [[braille]] ([[refreshable braille display]]) in combination with magnification for low vision users in some cases. There are a variety of platforms and applications available for a variety of costs with differing feature sets. Some example of screen readers are Apple [[VoiceOver]], [[Google TalkBack]] and [[Microsoft Narrator]]. This software is provided free of charge on all Apple devices. Apple VoiceOver includes the option to magnify the screen, control the keyboard, and provide verbal descriptions to describe what is happening on the screen. There are thirty languages to select from. It also has the capacity to read aloud file content, as well as web pages, E-mail messages, and word processing files. As mentioned above, screen readers may rely on the assistance of text-to-speech tools. To use the text-to-speech tools, the documents must in an electronic form, that is uploaded as the digital format. However, people usually will use the hard copy documents scanned into the computer, which is cannot be recognized by the text-to-speech software. To solve this issue, people always use [[Optical character recognition|Optical Character Recognition technology]] accompanied with text-to-speech software. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Visual impairments",
"Braille and braille embossers"
] | Braille is a system of raised dots formed into units called braille cells. A full braille cell is made up of six dots, with two parallel rows of three dots, but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or words. People can then use their fingers to read the code of raised dots. A braille embosser is, simply put, a printer for braille. Instead of a standard printer adding ink onto a page, the braille embosser imprints the raised dots of braille onto a page. Some braille embossers combine both braille and ink so the documents can be read with either sight or touch. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Visual impairments",
"Refreshable braille display"
] | A refreshable braille display or braille terminal is an electro-mechanical device for displaying braille characters, usually by means of round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface. Computer users who cannot use a computer monitor use it to read a braille output version of the displayed text. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Visual impairments",
"Desktop video magnifier"
] | Desktop video magnifiers are electronic devices that use a camera and a display screen to perform digital magnification of printed materials. They enlarge printed pages for those with low vision. A camera connects to a monitor that displays real-time images, and the user can control settings such as magnification, focus, contrast, underlining, highlighting, and other screen preferences. They come in a variety of sizes and styles; some are small and portable with handheld cameras, while others are much larger and mounted on a fixed stand. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Visual impairments",
"Screen magnification software"
] | A screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content. It allows users to enlarge the texts and graphics on their computer screens for easier viewing. Similar to desktop video magnifiers, this technology assists people with low vision. After the user loads the software into their computer's memory, it serves as a kind of "computer magnifying glass." Wherever the computer cursor moves, it enlarges the area around it. This allows greater computer accessibility for a wide range of visual abilities. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Visual impairments",
"Large-print and tactile keyboards"
] | A large-print keyboard has large letters printed on the keys. On the keyboard shown, the round buttons at the top control software which can magnify the screen (zoom in), change the background color of the screen, or make the mouse cursor on the screen larger. The "bump dots" on the keys, installed in this case by the organization using the keyboards, help the user find the right keys in a tactile way. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Visual impairments",
"Navigation Assistance"
] | [[GPS for the visually impaired|Assistive technology for navigation]] has exploded on the [[IEEE Xplore]] database since 2000, with over 7,500 engineering articles written on assistive technologies and visual impairment in the past 25 years, and over 1,300 articles on solving the problem of navigation for people who are blind or visually impaired. As well, over 600 articles on augmented reality and visual impairment have appeared in the engineering literature since 2000. Most of these articles were published within the past 5 years, and the number of articles in this area is increasing every year. GPS, accelerometers, gyroscopes, and cameras can pinpoint the exact location of the user and provide information on what's in the immediate vicinity, and assistance in getting to a destination. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Visual impairments",
"Wearable Technology"
] | Wearable technology are smart electronic devices that can be worn on the body as an implant or an accessory. New technologies are exploring how the visually impaired can receive visual information through wearable devices. Some wearable devices for visual impairment include: (1) [[OrCam device]] (2) [[eSight]] (3) [[Brainport]] NightWare (Prescription-only) Watch application for PTSD FDA approved : Zachary Zdroik An application for Apple watches that will "vibrate" to wake an individual up from a nightmare. The watch monitors your heart rate and vibrates enough to wake an individual up from a deep sleep, but not entirely awake. It will disrupt the nightmare but still allow the individual to sleep. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Personal emergency response systems"
] | [[Personal emergency response systems]] (PERS), or [[Telecare]] (UK term), are a particular sort of assistive technology that use electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. An example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for [[hypothermia]] risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild [[dementia]]). Notably, these alerts can be customized to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a caregiver or contact center who can respond appropriately. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Accessibility software"
] | In human–computer interaction, computer accessibility (also known as accessible computing) refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people, regardless of disability or severity of impairment, examples include [[web accessibility]] guidelines. Another approach is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal, such as a smart card, that has configuration information to adjust the computer speed, text size, etc. to their particular needs. This is useful where users want to access public computer based terminals in Libraries, ATM, Information kiosks etc. The concept is encompassed by the CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems – Man-Machine Interface. This development of this standard has been supported in Europe by [[SNAPI]] and has been successfully incorporated into the [[Lasseo]] specifications, but with limited success due to the lack of interest from public computer terminal suppliers. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Hearing impairments"
] | People in the d/Deaf and hard of hearing community have a more difficult time receiving auditory information as compared to hearing individuals. These individuals often rely on visual and tactile mediums for receiving and communicating information. The use of assistive technology and devices provides this community with various solutions to auditory communication needs by providing higher sound (for those who are hard of hearing), tactile feedback, visual cues and improved technology access. Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing utilize a variety of assistive technologies that provide them with different access to information in numerous environments. Most devices either provide amplified sound or alternate ways to access information through vision and/or vibration. These technologies can be grouped into three general categories: [[Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing#Hearing Technology|Hearing Technology]], alerting devices, and [[Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing#Communication Support|communication support]]. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Hearing impairments",
"Hearing aids"
] | A hearing aid or deaf aid is an electro-acoustic device which is designed to amplify sound for the wearer, usually with the aim of making speech more intelligible, and to correct impaired hearing as measured by audiometry. This type of assistive technology helps people with hearing loss participate more fully in their hearing communities by allowing them to hear more clearly. They amplify any and all sound waves through use of a microphone, amplifier, and speaker. There is a wide variety of hearing aids available, including digital, in-the-ear, in-the-canal, behind-the-ear, and on-the-body aids. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Hearing impairments",
"Assistive listening devices"
] | Assistive listening devices include FM, infrared, and loop assistive listening devices. This type of technology allows people with hearing difficulties to focus on a speaker or subject by getting rid of extra background noises and distractions, making places like auditoriums, classrooms, and meetings much easier to participate in. The assistive listening device usually uses a microphone to capture an audio source near to its origin and broadcast it wirelessly over an FM (Frequency Modulation) transmission, IR (Infra Red) transmission, IL (Induction Loop) transmission, or other transmission methods. The person who is listening may use an FM/IR/IL Receiver to tune into the signal and listen at his/her preferred volume. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Hearing impairments",
"Amplified telephone equipment"
] | This type of assistive technology allows users to amplify the volume and clarity of their phone calls so that they can easily partake in this medium of communication. There are also options to adjust the frequency and tone of a call to suit their individual hearing needs. Additionally, there is a wide variety of amplified telephones to choose from, with different degrees of amplification. For example, a phone with 26 to 40 decibel is generally sufficient for mild hearing loss, while a phone with 71 to 90 decibel is better for more severe hearing loss. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Augmentative and alternative communication"
] | Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is an umbrella term that encompasses methods of communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC systems are extremely diverse and depend on the capabilities of the user. They may be as basic as pictures on a board that are used to request food, drink, or other care; or they can be advanced [[speech generating device]], based on speech synthesis, that are capable of storing hundreds of phrases and words. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Cognitive impairments"
] | Assistive Technology for Cognition (ATC) is the use of technology (usually high tech) to augment and assist cognitive processes such as attention, memory, self-regulation, navigation, [[emotion recognition]] and management, planning, and sequencing activity. Systematic reviews of the field have found that the number of ATC are growing rapidly, but have focused on memory and planning, that there is emerging evidence for efficacy, that a lot of scope exists to develop new ATC. Examples of ATC include: [[NeuroPage]] which prompts users about meetings, [[Wakamaru]], which provides companionship and reminds users to take medicine and calls for help if something is wrong, and telephone Reassurance systems. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Cognitive impairments",
"Memory aids"
] | Memory aids are any type of assistive technology that helps a user learn and remember certain information. Many memory aids are used for cognitive impairments such as reading, writing, or organizational difficulties. For example, a [[Digital pen|Smartpen]] records handwritten notes by creating both a digital copy and an audio recording of the text. Users simply tap certain parts of their notes, the pen saves it, and reads it back to them. From there, the user can also download their notes onto a computer for increased accessibility. Digital voice recorders are also used to record "in the moment" information for fast and easy recall at a later time. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Cognitive impairments",
"Educational software"
] | Educational software is software that assists people with reading, learning, comprehension, and organizational difficulties. Any accommodation software such as text readers, notetakers, text enlargers, organization tools, [[word prediction]], and talking word processors falls under the category of educational software. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Eating Impairments"
] | Adaptive eating devices include items commonly used by the general population like spoons and forks and plates. However they become assistive technology when they are modified to accommodate the needs of people who have difficulty using standard cutlery due to a disabling condition. Common modifications include increasing the size of the utensil handle to make it easier to grasp. Plates and bowls may have a guard on the edge that stops food being pushed off of the dish when it is being scooped. More sophisticated equipment for eating includes manual and powered feeding devices. These devices support those who have little or no hand and arm function and enable them to eat independently. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"In sports"
] | Assistive technology in sports is an area of technology design that is growing. Assistive technology is the array of new devices created to enable sports enthusiasts who have disabilities to play. Assistive technology may be used in [[adaptive sports]], where an existing sport is modified to enable players with a disability to participate; or, assistive technology may be used to invent completely new sports with athletes with disabilities exclusively in mind. An increasing number of people with disabilities are participating in sports, leading to the development of new assistive technology. Assistive technology devices can be simple, or "low-technology", or they may use highly advanced technology. "Low-tech" devices can include velcro gloves and adaptive bands and tubes. "High-tech" devices can include all-terrain wheelchairs and adaptive bicycles. Accordingly, assistive technology can be found in sports ranging from local community recreation to the elite [[Paralympic Games]]. More complex assistive technology devices have been developed over time, and as a result, sports for people with disabilities "have changed from being a clinical therapeutic tool to an increasingly competition-oriented activity". | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"In education"
] | In the United States there are two major pieces of legislation that govern the use of assistive technology within the school system. The first is Section 504 of the [[Rehabilitation Act of 1973]] and the second being the [[Individuals with Disabilities Education Act]] (IDEA) which was first enacted in 1975 under the name The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. In 2004, during the reauthorization period for IDEA, the National Instructional Material Access Center (NIMAC) was created which provided a repository of accessible text including publisher's textbooks to students with a qualifying disability. Files provided are in XML format and used as a starting platform for braille readers, screen readers, and other digital text software. IDEA defines assistive technology as follows: "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability. (B) Exception.--The term does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement of such device." Assistive technology listed is a student’s IEP is not only recommended, it is required (Koch, 2017). These devices help students both with and without disabilities access the curriculum in a way they were previously unable to (Koch, 2017). Occupational therapists play an important role in educating students, parents and teachers about the assistive technology they may interact with (Koch, 2017). Assistive technology in this area is broken down into low, mid, and high tech categories. Low tech encompasses equipment that is often low cost and does not include batteries or requires charging. Examples include adapted paper and pencil grips for writing or masks and color overlays for reading. Mid tech supports used in the school setting include the use of handheld spelling dictionaries and portable word processors used to keyboard writing. High tech supports involve the use of tablet devices and computers with accompanying software. Software supports for writing include the use of auditory feedback while keyboarding, word prediction for spelling, and [[speech to text]]. Supports for reading include the use of text to speech (TTS) software and font modification via access to digital text. Limited supports are available for math instruction and mostly consist of grid based software to allow younger students to keyboard equations and auditory feedback of more complex equations using MathML and Daisy. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
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"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Computer accessibility"
] | One of the largest problems that affect disabled people is discomfort with prostheses. An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized 20 people with various sensors attached to their arms. The subjects tried different arm exercises, and the sensors recorded their movements. All of the data helped engineers develop new engineering concepts for prosthetics. Assistive technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the devices themselves such as [[Dvorak Simplified Keyboard|Dvorak]] and other alternative keyboard layouts, which offer more ergonomic layouts of the keys. Assistive technology devices have been created to enable disabled people to use modern touch screen mobile computers such as the [[iPad]], [[iPhone]] and [[iPod touch]]. The Pererro is a plug and play adapter for [[iOS]] devices which uses the built in [[Apple VoiceOver]] feature in combination with a basic switch. This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to use it. Apple, with the release of iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch control. Switch access could be activated either through an external bluetooth connected switch, single touch of the screen, or use of right and left head turns using the device's camera. Additional accessibility features include the use of Assistive Touch which allows a user to access multi-touch gestures through pre-programmed onscreen buttons. For users with physical disabilities a large variety of switches are available and customizable to the user's needs varying in size, shape, or amount of pressure required for activation. [[Switch access]] may be placed near any area of the body which has consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to fatigue. Common sites include the hands, head, and feet. [[eye tracking|Eye gaze]] and head mouse systems can also be used as an alternative mouse navigation. A user may utilize single or multiple switch sites and the process often involves a scanning through items on a screen and activating the switch once the desired object is highlighted. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
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[
"Home automation"
] | The form of [[home automation]] called [[assistive domotics]] focuses on making it possible for elderly and disabled people to live independently. Home automation is becoming a viable option for the elderly and disabled who would prefer to stay in their own homes rather than move to a healthcare facility. This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security, entertainment, and energy conservation but tailors it towards elderly and disabled users. For example, automated prompts and reminders utilize motion sensors and pre-recorded audio messages; an automated prompt in the kitchen may remind the resident to turn off the oven, and one by the front door may remind the resident to lock the door. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
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"WP:SEEALSO",
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"Matching person and technology model",
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[
"Impacts"
] | Overall, assistive technology aims to allow disabled people to "participate more fully in all aspects of life (home, school, and community)" and increases their opportunities for "education, social interactions, and potential for meaningful employment". It creates greater independence and control for disabled individuals. For example, in one study of 1,342 infants, toddlers and preschoolers, all with some kind of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development. These included improvements in "cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in engagement in learning activities". Additionally, it has been found to lighten caregiver load. Both family and professional caregivers benefit from assistive technology. Through its use, the time that a family member or friend would need to care for a patient significantly decreases. However, studies show that care time for a professional caregiver increases when assistive technology is used. Nonetheless, their work load is significantly easier as the assistive technology frees them of having to perform certain tasks. There are several platforms that use machine learning to identify the appropriate assistive device to suggest to patients, making assistive devices more accessible. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
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"Web accessibility"
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"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[] | The '''abacus''' (''plural'' '''abaci''' or '''abacuses'''), also called a '''counting frame''', is a calculating tool that has been in use since ancient times and is still in use today. It was used in the [[ancient Near East]], Europe, China, and Russia, centuries before the adoption of the written [[Eastern Arabic numerals|Arabic numeral system]]. The exact origin of the abacus is unknown. The abacus essentially consists of a number of rows of movable beads or other objects, which represent digits. One of two numbers is set up, and the beads are manipulated to implement an operation involving a second number (e.g., addition), or rarely a square or cubic root. In earliest use the rows of beads could be loose on a flat surface, or sliding in grooves. Later the beads were made to slide on rods of some sort built into a frame, allowing faster manipulation. Abacuses are still made, often as a [[bamboo]] frame with beads sliding on wires. In the ancient world, particularly before the introduction of [[positional notation]], abacuses were a practical calculating tool. There are distinctive modern implementations of the abacus. Some designs, like the bead frame consisting of beads divided into tens, are used mainly to teach [[arithmetic]], although they remain popular in the [[post-Soviet states]] as a tool. Other designs, such as the Japanese [[soroban]], have been used for practical calculations even involving numbers of several digits. For any particular abacus design, there are usually numerous different methods to perform calculations, which may include the four basic operations, and also [[square root|square]] and [[cube root]]. Some of these methods work with non-[[Natural number|natural]] numbers (numbers such as and ). Although today [[calculator]] and [[computer]] are usually used instead of abacuses, abacuses still remain in common use in some countries. Merchants, traders and clerks in some parts of Eastern Europe, Russia, China and Africa use abacuses, and they are still used to teach arithmetic to children. Some people who are unable to use a calculator because of visual impairment may use an abacus. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"Etymology"
] | The use of the word ''abacus'' dates from before 1387 AD, when a [[Middle English]] work borrowed the word from [[Latin]] to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from [[ancient Greek]] (''abax'') which means something without base, and improperly, any piece of rectangular board or plank. Alternatively, without reference to ancient texts on etymology, it has been suggested that it means "a square tablet strewn with dust", or "drawing-board covered with dust (for the use of mathematics)" (the exact shape of the Latin perhaps reflects the [[Genitive case|genitive form]] of the Greek word, ''abakos''). While the table strewn with dust definition is popular, some disagree, saying that it is not proven. Greek itself is probably a borrowing of a [[Northwest Semitic language]], perhaps [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], and cognate with the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word ''ʾābāq'' (), or “dust” (in post-Biblical sense meaning "sand used as a writing surface"). Both ''abacuses'' and ''abaci'' (soft or hard "c") are used as plurals. The user of an abacus is called an ''abacist''. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Mesopotamian"
] | The period 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the [[Sumer]] abacus, a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their [[sexagesimal]] number system. Some scholars point to a character in [[Akkadian language|Babylonian cuneiform]] which may have been derived from a representation of the abacus. It is the belief of Old Babylonian scholars such as Carruccio that Old Babylonians "may have used the abacus for the operations of addition and subtraction; however, this primitive device proved difficult to use for more complex calculations". | 655 | Abacus | [
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"Soroban",
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"Suanpan",
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[
"History",
"Egyptian"
] | The use of the abacus in [[Ancient Egypt]] is mentioned by the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], who writes that the Egyptians manipulated the pebbles from right to left, opposite in direction to the Greek left-to-right method. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument have not been discovered. | 655 | Abacus | [
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"Suanpan",
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[
"History",
"Persian"
] | During the [[Achaemenid Empire]], around 600 BC the Persians first began to use the abacus. Under the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]], [[Sassanian]] and [[Iran]] empires, scholars concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions with the countries around them – [[India]], [[China]], and the [[Roman Empire]], when it is thought to have been exported to other countries. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Greek"
] | [[Image:Salaminische Tafel Salamis Tablet nach Wilhelm Kubitschek Numismatische Zeitschrift Bd 31 Wien 1899 p. 394 ff.jpg|thumb|upright|An early photograph of the Salamis Tablet, 1899. The original is marble and is held by the National Museum of Epigraphy, in Athens.]] The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC. Also [[Demosthenes]] (384 BC–322 BC) talked of the need to use pebbles for calculations too difficult for your head. A play by [[Alexis (poet)|Alexis]] from the 4th century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting, and both [[Diogenes]] and [[Polybius]] mention men that sometimes stood for more and sometimes for less, like the pebbles on an abacus. The Greek abacus was a table of wood or marble, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations. This Greek abacus saw use in Achaemenid Persia, the Etruscan civilization, Ancient Rome and, until the French Revolution, the Western Christian world. A tablet found on the Greek island [[Salamis Island|Salamis]] in 1846 AD (the [[Salamis Tablet]]), dates back to 300 BC, making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It is a slab of white marble long, wide, and thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet is a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them, but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line. Also from this time frame the ''Darius Vase'' was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures including a "treasurer" holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the other. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Chinese"
] | The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC. The Chinese abacus, known as the ''[[suanpan]]'' (算盤/算盘, lit. "calculating tray"), is typically tall and comes in various widths depending on the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom. The beads are usually rounded and made of a [[hardwood]]. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam; beads moved toward the beam are counted, while those moved away from it are not. One of the top beads is 5, while one of the bottom beads is 1. Each rod has a number under it, showing the place value.The ''suanpan'' can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center. The prototype of the Chinese abacus appeared during the [[Han Dynasty]], and the beads are oval. The [[Song Dynasty]] and earlier used the 1:4 type or four-beads abacus similar to the modern abacus including the shape of the beads commonly known as Japanese-style abacus. In the early [[Ming Dynasty]], the abacus began to appear in the form of 1:5 abacus. The upper deck had one bead and the bottom had five beads. In the late Ming Dynasty, the abacus styles appeared in the form of 2:5. The upper deck had two beads, and the bottom had five beads. Various calculation techniques were devised for ''Suanpan'' enabling efficient calculations. There are currently schools teaching students how to use it. In the long scroll ''[[Along the River During the Qingming Festival]]'' painted by [[Zhang Zeduan]] during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1297), a ''suanpan'' is clearly visible beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of an [[apothecary]]'s (Feibao). The similarity of the [[Roman abacus]] to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other, as there is some evidence of a trade relationship between the [[Roman Empire]] and China. However, no direct connection can be demonstrated, and the similarity of the abacuses may be coincidental, both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where the Roman model (like most modern Korean and [[#Japanese abacus|Japanese]]) has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place, the standard ''suanpan'' has 5 plus 2. Incidentally, this allows use with a [[hexadecimal]] numeral system (or any [[Radix|base]] up to 18) which may have been used for traditional Chinese measures of weight. (Instead of running on wires as in the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese models, the beads of Roman model run in grooves, presumably making arithmetic calculations much slower. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Chinese"
] | Another possible source of the ''suanpan'' is Chinese [[counting rods]], which operated with a [[decimal|decimal system]] but lacked the concept of [[0 (number)|zero]] as a place holder. The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) when travel in the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Middle East]] would have provided direct contact with [[India]], allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the [[decimal point]] from Indian merchants and mathematicians. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Roman"
] | The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, as in Greece, was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles (''calculi'') were used. Later, and in medieval Europe, [[jeton]] were manufactured. Marked lines indicated units, fives, tens etc. as in the [[Roman numeral]] system. This system of 'counter casting' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century. Due to [[Pope Sylvester II]]'s reintroduction of the abacus with modifications, it became widely used in Europe once again during the 11th century This abacus used beads on wires, unlike the traditional Roman counting boards, which meant the abacus could be used much faster. Writing in the 1st century BC, Horace refers to the wax abacus, a board covered with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were inscribed using a stylus. One example of archaeological evidence of the [[Roman abacus]], shown here in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives –five units, five tens etc., essentially in a [[bi-quinary coded decimal]] system, related to the [[Roman numerals]]. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman "ounces" (i.e. fractions). | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Indian"
] | The ''[[Abhidharmakośabhāṣya]]'' of [[Vasubandhu]] (316-396), a Sanskrit work on Buddhist philosophy, says that the second-century CE philosopher [[Vasumitra]] said that "placing a wick (Sanskrit ''vartikā'') on the number one (''ekāṅka'') means it is a one, while placing the wick on the number hundred means it is called a hundred, and on the number one thousand means it is a thousand". It is unclear exactly what this arrangement may have been. Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already finding new ways of recording the contents of the Abacus. Hindu texts used the term ''śūnya'' (zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Japanese"
] | In Japanese, the abacus is called ''[[soroban]]'' (, lit. "Counting tray"), imported from China in the 14th century. It was probably in use by the working class a century or more before the ruling class started, as the class structure did not allow for devices used by the lower class to be adopted or used by the ruling class. The 1/4 abacus, which removes the seldom used second and fifth bead became popular in the 1940s. Today's Japanese abacus is a 1:4 type, four-bead abacus was introduced from China in the Muromachi era. It adopts the form of the upper deck one bead and the bottom four beads. The top bead on the upper deck was equal to five and the bottom one is equal to one like the Chinese or Korean abacus, and the decimal number can be expressed, so the abacus is designed as one four abacus. The beads are always in the shape of a diamond. The quotient division is generally used instead of the division method; at the same time, in order to make the multiplication and division digits consistently use the division multiplication. Later, Japan had a 3:5 abacus called 天三算盤, which is now the Ize Rongji collection of Shansi Village in [[Yamagata, Yamagata|Yamagata]] City. There were also 2:5 type abacus. With the four-bead abacus spread, it is also common to use Japanese abacus around the world. There are also improved Japanese abacus in various places. One of the Japanese-made abacus made in China is an aluminum frame plastic bead abacus. The file is next to the four beads, and the "clearing" button, press the clearing button, immediately put the upper bead to the upper position, the lower bead is dialed to the lower position, immediately clearing, easy to use. The abacus is still manufactured in Japan today even with the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of pocket [[electronic calculator]]. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese [[primary school]] as part of [[mathematics]], primarily as an aid to faster mental calculation. Using visual imagery of a soroban, one can arrive at the answer in the same time as, or even faster than, is possible with a physical instrument. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Korean"
] | The Chinese abacus migrated from China to [[Korea]] around 1400 AD. Koreans call it ''jupan'' (주판), ''supan'' (수판) or ''jusan'' (주산). The four beads abacus( 1:4 ) was introduced to Korea Goryeo Dynasty from the China during Song Dynasty, later the five beads abacus (5:1) abacus was introduced to Korean from China during the Ming Dynasty. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Native American"
] | Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a ''nepohualtzintzin'' in ancient [[Aztec]] culture. This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system. The word Nepōhualtzintzin comes from [[Nahuatl]] and it is formed by the roots; ''Ne'' – personal -; ''pōhual'' or ''pōhualli'' – the account -; and ''tzintzin'' – small similar elements. Its complete meaning was taken as: counting with small similar elements by somebody. Its use was taught in the [[Calmecac]] to the ''temalpouhqueh'' , who were students dedicated to take the accounts of skies, from childhood. The Nepōhualtzintzin was divided in two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part there were four beads, which in the first row have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and in the right side there are three beads with values of 5, 10, and 15 respectively. In order to know the value of the respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row), the value of the corresponding account in the first row. Altogether, there were 13 rows with 7 beads in each one, which made up 91 beads in each Nepōhualtzintzin. This was a basic number to understand, 7 times 13, a close relation conceived between natural phenomena, the underworld and the cycles of the heavens. One Nepōhualtzintzin (91) represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepōhualtzitzin (182) is the number of days of the corn's cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nepōhualtzintzin (273) is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nepōhualtzintzin (364) completed a cycle and approximate a year (1 days short). When translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nepōhualtzintzin amounted to the rank from 10 to the 18 in [[floating point]], which calculated stellar as well as infinitesimal amounts with absolute precision, meant that no round off was allowed. The rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo, who in his wanderings throughout Mexico found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them made in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc. There have also been found very old Nepōhualtzintzin attributed to the [[Olmec]] culture, and even some bracelets of [[Maya peoples|Maya]] origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures. George I. Sanchez, "Arithmetic in Maya", Austin-Texas, 1961 found another base 5, base 4 abacus in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] that also computed calendar data. This was a finger abacus, on one hand 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the other hand 0, 1, 2 and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the beginning and end of the two cycles. Sanchez worked with [[Sylvanus Morley]], a noted Mayanist. | 655 | Abacus | [
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[
"History",
"Native American"
] | The [[quipu]] of the [[Inca]] was a system of colored knotted cords used to record numerical data, like advanced [[tally stick]] – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a [[yupana]] ([[Quechua languages|Quechua]] for "counting tool"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 an explanation of the mathematical basis of these instruments was proposed by Italian mathematician Nicolino De Pasquale. By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the [[Fibonacci sequence]] 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20 and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum. | 655 | Abacus | [
"Abacus",
"Mathematical tools",
"Chinese mathematics",
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"Greek mathematics",
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"Logical abacus",
"Mental abacus",
"Soroban",
"Sand table",
"Suanpan",
"Chisanbop",
"Chinese Zhusuan",
"Slide rule",
"Napier's bones"
] |
[
"History",
"Russian"
] | The Russian abacus, the ''schoty'' (, plural from , counting), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire, usually positioned near the user, with four beads for quarter-ruble fractions). Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-[[Russian ruble|kopek]], which were minted until 1916. The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with each wire from left to right like lines in a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different color from the other eight beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color. As a simple, cheap and reliable device, the Russian abacus was in use in all shops and markets throughout the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|former Soviet Union]], and the usage of it was taught in most schools until the 1990s. Even the 1874 invention of [[mechanical calculator]], [[Odhner Arithmometer|Odhner arithmometer]], had not replaced them in [[Russia]]; according to [[Yakov Perelman]], even in his times, some businessmen attempting to import such devices into the Russian Empire were known to give up and leave in despair after being shown the work of a skilled abacus operator. Likewise the mass production of Felix arithmometers since 1924 did not significantly reduce their use in the [[Soviet Union]]. The Russian abacus began to lose popularity only after the mass production of [[Pocket calculator|microcalculators]] had started in the Soviet Union in 1974. Today it is regarded as an archaism and replaced by the handheld calculator. The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by the mathematician [[Jean-Victor Poncelet]], who served in [[Napoleon]]'s army and had been a prisoner of war in Russia. The abacus had fallen out of use in western Europe in the 16th century with the rise of decimal notation and [[algorism]] methods. To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid. The [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and the [[Armenians|Armenian]] people also used abacuses similar to the Russian schoty. It was named a ''coulba'' by the Turks and a ''choreb'' by the Armenians. | 655 | Abacus | [
"Abacus",
"Mathematical tools",
"Chinese mathematics",
"Egyptian mathematics",
"Greek mathematics",
"Indian mathematics",
"Japanese mathematics",
"Roman mathematics"
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"Logical abacus",
"Mental abacus",
"Soroban",
"Sand table",
"Suanpan",
"Chisanbop",
"Chinese Zhusuan",
"Slide rule",
"Napier's bones"
] |
[
"School abacus"
] | Around the world, abacuses have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the [[numeral system]] and [[arithmetic]]. In Western countries, a bead frame similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires and a vertical frame has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy. The wire frame may be used either with positional notation like other abacuses (thus the 10-wire version may represent numbers up to 9,999,999,999), or each bead may represent one unit (so that e.g. 74 can be represented by shifting all beads on 7 wires and 4 beads on the 8th wire, so numbers up to 100 may be represented). In the bead frame shown, the gap between the 5th and 6th wire, corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each wire, suggests the latter use. Teaching multiplication, e.g. 6 times 7 may be represented by shifting 7 beads on 6 wires. The red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide range of number-related lessons. The twenty bead version, referred to by its [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name ''rekenrek'' ("calculating frame"), is often used, sometimes on a string of beads, sometimes on a rigid framework. | 655 | Abacus | [
"Abacus",
"Mathematical tools",
"Chinese mathematics",
"Egyptian mathematics",
"Greek mathematics",
"Indian mathematics",
"Japanese mathematics",
"Roman mathematics"
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"Soroban",
"Sand table",
"Suanpan",
"Chisanbop",
"Chinese Zhusuan",
"Slide rule",
"Napier's bones"
] |
[
"Speed"
] | Eminent physicist [[Richard Feynman]] was noted for expertise in mathematical calculations. He wrote about an encounter in Brazil with a Japanese abacus expert, who challenged him to speed contests between Feynman's pen and paper, and the abacus. The abacus was much faster for addition, somewhat faster for multiplication, but Feynman was faster at division. When the abacus was used for a really difficult challenge, cube roots, Feynman won easily, but by a fluke, as the number chosen at random was close to a number Feynman happened to know was an exact cube, allowing approximate methods to be used. | 655 | Abacus | [
"Abacus",
"Mathematical tools",
"Chinese mathematics",
"Egyptian mathematics",
"Greek mathematics",
"Indian mathematics",
"Japanese mathematics",
"Roman mathematics"
] | [
"Logical abacus",
"Mental abacus",
"Soroban",
"Sand table",
"Suanpan",
"Chisanbop",
"Chinese Zhusuan",
"Slide rule",
"Napier's bones"
] |
[
"Neurological analysis"
] | By learning how to calculate with abacus, one can improve one's mental calculation which becomes faster and more accurate in doing large number calculations. [[Mental abacus|Abacus-based mental calculation]] (AMC) was derived from the abacus which means doing calculation, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, in mind with an imagined abacus. It is a high-level cognitive skill that runs through calculations with an effective algorithm. People doing long-term AMC training show higher numerical memory capacity and have more effectively connected neural pathways. They are able to retrieve memory to deal with complex processes to calculate. The processing of AMC involves both the [[Visuospatial function|visuospatial]] and visuomotor processing which generate the visual abacus and perform the movement of the imaginary bead. Since the only thing needed to be remembered is the final position of beads, it takes less memory and less computation time. | 655 | Abacus | [
"Abacus",
"Mathematical tools",
"Chinese mathematics",
"Egyptian mathematics",
"Greek mathematics",
"Indian mathematics",
"Japanese mathematics",
"Roman mathematics"
] | [
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"Mental abacus",
"Soroban",
"Sand table",
"Suanpan",
"Chisanbop",
"Chinese Zhusuan",
"Slide rule",
"Napier's bones"
] |
[
"Binary abacus"
] | The binary abacus is used to explain how computers manipulate numbers. The abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a [[binary number|binary system]] on a computer, or via [[ASCII]]. The device consists of a series of beads on parallel wires arranged in three separate rows. The beads represent a switch on the computer in either an "on" or "off" position. | 655 | Abacus | [
"Abacus",
"Mathematical tools",
"Chinese mathematics",
"Egyptian mathematics",
"Greek mathematics",
"Indian mathematics",
"Japanese mathematics",
"Roman mathematics"
] | [
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"Mental abacus",
"Soroban",
"Sand table",
"Suanpan",
"Chisanbop",
"Chinese Zhusuan",
"Slide rule",
"Napier's bones"
] |
[
"Uses by blind people"
] | An adapted abacus, invented by Tim Cranmer, called a '''Cranmer abacus''' is still commonly used by individuals who are [[blindness|blind]]. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they do not move inadvertently. This keeps the beads in place while the users feel or manipulate them. The device is then used to perform the mathematical functions of [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]], and [[cube root]]. Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is still very often taught to these students in early grades, both in public schools and state schools for the blind. Blind students also complete mathematical assignments using a braille-writer and [[Nemeth Braille|Nemeth code]] (a type of braille code for mathematics) but large multiplication and [[long division]] problems can be long and difficult. The abacus gives blind and visually impaired students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a very useful tool throughout life. | 655 | Abacus | [
"Abacus",
"Mathematical tools",
"Chinese mathematics",
"Egyptian mathematics",
"Greek mathematics",
"Indian mathematics",
"Japanese mathematics",
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"Mental abacus",
"Soroban",
"Sand table",
"Suanpan",
"Chisanbop",
"Chinese Zhusuan",
"Slide rule",
"Napier's bones"
] |
[] | An '''acid''' is a [[molecule]] or [[ion]] capable of donating a [[proton]] (hydrogen ion H) (a [[Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory|Brønsted–Lowry acid]]), or, alternatively, capable of forming a [[covalent bond]] with an [[electron pair]] (a [[Lewis acid]]). The first category of acids are the proton donors, or [[Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory|Brønsted–Lowry acid]]. In the special case of [[aqueous solutions]], proton donors form the [[hydronium ion]] HO and are known as [[Acid–base reaction#Arrhenius theory|Arrhenius acids]]. [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted|Brønsted]] and [[Thomas Martin Lowry|Lowry]] generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents. A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H. Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid. Acids form [[aqueous solution]] with a sour taste, can turn blue [[litmus]] red, and react with [[Base (chemistry)|bases]] and certain metals (like [[calcium]]) to form [[Salt (chemistry)|salts]]. The word ''acid'' is derived from the [[Latin]] ''acidus/acēre'', meaning 'sour'. An aqueous solution of an acid has a [[pH]] less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as "acid" (as in "dissolved in acid"), while the strict definition refers only to the [[solution|solute]]. A lower pH means a higher '''acidity''', and thus a higher concentration of [[Hydron (chemistry)|positive hydrogen ions]] in the [[solution]]. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be '''acidic'''. Common aqueous acids include [[hydrochloric acid]] (a solution of [[hydrogen chloride]] which is found in [[gastric acid]] in the stomach and activates [[digestive enzymes]]), [[acetic acid]] (vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), [[sulfuric acid]] (used in [[car battery|car batteries]]), and [[citric acid]] (found in citrus fruits). As these examples show, acids (in the colloquial sense) can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from acids (in the strict sense) that are solids, liquids, or gases. [[Acid strength|Strong acid]] and some concentrated weak acids are [[corrosive substance|corrosive]], but there are exceptions such as [[carborane]] and [[boric acid]]. The second category of acids are [[Lewis acids and bases|Lewis acids]], which form a covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is [[boron trifluoride]] (BF), whose boron atom has a vacant [[atomic orbital|orbital]] which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base, for example the nitrogen atom in [[ammonia]] (NH). [[Gilbert N. Lewis|Lewis]] considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition, so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly ''or'' by releasing protons (H) into the solution, which then accept electron pairs. However, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted–Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted–Lowry acids. In modern terminology, an ''acid'' is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as ''a Lewis acid''. | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Definitions and concepts"
] | Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in everyday life are [[aqueous solutions]], or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius and Brønsted–Lowry definitions are the most relevant. The Brønsted–Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified, acid–base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H) from an acid to a base. Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted–Lowry acids, they can also function as [[Lewis base]] due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Definitions and concepts",
"Arrhenius acids"
] | In 1884, [[Svante Arrhenius]] attributed the properties of acidity to [[hydrogen ion]] (H), later described as [[Proton#Hydrogen ion|protons]] or [[Hydron (chemistry)|hydron]]. An '''Arrhenius acid''' is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H ions in the water. Note that chemists often write H(''aq'') and refer to the [[hydrogen ion]] when describing acid–base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a [[proton]], does not exist alone in water, it exists as the '''hydronium ion''' (HO) or other forms (HO, HO). Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as hydrogen chloride and acetic acid. An Arrhenius [[base (chemistry)|base]], on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of [[hydroxide]] (OH) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form HO molecules: HO + OH ⇌ HO + HO Due to this equilibrium, any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it. In an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10 [[Mole (unit)|moles]] per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acidic solutions thus have a pH of less than 7. | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Definitions and concepts",
"Brønsted–Lowry acids"
] | While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted]] and [[Thomas Martin Lowry]] independently recognized that acid–base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A '''Brønsted–Lowry acid''' (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted–Lowry base. Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of [[acetic acid]] (CHCOOH), the [[organic acid]] that gives vinegar its characteristic taste: + + Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CHCOOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of HO when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CHCOOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia (NH), but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Nevertheless, CHCOOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brønsted–Lowry acid. Brønsted–Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of [[molecule|molecular compounds]] in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase. [[Hydrogen chloride]] (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form [[ammonium chloride]], NHCl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as [[hydrochloric acid]] and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition: (1) HO + Cl + NH → Cl + NH + HO (2) HCl + NH → NHCl (3) HCl + NH → NHCl As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in [[benzene]]) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH combine to form the solid. | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Definitions and concepts",
"Lewis acids"
] | A third, only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]], which includes reactions with acid–base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A '''Lewis acid''' is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor. Brønsted acid–base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid–base reactions are electron pair transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted–Lowry acids. Contrast how the following reactions are described in terms of acid–base chemistry: In the first reaction a [[fluoride|fluoride ion]], F, gives up an [[lone pair|electron pair]] to [[boron trifluoride]] to form the product [[tetrafluoroborate]]. Fluoride "loses" a pair of [[valence electron]] because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in HO gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, a Lewis acid may also be described as an [[Oxidizing agent|oxidizer]] or an [[electrophile]]. Organic Brønsted acids, such as acetic, citric, or oxalic acid, are not Lewis acids. They dissociate in water to produce a Lewis acid, H, but at the same time also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base (acetate, citrate, or oxalate, respectively, for the acids mentioned). This article deals mostly with Brønsted acids rather than Lewis acids. | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Dissociation and equilibrium"
] | Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA H + A, where HA represents the acid and A is the [[conjugate acid|conjugate base]]. This reaction is referred to as '''protolysis'''. The protonated form (HA) of an acid is also sometimes referred to as the '''free acid'''. Acid–base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton ([[protonation]] and [[deprotonation]], respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA H + A. In solution there exists an [[chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] between the acid and its conjugate base. The [[equilibrium constant]] ''K'' is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [HO] means ''the concentration of HO''. The [[acid dissociation constant]] ''K'' is generally used in the context of acid–base reactions. The numerical value of ''K'' is equal to the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H. formula_1 The stronger of two acids will have a higher ''K'' than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for ''K'' spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, p''K'' is more frequently used, where p''K'' = −log ''K''. Stronger acids have a smaller p''K'' than weaker acids. Experimentally determined p''K'' at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material. | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Nomenclature"
] | Arrhenius acids are named according to their [[anion]]. In the classical naming system, the ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix, according to the table following. The prefix "hydro-" is used when the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element. For example, HCl has [[chloride]] as its anion, so the hydro- prefix is used, and the -ide suffix makes the name take the form [[hydrochloric acid]]. ''Classical naming system:'' In the [[IUPAC]] naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, as an acid solution, the IUPAC name is aqueous hydrogen chloride. | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Acid strength"
] | The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one [[mole (unit)|mole]] of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H and one mole of the conjugate base, A, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of [[strong acid]] are [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl), [[hydroiodic acid]] (HI), [[hydrobromic acid]] (HBr), [[perchloric acid]] (HClO), [[nitric acid]] (HNO) and [[sulfuric acid]] (HSO). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the [[chemical polarity|polarity]] of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base. Stronger acids have a larger [[acid dissociation constant]], ''K'' and a more negative p''K'' than weaker acids. Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is [[toluenesulfonic acid]] (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, [[polystyrene]] functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable. [[Superacid]] are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are [[fluoroantimonic acid]], [[magic acid]] and [[perchloric acid]]. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline [[hydronium]] "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize [[carbocation]]. While ''K'' measures the strength of an acid compound, the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The pH of a simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by the dilution of the compound and the compound's ''K''. | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Lewis acid strength in non-aqueous solutions"
] | [[Lewis acids]] have been classified in the [[ECW model]] and it has been shown that there is no one order of acid strengths. The relative acceptor strength of Lewis acids toward a series of bases, versus other Lewis acids, can be illustrated by [[ECW model|C-B plots]]. It has been shown that to define the order of Lewis acid strength at least two properties must be considered. For Pearson's qualitative [[HSAB theory]] the two properties are [[HSAB theory|hardness]] and strength while for Drago's quantitative [[ECW model]] the two properties are electrostatic and covalent. | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Chemical characteristics",
"Monoprotic acids"
] | Monoprotic acids, also known as monobasic acids, are those acids that are able to donate one [[proton]] per molecule during the process of [[dissociation (chemistry)|dissociation]] (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA): HA + HO HO + A ''K'' Common examples of monoprotic acids in [[mineral acid]] include [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) and [[nitric acid]] (HNO). On the other hand, for [[organic acids]] the term mainly indicates the presence of one [[carboxylic acid]] group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in [[organic acids]] include [[formic acid]] (HCOOH), [[acetic acid]] (CHCOOH) and [[benzoic acid]] (CHCOOH). | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[
"Chemical characteristics",
"Polyprotic acids"
] | Polyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic (or dibasic) acid (two potential protons to donate), and triprotic (or tribasic) acid (three potential protons to donate). A diprotic acid (here symbolized by HA) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, K and K. The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., ''K'' > ''K''. For example, [[sulfuric acid]] (HSO) can donate one proton to form the [[bisulfate]] anion (HSO), for which ''K'' is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the [[sulfate]] anion (SO), wherein the ''K'' is intermediate strength. The large ''K'' for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable [[carbonic acid]] can lose one proton to form [[bicarbonate]] anion and lose a second to form [[carbonate]] anion (CO). Both ''K'' values are small, but ''K'' > ''K'' . A triprotic acid (HA) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where ''K'' > ''K'' > ''K''. An [[inorganic]] example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (HPO), usually just called [[phosphoric acid]]. All three protons can be successively lost to yield HPO, then HPO, and finally PO, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called [[phosphate]]. Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent, the successive ''K'' values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An [[organic compound|organic]] example of a triprotic acid is [[citric acid]], which can successively lose three protons to finally form the [[citrate]] ion. Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, ''α'' (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: HA, HA, and A. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the [H]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases: formula_2 A plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given ''K'' and ''K'', is known as a [[Bjerrum plot]]. A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general ''n'' -protic acid that has been deprotonated ''i'' -times: <math chem> \alpha_{\ce H_{n-i} A^{i-} }= | 656 | Acid | [
"Acids",
"Acid–base chemistry"
] | [] |
[] | '''Asphalt''', also known as '''bitumen''' (, ), is a sticky, black, highly [[viscosity|viscous]] liquid or semi-solid form of [[petroleum]]. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]]. Before the 20th century, the term '''asphaltum''' was also used. The word is derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] ἄσφαλτος ''ásphaltos''. The largest natural deposit of asphalt in the world, estimated to contain 10 million tons, is the [[Pitch Lake]] located in [[La Brea, Trinidad and Tobago|La Brea]] in southwest [[Trinidad]] ([[Antilles]] island located on the northeastern coast of [[Venezuela]]), within the [[Siparia Regional Corporation]]. The primary use (70%) of asphalt is in [[Road surface|road construction]], where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with [[construction aggregate|aggregate]] particles to create [[asphalt concrete]]. Its other main uses are for [[bituminous waterproofing]] products, including production of [[roofing felt]] and for sealing flat roofs. In material sciences and engineering, the terms "asphalt" and "bitumen" are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance, although there is regional variation as to which term is most common. Worldwide, geologists tend to favor the term "bitumen" for the naturally occurring material. For the manufactured material, which is a refined residue from the [[distillation]] process of selected crude oils, "bitumen" is the prevalent term in much of the world; however, in [[American English]], "asphalt" is more commonly used. To help avoid confusion, the phrases "liquid asphalt", "asphalt binder", or "asphalt cement" are used in the U.S. Colloquially, various forms of asphalt are sometimes referred to as "tar", as in the name of the [[La Brea Tar Pits]], although [[tar]] is a different material. Naturally occurring asphalt is sometimes specified by the term "crude bitumen". Its viscosity is similar to that of cold [[molasses]] while the material obtained from the [[fractional distillation]] of [[crude oil]] boiling at is sometimes referred to as "refined bitumen". The Canadian province of [[Alberta]] has most of the world's reserves of natural asphalt in the [[Athabasca oil sands]], which cover , an area larger than [[England]]. Asphalt properties change with temperature, which means that there is a specific range where viscosity permits adequate compaction by providing lubrication between particles during the compaction process. Low temperature prevents aggregate particles from moving, and the required density is not possible to achieve. Computer simulations of simplified model systems are able to reproduce some of asphalt's characteristic properties. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
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"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
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"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Terminology",
"Etymology"
] | The word "asphalt" is derived from the late [[Middle English]], in turn from French ''asphalte'', based on [[Late Latin]] ''asphalton'', ''asphaltum'', which is the [[Latinisation (literature)|latinisation]] of the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] (''ásphaltos'', ''ásphalton''), a word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/[[Pitch (resin)|pitch]]", which perhaps derives from , "not, without", i.e. the [[alpha privative]], and (''sphallein''), "to cause to fall, baffle, (in passive) err, (in passive) be balked of". The first use of asphalt by the ancients was in the nature of a cement for securing or joining together various objects, and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application. Specifically, [[Herodotus]] mentioned that bitumen was brought to Babylon to build its gigantic fortification wall. From the Greek, the word passed into late Latin, and thence into French (''asphalte'') and English ("asphaltum" and "asphalt"). In French, the term ''asphalte'' is used for naturally occurring asphalt-soaked limestone deposits, and for specialised manufactured products with fewer voids or greater bitumen content than the "asphaltic concrete" used to pave roads. The expression "bitumen" originated in the [[Sanskrit]] words ''jatu'', meaning "pitch", and ''jatu-krit'', meaning "pitch creating" or "pitch producing" (referring to [[coniferous]] or resinous trees). The Latin equivalent is claimed by some to be originally ''gwitu-men'' (pertaining to pitch), and by others, ''pixtumens'' (exuding or bubbling pitch), which was subsequently shortened to ''bitumen'', thence passing via French into English. From the same root is derived the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] word ''cwidu'' (mastix), the German word ''Kitt'' (cement or mastic) and the old Norse word ''kvada''. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
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"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
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"Bituminous rocks",
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"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
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] |
[
"Terminology",
"Modern terminology"
] | In [[British English]], "bitumen" is used instead of "asphalt". The word "asphalt" is instead used to refer to [[asphalt concrete]], a mixture of [[construction aggregate]] and asphalt itself (also called "tarmac" in common parlance). Bitumen mixed with clay was usually called "asphaltum", but the term is less commonly used today. In [[Australian English]], the word "asphalt" is used to describe a mix of [[construction aggregate]]. "Bitumen" refers to the liquid derived from the heavy-residues from crude oil distillation. In [[American English]], "asphalt" is equivalent to the British "bitumen". However, "asphalt" is also commonly used as a shortened form of "[[asphalt concrete]]" (therefore equivalent to the British "asphalt" or "tarmac"). In [[Canadian English]], the word "bitumen" is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy [[crude oil]], while "asphalt" is used for the oil refinery product. Diluted bitumen (diluted with [[naphtha]] to make it flow in pipelines) is known as "[[dilbit]]" in the Canadian petroleum industry, while bitumen "[[Upgrader|upgraded]]" to [[synthetic crude]] oil is known as "syncrude", and syncrude blended with bitumen is called "synbit". "Bitumen" is still the preferred geological term for naturally occurring deposits of the solid or semi-solid form of petroleum. "Bituminous rock" is a form of [[sandstone]] impregnated with bitumen. The [[oil sands]] of [[Alberta, Canada]] are a similar material. Neither of the terms "asphalt" or "bitumen" should be confused with [[tar]] or [[coal tars]]. Tar is the thick liquid product of the dry distillation and [[pyrolysis]] of organic hydrocarbons primarily sourced from vegetation masses, whether fossilized as with coal, or freshly harvested. The majority of bitumen, on the other hand, was formed naturally when vast quantities of organic animal materials were deposited by water and buried hundreds of metres deep at the [[diagenesis|diagenetic]] point, where the disorganized fatty hydrocarbon molecules joined together in long chains in the absence of oxygen. Bitumen occurs as a solid or highly viscous liquid. It may even be mixed in with coal deposits. Bitumen, and coal using the [[Bergius process]], can be refined into petrols such as gasoline, and bitumen may be distilled into tar, not the other way around. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
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"Bituminous rocks",
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"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
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[
"Composition",
"Normal composition"
] | The components of asphalt include four main classes of compounds: (-) Naphthene aromatics ([[naphthalene]]), consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds (-) Polar aromatics, consisting of high [[molecular weight]] [[phenols]] and [[carboxylic acid]] produced by partial oxidation of the material (-) [[Saturated hydrocarbons]]; the percentage of saturated compounds in asphalt correlates with its softening point (-) Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and [[heterocyclic compound]] The naphthene aromatics and polar aromatics are typically the majority components. Most natural bitumens also contain [[organosulfur compound]], resulting in an overall sulfur content of up to 4%. [[Nickel]] and [[vanadium]] are found at <10 parts per million, as is typical of some petroleum. The substance is soluble in [[carbon disulfide]]. It is commonly modelled as a [[colloid]], with [[asphaltene]] as the dispersed phase and [[maltenes]] as the continuous phase. "It is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large". Asphalt may be confused with [[coal tar]], which is a visually similar black, thermoplastic material produced by the [[destructive distillation]] of [[coal]]. During the early and mid-20th century, when [[town gas]] was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of coal tar to [[macadam]] roads led to the word "[[Tarmacadam|tarmac]]", which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, asphalt has completely overtaken the use of coal tar in these applications. Other examples of this confusion include the [[La Brea Tar Pits]] and the Canadian [[oil sands]], both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. "Pitch" is another term sometimes informally used at times to refer to asphalt, as in [[Pitch Lake]]. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
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"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
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[
"Composition",
"Additives, mixtures and contaminants"
] | For economic and other reasons, asphalt is sometimes sold combined with other materials, often without being labeled as anything other than simply "asphalt". Of particular note is the use of [[Automotive oil recycling#REOB|re-refined engine oil bottoms – "REOB" or "REOBs"]] residue of [[Automotive oil recycling|recycled automotive engine oil]] collected from the bottoms of re-refining [[vacuum distillation]] towers, in the manufacture of asphalt. REOB contains various elements and compounds found in recycled engine oil: additives to the original oil and materials accumulating from its circulation in the engine (typically iron and copper). Some research has indicated a correlation between this adulteration of asphalt and poorer-performing pavement. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
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"Road construction materials"
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"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Occurrence"
] | The majority of asphalt used commercially is obtained from petroleum. Nonetheless, large amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic [[algae]] ([[diatom]]) and other once-living things. These remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50 °C) and [[pressure]] of burial deep in the earth, the remains were transformed into materials such as bitumen, [[kerogen]], or petroleum. Natural deposits of bitumen include lakes such as the [[Pitch Lake]] in Trinidad and Tobago and [[Lake Bermudez]] in [[Venezuela]]. Natural [[petroleum seep|seeps]] occur in the [[La Brea Tar Pits]] and in the [[Dead Sea]]. Bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in [[Alberta]], Canada, and the similar "tar sands" in [[Utah]], US. The Canadian province of [[Alberta]] has most of the world's reserves, in three huge deposits covering , an area larger than [[England]] or [[New York state]]. These bituminous sands contain of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest [[oil reserves]] in the world. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the output is now used as [[raw material]] for [[Oil refinery|oil refineries]] in Canada and the United States. The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the [[Athabasca oil sands]], is located in the [[McMurray Formation]] of Northern Alberta. This formation is from the early [[Cretaceous]], and is composed of numerous [[lens (geology)|lenses]] of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil. Isotopic studies show the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old. Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the [[Peace River oil sands]] and the [[Cold Lake oil sands]], to the west and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta deposits, only parts of the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced by oil wells using [[enhanced oil recovery]] techniques like [[steam-assisted gravity drainage]]. Much smaller heavy oil or bitumen deposits also occur in the [[Uinta Basin]] in Utah, US. The [[Tar Sand Triangle]] deposit, for example, is roughly 6% bitumen. Bitumen may occur in [[hydrothermal vein]]. An example of this is within the [[Uinta Basin]] of [[Utah]], in the US, where there is a swarm of laterally and vertically extensive veins composed of a solid hydrocarbon termed [[Gilsonite]]. These veins formed by the polymerization and solidification of hydrocarbons that were mobilized from the deeper oil shales of the [[Green River Formation]] during burial and [[diagenesis]]. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
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"Oil sands",
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] |
[
"Occurrence"
] | Bitumen is similar to the organic matter in carbonaceous [[meteorite]]. However, detailed studies have shown these materials to be distinct. The vast Alberta bitumen resources are considered to have started out as living material from marine plants and animals, mainly [[algae]], that died millions of years ago when an ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were covered by mud, buried deeply over time, and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature of . Due to pressure from the rising of the [[Rocky Mountains]] in southwestern Alberta, 80 to 55 million years ago, the oil was driven northeast hundreds of kilometres and trapped into underground sand deposits left behind by ancient river beds and ocean beaches, thus forming the oil sands. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
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"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
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] |
[
"History",
"Ancient times"
] | The use of natural bitumen for [[waterproofing]], and as an [[adhesive]] dates at least to the fifth [[millennium]] BC, with a crop storage basket discovered in [[Mehrgarh]], of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], lined with it. By the 3rd millennium BC refined rock asphalt was in use in the region, and was used to waterproof the [[Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro|Great Bath]] in Mohenjo-daro. In the ancient Middle East, the [[Sumer]] used natural bitumen deposits for [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] between [[brick]] and stones, to cement parts of carvings, such as eyes, into place, for ship [[caulking]], and for waterproofing. The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] said hot bitumen was used as mortar in the walls of [[Babylon]]. The long [[Euphrates Tunnel]] beneath the river [[Euphrates]] at [[Babylon]] in the time of Queen [[Semiramis]] (c. 800 BC) was reportedly constructed of burnt bricks covered with bitumen as a waterproofing agent. Bitumen was used by [[ancient Egypt]] to [[Embalming|embalm]] mummies. The [[Persian language|Persian]] word for asphalt is ''moom'', which is related to the English word [[mummy]]. The Egyptians' primary source of bitumen was the [[Dead Sea]], which the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] knew as ''Palus Asphaltites'' (Asphalt Lake). In approximately 40 AD, [[Dioscorides]] described the Dead Sea material as ''Judaicum bitumen'', and noted other places in the region where it could be found. The Sidon bitumen is thought to refer to material found at [[Hasbeya]] in Lebanon. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] also refers to bitumen being found in [[Selenicë|Epirus]]. Bitumen was a valuable strategic resource. It was the object of the first known battle for a hydrocarbon deposit – between the [[Seleucid]] and the [[Nabateans]] in 312 BC. In the ancient Far East, natural bitumen was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher [[Fraction (chemistry)|fractions]], leaving a [[thermoplastic]] material of higher molecular weight that when layered on objects became quite hard upon cooling. This was used to cover objects that needed waterproofing, such as [[scabbard]] and other items. [[Statuettes]] of household [[deities]] were also cast with this type of material in [[Japan]], and probably also in [[China]]. In [[North America]], archaeological recovery has indicated that bitumen was sometimes used to adhere stone [[projectile point]] to wooden shafts. In Canada, aboriginal people used bitumen seeping out of the banks of the [[Athabasca River|Athabasca]] and other rivers to waterproof birch bark [[canoe]], and also heated it in smudge pots to ward off [[mosquito]] in the summer. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
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"Pitch (resin)",
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"Duxit",
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[
"History",
"Continental Europe"
] | In 1553, [[Pierre Belon]] described in his work ''[[Observations (Pierre Belon)|Observations]]'' that ''pissasphalto'', a mixture of [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] and bitumen, was used in the [[Republic of Ragusa]] (now [[Dubrovnik]], [[Croatia]]) for tarring of ships. An 1838 edition of ''Mechanics Magazine'' cites an early use of asphalt in France. A pamphlet dated 1621, by "a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys, states that he had discovered the existence (of asphaltum) in large quantities in the vicinity of Neufchatel", and that he proposed to use it in a variety of ways – "principally in the construction of air-proof granaries, and in protecting, by means of the arches, the water-courses in the city of Paris from the intrusion of dirt and filth", which at that time made the water unusable. "He expatiates also on the excellence of this material for forming level and durable terraces" in palaces, "the notion of forming such terraces in the streets not one likely to cross the brain of a Parisian of that generation". But the substance was generally neglected in France until the [[July Revolution|revolution of 1830]]. In the 1830s there was a surge of interest, and asphalt became widely used "for pavements, flat roofs, and the lining of cisterns, and in England, some use of it had been made of it for similar purposes". Its rise in Europe was "a sudden phenomenon", after natural deposits were found "in France at Osbann ([[Bas-Rhin]]), the Parc ([[Ain]]) and the Puy-de-la-Poix ([[Puy-de-Dôme]])", although it could also be made artificially. One of the earliest uses in France was the laying of about 24,000 square yards of Seyssel asphalt at the [[Place de la Concorde]] in 1835. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
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[
"History",
"United Kingdom"
] | Among the earlier uses of bitumen in the United Kingdom was for etching. William Salmon's ''Polygraphice'' (1673) provides a recipe for varnish used in etching, consisting of three ounces of virgin wax, two ounces of [[mastic (plant resin)|mastic]], and one ounce of asphaltum. By the fifth edition in 1685, he had included more asphaltum recipes from other sources. The first British patent for the use of asphalt was "Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen" in 1834. Then on 25 November 1837, [[Captain R. T. Claridge|Richard Tappin Claridge]] patented the use of Seyssel asphalt (patent #7849), for use in asphalte pavement, having seen it employed in France and Belgium when visiting with [[Frederick Walter Simms]], who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain. Dr T. Lamb Phipson writes that his father, Samuel Ryland Phipson, a friend of Claridge, was also "instrumental in introducing the asphalte pavement (in 1836)". Claridge obtained a patent in Scotland on 27 March 1838, and obtained a patent in Ireland on 23 April 1838. In 1851, extensions for the 1837 patent and for both 1838 patents were sought by the trustees of a company previously formed by Claridge. ''Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company''formed in 1838 for the purpose of introducing to Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France","laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall". Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall, the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks, "and subsequently on the space at the bottom of the steps leading from Waterloo Place to St. James Park". "The formation in 1838 of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company (with a distinguished list of aristocratic patrons, and [[Marc Isambard Brunel|Marc]] and [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel|Isambard Brunel]] as, respectively, a trustee and consulting engineer), gave an enormous impetus to the development of a British asphalt industry". "By the end of 1838, at least two other companies, Robinson's and the Bastenne company, were in production", with asphalt being laid as paving at Brighton, Herne Bay, Canterbury, Kensington, the Strand, and a large floor area in Bunhill-row, while meantime Claridge's Whitehall paving "continue(d) in good order". The [[Bonnington Chemical Works]] manufactured asphalt using [[coal tar]] and by 1839 had installed it in [[Bonnington, Edinburgh|Bonnington]]. In 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving asphalt, which had uses beyond paving. For example, asphalt could also be used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, both of which were also proliferating in the 19th century. On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to the exclusivity of asphalt quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s". | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
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[
"History",
"United Kingdom"
] | In 1914, Claridge's Company entered into a joint venture to produce [[Macadam#Tar-bound macadam|tar-bound macadam]], with materials manufactured through a subsidiary company called Clarmac Roads Ltd. Two products resulted, namely ''Clarmac'', and ''Clarphalte'', with the former being manufactured by Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co., although ''Clarmac'' was more widely used. However, the [[First World War]] ruined the Clarmac Company, which entered into liquidation in 1915. The failure of Clarmac Roads Ltd had a flow-on effect to Claridge's Company, which was itself compulsorily wound up, ceasing operations in 1917, having invested a substantial amount of funds into the new venture, both at the outset and in a subsequent attempt to save the Clarmac Company. Bitumen was thought in 19th century Britain to contain chemicals with medicinal properties. Extracts from bitumen were used to treat [[catarrh]] and some forms of [[asthma]] and as a remedy against worms, especially the [[tapeworm]]. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
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"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
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[
"History",
"United States"
] | The first use of bitumen in the New World was by indigenous peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the [[Tongva people|Tongva]], [[Luiseño people|Luiseño]] and [[Chumash people|Chumash]] peoples collected the naturally occurring bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three groups used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on [[rattle (percussion instrument)|rattle]] to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water, possibly poisoning those who drank the water. Asphalt was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes. Asphalt was first used to pave streets in the 1870s. At first naturally occurring "bituminous rock" was used, such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in [[Ritchie County, West Virginia]] from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington DC, in time for the celebration of the national centennial. In the horse-drawn era, US streets were mostly unpaved and covered with dirt or gravel. Especially where mud or trenching often made streets difficult to pass, pavements were sometimes made of diverse materials including wooden planks, cobble stones or other stone blocks, or bricks. Unpaved roads produced uneven wear and hazards for pedestrians. In the late 19th century with the rise of the popular [[bicycle]], bicycle clubs were important in pushing for more general pavement of streets. Advocacy for pavement increased in the early 20th century with the rise of the [[automobile]]. Asphalt gradually became an ever more common method of paving. [[St. Charles Avenue]] in [[New Orleans]] was paved its whole length with asphalt by 1889. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
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"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"History",
"United States"
] | In 1900 Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses, pulling streetcars, wagons, and carriages, and leaving their waste behind. They were not fast, and pedestrians could dodge and scramble their way across the crowded streets. Small towns continued to rely on dirt and gravel, but larger cities wanted much better streets. They looked to wood or granite blocks by the 1850s. In 1890, a third of Chicago's 2000 miles of streets were paved, chiefly with wooden blocks, which gave better traction than mud. Brick surfacing was a good compromise, but even better was asphalt paving, which was easy to install and to cut through to get at sewers. With London and Paris serving as models, Washington laid 400,000 square yards of asphalt paving by 1882; it became the model for Buffalo, Philadelphia and elsewhere. By the end of the century, American cities boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt paving, well ahead of brick. The streets became faster and more dangerous so electric traffic lights were installed. Electric trolleys (at 12 miles per hour) became the main transportation service for middle class shoppers and office workers until they bought automobiles after 1945 and commuted from more distant suburbs in privacy and comfort on asphalt highways. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"History",
"Canada"
] | Canada has the world's largest deposit of natural bitumen in the [[Athabasca oil sands]], and Canadian [[First Nations]] along the [[Athabasca River]] had long used it to waterproof their canoes. In 1719, a [[Cree]] named Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample for trade to [[Henry Kelsey]] of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], who was the first recorded European to see it. However, it wasn't until 1787 that fur trader and explorer [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander MacKenzie]] saw the Athabasca oil sands and said, "At about 24 miles from the fork (of the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers) are some bituminous fountains into which a pole of 20 feet long may be inserted without the least resistance." The value of the deposit was obvious from the start, but the means of extracting the bitumen was not. The nearest town, [[Fort McMurray, Alberta]], was a small fur trading post, other markets were far away, and transportation costs were too high to ship the raw bituminous sand for paving. In 1915, Sidney Ells of the Federal Mines Branch experimented with separation techniques and used the product to pave 600 feet of road in [[Edmonton]], Alberta. Other roads in Alberta were paved with material extracted from oil sands, but it was generally not economic. During the 1920s [[Karl Clark (chemist)|Dr. Karl A. Clark]] of the [[Alberta Research Council]] patented a hot water oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons built the [[Bitumount]] oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, printers ink, medicines, rust- and acid-proof paints, fireproof roofing, street paving, patent leather, and fence post preservatives. Eventually Fitzsimmons ran out of money and the plant was taken over by the Alberta government. Today the Bitumount plant is a [[Provincial historic sites of Alberta|Provincial Historic Site]]. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"History",
"Photography and art"
] | Bitumen was used in early photographic technology. In 1826 or 1827, it was used by French scientist [[Joseph Nicéphore Niépce]] to make the [[View from the Window at Le Gras|oldest surviving photograph from nature]]. The bitumen was thinly coated onto a [[pewter]] plate which was then exposed in a camera. Exposure to light hardened the bitumen and made it insoluble, so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas remained. Many hours of exposure in the camera were required, making bitumen impractical for ordinary photography, but from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in common use as a [[photoresist]] in the production of printing plates for various photomechanical printing processes. Bitumen was the nemesis of many artists during the 19th century. Although widely used for a time, it ultimately proved unstable for use in oil painting, especially when mixed with the most common diluents, such as linseed oil, varnish and turpentine. Unless thoroughly diluted, bitumen never fully solidifies and will in time corrupt the other pigments with which it comes into contact. The use of bitumen as a glaze to set in shadow or mixed with other colors to render a darker tone resulted in the eventual deterioration of many paintings, for instance those of [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]]. Perhaps the most famous example of the destructiveness of bitumen is [[Théodore Géricault]]'s [[Raft of the Medusa]] (1818–1819), where his use of bitumen caused the brilliant colors to degenerate into dark greens and blacks and the paint and canvas to buckle. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Modern use",
"Global use"
] | The vast majority of refined asphalt is used in construction: primarily as a constituent of products used in paving and roofing applications. According to the requirements of the end use, asphalt is produced to specification. This is achieved either by refining or blending. It is estimated that the current world use of asphalt is approximately 102 million tonnes per year. Approximately 85% of all the asphalt produced is used as the [[Binder (material)|binder]] in asphalt concrete for roads. It is also used in other paved areas such as airport runways, car parks and footways. Typically, the production of asphalt concrete involves mixing fine and coarse [[Construction aggregate|aggregates]] such as [[sand]], [[gravel]] and crushed rock with asphalt, which acts as the binding agent. Other materials, such as recycled polymers (e.g., [[Natural rubber|rubber]] [[tire|tyres]]), may be added to the asphalt to modify its properties according to the application for which the asphalt is ultimately intended. A further 10% of global asphalt production is used in roofing applications, where its waterproofing qualities are invaluable. The remaining 5% of asphalt is used mainly for sealing and insulating purposes in a variety of building materials, such as pipe coatings, carpet tile backing and paint. Asphalt is applied in the construction and maintenance of many structures, systems, and components, such as the following: (-) Highways (-) Airport runways (-) Footways and pedestrian ways (-) Car parks (-) Racetracks (-) Tennis courts (-) Roofing (-) Damp proofing (-) Dams (-) Reservoir and pool linings (-) Soundproofing (-) Pipe coatings (-) Cable coatings (-) Paints (-) Building water proofing (-) Tile underlying waterproofing (-) Newspaper ink production (-) and many other applications | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Modern use",
"Rolled asphalt concrete"
] | The largest use of asphalt is for making [[asphalt concrete]] for road surfaces; this accounts for approximately 85% of the asphalt consumed in the United States. There are about 4,000 asphalt concrete mixing plants in the US, and a similar number in Europe. Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of 5% asphalt cement and 95% aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel). Due to its highly viscous nature, asphalt cement must be heated so it can be mixed with the aggregates at the asphalt mixing facility. The temperature required varies depending upon characteristics of the asphalt and the aggregates, but [[Warm-mix asphalt|warm-mix asphalt technologies]] allow producers to reduce the temperature required. The weight of an asphalt pavement depends upon the [[construction aggregate|aggregate]] type, the asphalt, and the air void content. An average example in the United States is about 112 pounds per square yard, per inch of pavement thickness. When maintenance is performed on asphalt pavements, such as [[Pavement milling|milling]] to remove a worn or damaged surface, the removed material can be returned to a facility for processing into new pavement mixtures. The asphalt in the removed material can be reactivated and put back to use in new pavement mixes. With some 95% of paved roads being constructed of or surfaced with asphalt, a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material is reclaimed each year. According to industry surveys conducted annually by the [[Federal Highway Administration]] and the National Asphalt Pavement Association, more than 99% of the asphalt removed each year from road surfaces during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new pavements, roadbeds, shoulders and embankments or stockpiled for future use. Asphalt concrete paving is widely used in airports around the world. Due to the sturdiness and ability to be repaired quickly, it is widely used for [[runway]]. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Modern use",
"Mastic asphalt"
] | [[Mastic asphalt]] is a type of asphalt that differs from dense graded asphalt ([[asphalt concrete]]) in that it has a higher asphalt ([[binder (material)|binder]]) content, usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to rolled asphalt concrete, which has only around 5% asphalt. This thermoplastic substance is widely used in the building industry for waterproofing flat roofs and tanking underground. Mastic asphalt is heated to a temperature of and is spread in layers to form an impervious barrier about thick. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Modern use",
"Asphalt emulsion"
] | A number of technologies allow asphalt to be applied at mild temperatures. The viscosity can be lowered by [[emulsion|emulsfying]] the asphalt by the addition of [[fatty amine]]. 2–25% is the content of these emulsifying agents. The cationic amines enhance the binding of the asphalt to the surface of the crushed rock. Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. [[Chipseal]] involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal is a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth, and asphalt emulsions are also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-cost pavements.Bitumen emulsion based techniques are known to be useful for all classes of roads, their use may also be possible in the following applications: 1. Asphalts for heavily trafficked roads(based on the use of polymer modified emulsions) 2.warm emulsion based mixtures, to improve both their maturation time and mechanical properties 3.half-warm technology, in which aggregates are heated up to 100 degree, producing mixtures with similar properties to those of hot asphalts 4.high performance surface dressing | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Modern use",
"Synthetic crude oil"
] | Synthetic crude oil, also known as syncrude, is the output from a bitumen upgrader facility used in connection with oil sand production in Canada. Bituminous sands are mined using enormous (100-ton capacity) [[power shovel]] and loaded into even larger (400-ton capacity) [[dump trucks]] for movement to an upgrading facility. The process used to extract the bitumen from the sand is a hot water process originally developed by [[Karl Clark (chemist)|Dr. Karl Clark]] of the [[University of Alberta]] during the 1920s. After extraction from the sand, the bitumen is fed into a [[Upgrader|bitumen upgrader]] which converts it into a [[light crude oil]] equivalent. This synthetic substance is fluid enough to be transferred through conventional [[oil pipeline]] and can be fed into conventional oil refineries without any further treatment. By 2015 Canadian bitumen upgraders were producing over per day of synthetic crude oil, of which 75% was exported to oil refineries in the United States. In Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products: The [[Suncor Energy]] upgrader near [[Fort McMurray, Alberta]] produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the [[Syncrude Canada]], [[Canadian Natural Resources]], and [[Nexen]] upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and the Shell [[Scotford Upgrader]] near Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil plus an intermediate feedstock for the nearby Shell Oil Refinery. A sixth upgrader, under construction in 2015 near [[Redwater, Alberta]], will upgrade half of its crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with the remainder of the output being sold as feedstock to nearby oil refineries and petrochemical plants. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Modern use",
"Non-upgraded crude bitumen"
] | Canadian bitumen does not differ substantially from oils such as Venezuelan extra-heavy and Mexican [[heavy crude oil|heavy oil]] in chemical composition, and the real difficulty is moving the extremely viscous bitumen through [[oil pipeline]] to the refinery. Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and refined asphalt without any preprocessing. This is particularly common in areas such as the US [[Gulf coast]], where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil, and in areas such as the US [[Midwest]] where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined. Given the choice, such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower, and in some cases because they prefer to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline. By 2015 Canadian production and exports of non-upgraded bitumen exceeded that of synthetic crude oil at over per day, of which about 65% was exported to the United States. Because of the difficulty of moving crude bitumen through pipelines, non-upgraded bitumen is usually diluted with [[natural-gas condensate]] in a form called [[dilbit]] or with synthetic crude oil, called [[synbit]]. However, to meet international competition, much non-upgraded bitumen is now sold as a blend of multiple grades of bitumen, conventional crude oil, synthetic crude oil, and condensate in a standardized benchmark product such as [[Western Canadian Select]]. This sour, heavy crude oil blend is designed to have uniform refining characteristics to compete with internationally marketed heavy oils such as [[Petroleum industry in Mexico|Mexican Mayan]] or Arabian [[Dubai Crude]]. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Modern use",
"Radioactive waste encapsulation matrix"
] | Asphalt was used starting in the 1960s as a [[hydrophobic]] matrix aiming to encapsulate radioactive waste such as medium-activity salts (mainly soluble [[sodium nitrate]] and [[sodium sulfate]]) produced by the reprocessing of [[spent nuclear fuel]] or radioactive [[sludge]] from sedimentation ponds. Bituminised radioactive waste containing highly [[radiotoxic]] [[ionizing radiation#Alpha particles|alpha-emitting]] [[Transuranium element|transuranic element]] from nuclear reprocessing plants have been produced at industrial scale in France, Belgium and Japan, but this type of waste conditioning has been abandoned because operational safety issues (risks of fire, as occurred in a bituminisation plant at Tokai Works in Japan) and long-term stability problems related to their [[Deep geological repository|geological disposal]] in deep rock formations. One of the main problems is the swelling of asphalt exposed to radiation and to water. Asphalt swelling is first induced by radiation because of the presence of [[hydrogen]] gas bubbles generated by alpha and gamma [[radiolysis]]. A second mechanism is the matrix swelling when the encapsulated [[hygroscopic]] salts exposed to water or moisture start to rehydrate and to dissolve. The high concentration of salt in the pore solution inside the bituminised matrix is then responsible for [[osmosis|osmotic]] effects inside the bituminised matrix. The water moves in the direction of the concentrated salts, the asphalt acting as a [[Semipermeable membrane|semi-permeable membrane]]. This also causes the matrix to swell. The swelling pressure due to osmotic effect under constant volume can be as high as 200 bar. If not properly managed, this high pressure can cause fractures in the near field of a disposal gallery of bituminised medium-level waste. When the bituminised matrix has been altered by swelling, encapsulated radionuclides are easily leached by the contact of ground water and released in the geosphere. The high [[ionic strength]] of the concentrated saline solution also favours the migration of radionuclides in clay host rocks. The presence of chemically reactive nitrate can also affect the [[redox]] conditions prevailing in the host rock by establishing oxidizing conditions, preventing the reduction of redox-sensitive radionuclides. Under their higher valences, radionuclides of elements such as [[selenium]], [[technetium]], [[uranium]], [[neptunium]] and [[plutonium]] have a higher solubility and are also often present in water as non-retarded [[anion]]. This makes the disposal of medium-level bituminised waste very challenging. Different types of asphalt have been used: blown bitumen (partly oxidized with air oxygen at high temperature after distillation, and harder) and direct distillation bitumen (softer). Blown bitumens like Mexphalte, with a high content of saturated hydrocarbons, are more easily biodegraded by microorganisms than direct distillation bitumen, with a low content of saturated hydrocarbons and a high content of aromatic hydrocarbons. Concrete encapsulation of radwaste is presently considered a safer alternative by the [[nuclear industry]] and the waste management organisations. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
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"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Modern use",
"Other uses"
] | [[Asphalt shingle|Roofing shingle]] and [[Asphalt roll roofing|roll roofing]] account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption. Other uses include cattle sprays, fence-post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics. Asphalt is used to make [[Japan black]], a [[lacquer]] known especially for its use on iron and steel, and it is also used in paint and marker inks by some exterior paint supply companies to increase the weather resistance and permanence of the paint or ink, and to make the color darker. Asphalt is also used to seal some alkaline batteries during the manufacturing process. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Production"
] | About 40,000,000 tons were produced in 1984. It is obtained as the "heavy" (i.e., difficult to distill) fraction. Material with a [[boiling point]] greater than around 500 °C is considered asphalt. Vacuum distillation separates it from the other components in crude oil (such as [[naphtha]], gasoline and [[Diesel fuel|diesel]]). The resulting material is typically further treated to extract small but valuable amounts of lubricants and to adjust the properties of the material to suit applications. In a [[de-asphalting unit]], the crude asphalt is treated with either [[propane]] or [[butane]] in a [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] phase to extract the lighter molecules, which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with [[oxygen]]. This step makes the product harder and more viscous. Asphalt is typically stored and transported at temperatures around . Sometimes [[diesel oil]] or [[kerosene]] are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called "bitumen feedstock", or BFS. Some [[dump truck]] route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers carrying asphalt, as well as some handling equipment, are also commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is no longer used as a [[release agent]] due to environmental concerns. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Production",
"Oil sands"
] | Naturally occurring crude bitumen impregnated in sedimentary rock is the prime feed stock for petroleum production from "[[oil sands]]", currently under development in Alberta, Canada. Canada has most of the world's supply of natural bitumen, covering 140,000 square kilometres (an area larger than England), giving it the second-largest proven [[oil reserves]] in the world. The [[Athabasca oil sands]] are the largest bitumen deposit in Canada and the only one accessible to [[surface mining]], although recent technological breakthroughs have resulted in deeper deposits becoming producible by ''[[in-situ#Petroleum|in situ]]'' methods. Because of [[world oil market chronology from 2003|oil price increases after 2003]], producing bitumen became highly profitable, but as a result of the decline after 2014 it became uneconomic to build new plants again. By 2014, Canadian crude bitumen production averaged about per day and was projected to rise to per day by 2020. The total amount of crude bitumen in Alberta that could be extracted is estimated to be about , which at a rate of would last about 200 years. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Production",
"Alternatives and bioasphalt"
] | Although uncompetitive economically, asphalt can be made from nonpetroleum-based renewable resources such as sugar, [[molasses]] and rice, corn and potato [[starch]]. Asphalt can also be made from waste material by [[fractional distillation]] of used [[motor oil]], which is sometimes otherwise disposed of by burning or dumping into landfills. Use of motor oil may cause premature cracking in colder climates, resulting in roads that need to be repaved more frequently. Nonpetroleum-based asphalt binders can be made light-colored. Lighter-colored roads absorb less heat from solar radiation, reducing their contribution to the [[urban heat island]] effect. Parking lots that use asphalt alternatives are called [[green parking lot]]. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Production",
"Albanian deposits"
] | Selenizza is a naturally occurring solid hydrocarbon bitumen found in native deposits in [[Selenice]], in [[Albania]], the only European asphalt mine still in use. The bitumen is found in the form of veins, filling cracks in a more or less horizontal direction. The bitumen content varies from 83% to 92% (soluble in carbon disulphide), with a penetration value near to zero and a softening point (ring and ball) around 120 °C. The insoluble matter, consisting mainly of silica ore, ranges from 8% to 17%. Albanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans. After centuries of silence, the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868, when the Frenchman [[Henri Coquand|Coquand]] published the first geological description of the deposits of Albanian bitumen. In 1875, the exploitation rights were granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912, they were transferred to the Italian company Simsa. Since 1945, the mine was exploited by the Albanian government and from 2001 to date, the management passed to a French company, which organized the mining process for the manufacture of the natural bitumen on an industrial scale. Today the mine is predominantly exploited in an open pit quarry but several of the many underground mines (deep and extending over several km) still remain viable. Selenizza is produced primarily in granular form, after melting the bitumen pieces selected in the mine. Selenizza is mainly used as an additive in the road construction sector. It is mixed with traditional asphalt to improve both the viscoelastic properties and the resistance to ageing. It may be blended with the hot asphalt in tanks, but its granular form allows it to be fed in the mixer or in the recycling ring of normal asphalt plants. Other typical applications include the production of mastic asphalts for sidewalks, bridges, car-parks and urban roads as well as drilling fluid additives for the oil and gas industry. Selenizza is available in powder or in granular material of various particle sizes and is packaged in sacks or in thermal fusible polyethylene bags. A [[life-cycle assessment]] study of the natural selenizza compared with petroleum asphalt has shown that the environmental impact of the selenizza is about half the impact of the road asphalt produced in oil refineries in terms of [[Greenhouse gas emissions|carbon dioxide emission]]. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Recycling"
] | Asphalt is a commonly recycled material in the construction industry. The two most common recycled materials that contain asphalt are reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and reclaimed asphalt shingles (RAS). RAP is recycled at a greater rate than any other material in the United States, and typically contains approximately 5 – 6% asphalt binder. Asphalt shingles typically contain 20 – 40% asphalt binder. Asphalt naturally becomes stiffer over time due to oxidation, evaporation, exudation, and physical hardening. For this reason, recycled asphalt is typically combined with virgin asphalt, softening agents, and/or rejuvenating additives to restore its physical and chemical properties. For information on the processing and performance of RAP and RAS, see [[Asphalt concrete#Recycling|Asphalt Concrete]]. For information on the different types of RAS and associated health and safety concerns, see [[Asphalt shingle#Disposal%20and%20recycling|Asphalt Shingles]]. For information on in-place recycling methods used to restore pavements and roadways, see [[Road surface#Recycling|Road Surface]]. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Economics"
] | Although asphalt typically makes up only 4 to 5 percent (by weight) of the pavement mixture, as the pavement's binder, it is also the most expensive part of the cost of the road-paving material. During asphalt's early use in modern paving, oil refiners gave it away. However, asphalt is, today, a highly traded commodity. Its prices increased substantially in the early 21st Century. A U.S. government report states: "In 2002, asphalt sold for approximately $160 per ton. By the end of 2006, the cost had doubled to approximately $320 per ton, and then it almost doubled again in 2012 to approximately $610 per ton." The report indicates that an "average" 1-mile (1.6-kilometer)-long, four-lane highway would include "300 tons of asphalt," which, "in 2002 would have cost around $48,000. By 2006 this would have increased to $96,000 and by 2012 to $183,000... an increase of about $135,000 for every mile of highway in just 10 years." | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[
"Health and safety"
] | People can be exposed to asphalt in the workplace by breathing in fumes or skin absorption. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has set a [[recommended exposure limit]] of 5 mg/m over a 15-minute period. Asphalt is basically an inert material that must be heated or diluted to a point where it becomes workable for the production of materials for paving, roofing, and other applications. In examining the potential health hazards associated with asphalt, the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) determined that it is the application parameters, predominantly temperature, that affect occupational exposure and the potential bioavailable [[carcinogenic]] hazard/risk of the asphalt emissions. In particular, temperatures greater than 199 °C (390 °F), were shown to produce a greater exposure risk than when asphalt was heated to lower temperatures, such as those typically used in asphalt pavement mix production and placement. IARC has classified paving asphalt fumes as a [[List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens|Class 2B]] possible carcinogen, indicating inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. In 2020 scientists reported that asphalt currently is a significant and largely overlooked source of [[air pollution]] in urban areas, especially during hot and sunny periods. An asphalt-like substance found in the Himalayas and known as ''[[shilajit]]'' is sometimes used as an [[Ayurveda]] medicine, but is not in fact a tar, resin or asphalt. | 657 | Asphalt | [
"Asphalt",
"Amorphous solids",
"Building materials",
"Chemical mixtures",
"IARC Group 2B carcinogens",
"Pavements",
"Petroleum products",
"Road construction materials"
] | [
"Asphalt plant",
"Bitumen-based fuel",
"Blacktop",
"Pitch drop experiment",
"Road surface",
"Tar",
"Sealcoat",
"Bioasphalt",
"Stamped asphalt",
"Cooper Research Technology",
"Tarmac",
"Bituminous rocks",
"Asphaltene",
"Pitch (resin)",
"Oil sands",
"Duxit",
"Cariphalte",
"Macadam"
] |
[] | The '''American National Standards Institute''' ('''ANSI''' ) is a private [[non-profit organization]] that oversees the development of [[Standardization|voluntary consensus standards]] for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other [[standards organization]], [[government agency|government agencies]], [[consumer organization|consumer groups]], companies, and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards. The organization's headquarters are in [[Washington, D.C.]] ANSI's operations office is located in [[New York City]]. The ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee-based programs, and international standards programs. | 659 | American National Standards Institute | [
"American National Standards Institute",
"1918 establishments in the United States",
"501(c)(3) organizations",
"Charities based in Washington, D.C.",
"ISO member bodies",
"Organizations established in 1918",
"Technical specifications"
] | [
"ANSI ASC X9",
"Open standard",
"ANSI ASC X12",
"National Institute of Standards and Technology",
"Institute of Nuclear Materials Management",
"National Information Standards Organization",
"Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology",
"ISO",
"ANSI C",
"Accredited Crane Operator Certification"
] |
[
"History"
] | ANSI was originally formed in 1918, when five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the '''American Engineering Standards Committee''' ('''AESC'''). In 1928, the AESC became the '''American Standards Association''' ('''ASA'''). In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became '''United States of America Standards Institute''' ('''USASI'''). The present name was adopted in 1969. Prior to 1918, these five founding engineering societies: (-) [[American Institute of Electrical Engineers]] (AIEE, now [[IEEE]]) (-) [[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]] (ASME) (-) [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] (ASCE) (-) American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME, now [[American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers]]) (-) American Society for Testing and Materials (now [[ASTM International]]) had been members of the United Engineering Society (UES). At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U.S. government Departments of War, Navy (combined in 1947 to become the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] or DOD) and Commerce to join in founding a national standards organization. According to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B. LePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies. In 1931, the organization (renamed ASA in 1928) became affiliated with the U.S. National Committee of the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] ([[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]]), which had been formed in 1904 to develop electrical and electronics standards. | 659 | American National Standards Institute | [
"American National Standards Institute",
"1918 establishments in the United States",
"501(c)(3) organizations",
"Charities based in Washington, D.C.",
"ISO member bodies",
"Organizations established in 1918",
"Technical specifications"
] | [
"ANSI ASC X9",
"Open standard",
"ANSI ASC X12",
"National Institute of Standards and Technology",
"Institute of Nuclear Materials Management",
"National Information Standards Organization",
"Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology",
"ISO",
"ANSI C",
"Accredited Crane Operator Certification"
] |
[
"Members"
] | ANSI's members are government agencies, organizations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 270,000 companies and organizations and 30 million professionals worldwide. | 659 | American National Standards Institute | [
"American National Standards Institute",
"1918 establishments in the United States",
"501(c)(3) organizations",
"Charities based in Washington, D.C.",
"ISO member bodies",
"Organizations established in 1918",
"Technical specifications"
] | [
"ANSI ASC X9",
"Open standard",
"ANSI ASC X12",
"National Institute of Standards and Technology",
"Institute of Nuclear Materials Management",
"National Information Standards Organization",
"Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology",
"ISO",
"ANSI C",
"Accredited Crane Operator Certification"
] |
[
"Process"
] | Although ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the institute's requirements for openness, balance, consensus, and due process. ANSI also designates specific standards as American National Standards, or ANS, when the Institute determines that the standards were developed in an environment that is equitable, accessible and responsive to the requirements of various stakeholders. Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of those products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation. The American National Standards process involves: (-) consensus by a group that is open to representatives from all interested parties (-) broad-based public review and comment on draft standards (-) consideration of and response to comments (-) incorporation of submitted changes that meet the same consensus requirements into a draft standard (-) availability of an appeal by any participant alleging that these principles were not respected during the standards-development process. | 659 | American National Standards Institute | [
"American National Standards Institute",
"1918 establishments in the United States",
"501(c)(3) organizations",
"Charities based in Washington, D.C.",
"ISO member bodies",
"Organizations established in 1918",
"Technical specifications"
] | [
"ANSI ASC X9",
"Open standard",
"ANSI ASC X12",
"National Institute of Standards and Technology",
"Institute of Nuclear Materials Management",
"National Information Standards Organization",
"Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology",
"ISO",
"ANSI C",
"Accredited Crane Operator Certification"
] |
[
"International activities"
] | In addition to facilitating the formation of standards in the United States, ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards organizations, and encourages the adoption of international standards as national standards where appropriate. The institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations, the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), as a founding member, and the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), via the U.S. National Committee (USNC). ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U.S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards. Adoption of ISO and IEC standards as American standards increased from 0.2% in 1986 to 15.5% in May 2012. | 659 | American National Standards Institute | [
"American National Standards Institute",
"1918 establishments in the United States",
"501(c)(3) organizations",
"Charities based in Washington, D.C.",
"ISO member bodies",
"Organizations established in 1918",
"Technical specifications"
] | [
"ANSI ASC X9",
"Open standard",
"ANSI ASC X12",
"National Institute of Standards and Technology",
"Institute of Nuclear Materials Management",
"National Information Standards Organization",
"Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology",
"ISO",
"ANSI C",
"Accredited Crane Operator Certification"
] |
[
"International activities",
"Standards panels"
] | The Institute administers nine standards panels: (-) ANSI Homeland Defense and Security Standardization Collaborative (HDSSC) (-) [[American National Standards Institute Nanotechnology Panel|ANSI Nanotechnology Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP)]] (-) ID Theft Prevention and ID Management Standards Panel (IDSP) (-) ANSI Energy Efficiency Standardization Coordination Collaborative (EESCC) (-) Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC) (-) Electric Vehicles Standards Panel (EVSP) (-) ANSI-NAM Network on Chemical Regulation (-) ANSI Biofuels Standards Coordination Panel (-) Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP) Each of the panels works to identify, coordinate, and harmonize voluntary standards relevant to these areas. In 2009, ANSI and the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC). NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry. | 659 | American National Standards Institute | [
"American National Standards Institute",
"1918 establishments in the United States",
"501(c)(3) organizations",
"Charities based in Washington, D.C.",
"ISO member bodies",
"Organizations established in 1918",
"Technical specifications"
] | [
"ANSI ASC X9",
"Open standard",
"ANSI ASC X12",
"National Institute of Standards and Technology",
"Institute of Nuclear Materials Management",
"National Information Standards Organization",
"Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology",
"ISO",
"ANSI C",
"Accredited Crane Operator Certification"
] |
[
"International activities",
"American national standards"
] | (-) The [[ASA film speed|ASA]] (as for American Standards Association) photographic exposure system, originally defined in ASA Z38.2.1 (since 1943) and ASA PH2.5 (since 1954), together with the [[DIN film speed|DIN system (DIN 4512 since 1934)]], became the basis for the [[ISO film speed|ISO]] system (since 1974), currently used worldwide ([[ISO 6]], [[ISO 2240]], [[ISO 5800]], [[ISO 12232]]). (-) A standard for the set of values used to represent characters in digital computers. The ANSI code standard extended the previously created [[ASCII]] seven bit code standard (ASA X3.4-1963), with additional codes for European alphabets (see also [[Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code]] or EBCDIC). In [[Microsoft Windows]], the phrase "ANSI" refers to the [[Windows code page|Windows ANSI code page]] (even though they are not ANSI standards). Most of these are fixed width, though some characters for [[ideographic language]] are variable width. Since these characters are based on a draft of the [[ISO-8859]] series, some of Microsoft's symbols are visually very similar to the ISO symbols, leading many to falsely assume that they are identical. (-) The first computer [[programming language]] standard was "American Standard [[Fortran]]" (informally known as "FORTRAN 66"), approved in March 1966 and published as ASA X3.9-1966. (-) The programming language [[COBOL]] had ANSI standards in 1968, 1974, and 1985. The COBOL 2002 standard was issued by [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]. (-) The original standard implementation of the [[C (computer language)|C]] programming language was standardized as ANSI X3.159-1989, becoming the well-known [[ANSI C]]. (-) The [[X3J13|X3J13 committee]] was created in 1986 to formalize the ongoing consolidation of [[Common Lisp]], culminating in 1994 with the publication of ANSI's first object-oriented programming standard. (-) A popular [[Unified Thread Standard]] for nuts and bolts is ANSI/ASME B1.1 which was defined in 1935, 1949, 1989, and 2003. (-) The ANSI-NSF International standards used for commercial kitchens, such as restaurants, cafeterias, delis, etc. (-) The ANSI/APSP (Association of Pool & Spa Professionals) standards used for pools, spas, hot tubs, barriers, and suction entrapment avoidance. (-) The ANSI/HI (Hydraulic Institute) standards used for pumps. (-) The ANSI for [[eye protection]] is Z87.1, which gives a specific impact resistance rating to the eyewear. This standard is commonly used for shop glasses, shooting glasses, and many other examples of protective eyewear. (-) The [[Paper size#ANSI paper sizes|ANSI paper sizes]] (ANSI/ASME Y14.1). | 659 | American National Standards Institute | [
"American National Standards Institute",
"1918 establishments in the United States",
"501(c)(3) organizations",
"Charities based in Washington, D.C.",
"ISO member bodies",
"Organizations established in 1918",
"Technical specifications"
] | [
"ANSI ASC X9",
"Open standard",
"ANSI ASC X12",
"National Institute of Standards and Technology",
"Institute of Nuclear Materials Management",
"National Information Standards Organization",
"Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology",
"ISO",
"ANSI C",
"Accredited Crane Operator Certification"
] |
[
"International activities",
"Other initiatives"
] | (-) In 2008, ANSI, in partnership with Citation Technologies, created the first dynamic, online web library for [[ISO 14000]] standards. (-) On June 23, 2009, ANSI announced a product and services agreement with Citation Technologies to deliver all ISO Standards on a web-based platform. Through the ANSI-Citation partnership, 17,765 International Standards developed by more than 3,000 ISO technical bodies will be made available on the citation platform, arming subscribers with powerful search tools and collaboration, notification, and change-management functionality. (-) ANSI, in partnership with Citation Technologies, [[Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation|AAMI]], [[ASTM]], and [[DIN]], created a single, centralized database for medical device standards on September 9, 2009.<ref name="Medical Device Standards Press Release 09/09/09">Medical Device Standards Database Press Release 09/09/09</ref> (-) In early 2009, ANSI launched a new Certificate Accreditation Program (ANSI-CAP) to provide neutral, third-party attestation that a given certificate program meets the American National Standard ASTM E2659-09. (-) In 2009, ANSI began accepting applications for certification bodies seeking accreditation according to requirements defined under the Toy Safety Certification Program (TSCP) as the official third-party accreditor of TSCP's product certification bodies. (-) In 2006, ANSI launched www.StandardsPortal.org, an online resource for facilitating more open and efficient trade between international markets in the areas of standards, conformity assessment, and technical regulations. The site currently features content for China, India, and Korea, with additional countries and regions planned for future content. (-) ANSI design standards have also been incorporated into building codes encompassing several specific building sub-sets, such as the ANSI/SPRI ES-1, which pertains to "Wind Design Standard for Edge Systems Used With Low Slope Roofing Systems", for example.<ref name="The ANSI/SPRI ES-1 Standard Explained"></ref> | 659 | American National Standards Institute | [
"American National Standards Institute",
"1918 establishments in the United States",
"501(c)(3) organizations",
"Charities based in Washington, D.C.",
"ISO member bodies",
"Organizations established in 1918",
"Technical specifications"
] | [
"ANSI ASC X9",
"Open standard",
"ANSI ASC X12",
"National Institute of Standards and Technology",
"Institute of Nuclear Materials Management",
"National Information Standards Organization",
"Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology",
"ISO",
"ANSI C",
"Accredited Crane Operator Certification"
] |
[] | In logic and philosophy, an '''[[argument]]''' is an attempt to persuade someone of something, or give evidence or reasons for accepting a particular conclusion. '''Argument''' may also refer to: | 661 | Argument (disambiguation) | [] | [
"The Argument (disambiguation)"
] |
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