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[
"Associated analysis",
"Preparatory analysis",
"Power analysis"
] | [[Statistical power|Power analysis]] is often applied in the context of ANOVA in order to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume a certain ANOVA design, effect size in the population, sample size and significance level. Power analysis can assist in study design by determining what sample size would be required in order to have a reasonable chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Associated analysis",
"Preparatory analysis",
"Effect size"
] | Several standardized measures of effect have been proposed for ANOVA to summarize the strength of the association between a predictor(s) and the dependent variable or the overall standardized difference of the complete model. Standardized effect-size estimates facilitate comparison of findings across studies and disciplines. However, while standardized effect sizes are commonly used in much of the professional literature, a non-standardized measure of effect size that has immediately "meaningful" units may be preferable for reporting purposes. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Associated analysis",
"Preparatory analysis",
"Model confirmation"
] | Sometimes tests are conducted to determine whether the assumptions of ANOVA appear to be violated. Residuals are examined or analyzed to confirm [[homoscedasticity]] and gross normality. Residuals should have the appearance of (zero mean normal distribution) noise when plotted as a function of anything including time and modeled data values. Trends hint at interactions among factors or among observations. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Associated analysis",
"Preparatory analysis",
"Follow-up tests"
] | A statistically significant effect in ANOVA is often followed by additional tests. This can be done in order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or to test various other focused hypotheses. Follow-up tests are often distinguished in terms of whether they are "planned" ([[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]) or [[Post-hoc analysis|"post hoc]]." Planned tests are determined before looking at the data, and post hoc tests are conceived only after looking at the data (though the term "post hoc" is inconsistently used). The follow-up tests may be "simple" pairwise comparisons of individual group means or may be "compound" comparisons (e.g., comparing the mean pooling across groups A, B and C to the mean of group D). Comparisons can also look at tests of trend, such as linear and quadratic relationships, when the independent variable involves ordered levels. Often the follow-up tests incorporate a method of adjusting for the [[multiple comparisons problem]]. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Study designs"
] | There are several types of ANOVA. Many statisticians base ANOVA on the [[experimental design|design of the experiment]], especially on the protocol that specifies the [[random assignment]] of treatments to subjects; the protocol's description of the assignment mechanism should include a specification of the structure of the treatments and of any [[blocking (statistics)|blocking]]. It is also common to apply ANOVA to observational data using an appropriate statistical model. Some popular designs use the following types of ANOVA: (-) [[One-way ANOVA]] is used to test for differences among two or more [[statistical independence|independent]] groups (means), e.g. different levels of urea application in a crop, or different levels of antibiotic action on several different bacterial species, or different levels of effect of some medicine on groups of patients. However, should these groups not be independent, and there is an order in the groups (such as mild, moderate and severe disease), or in the dose of a drug (such as 5 mg/mL, 10 mg/mL, 20 mg/mL) given to the same group of patients, then a [[linear trend estimation]] should be used. Typically, however, the one-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among at least three groups, since the two-group case can be covered by a [[t-test]]. When there are only two means to compare, the [[t-test]] and the ANOVA [[F-test|''F''-test]] are equivalent; the relation between ANOVA and ''t'' is given by ''F'' = ''t''. (-) [[Factorial experiment|Factorial]] ANOVA is used when there is more than one factor. (-) [[Repeated measures]] ANOVA is used when the same subjects are used for each factor (e.g., in a [[longitudinal study]]). (-) [[Multivariate analysis of variance]] (MANOVA) is used when there is more than one [[dependent variable|response variable]]. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Cautions"
] | Balanced experiments (those with an equal sample size for each treatment) are relatively easy to interpret; Unbalanced experiments offer more complexity. For single-factor (one-way) ANOVA, the adjustment for unbalanced data is easy, but the unbalanced analysis lacks both robustness and power. For more complex designs the lack of balance leads to further complications. "The orthogonality property of main effects and interactions present in balanced data does not carry over to the unbalanced case. This means that the usual analysis of variance techniques do not apply. Consequently, the analysis of unbalanced factorials is much more difficult than that for balanced designs." In the general case, "The analysis of variance can also be applied to unbalanced data, but then the sums of squares, mean squares, and ''F''-ratios will depend on the order in which the sources of variation are considered." The simplest techniques for handling unbalanced data restore balance by either throwing out data or by synthesizing missing data. More complex techniques use regression. ANOVA is (in part) a test of statistical significance. The American Psychological Association (and many other organisations) holds the view that simply reporting statistical significance is insufficient and that reporting confidence bounds is preferred. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Generalizations"
] | ANOVA is considered to be a special case of [[linear regression]] which in turn is a special case of the [[general linear model]]. All consider the observations to be the sum of a model (fit) and a residual (error) to be minimized. The [[Kruskal–Wallis test]] and the [[Friedman test]] are [[nonparametric]] tests, which do not rely on an assumption of normality. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Generalizations",
"Connection to linear regression"
] | Below we make clear the connection between multi-way ANOVA and linear regression. Linearly re-order the data so that formula_23 observation is associated with a response formula_24 and factors formula_25 where formula_26 denotes the different factors and formula_27 is the total number of factors. In one-way ANOVA formula_28 and in two-way ANOVA formula_29. Furthermore, we assume the formula_30 factor has formula_31 levels, namely formula_32. Now, we can [[one-hot]] encode the factors into the formula_33 dimensional vector formula_34. The one-hot encoding function formula_35 is defined such that the formula_36 entry of formula_37 is formula_38 The vector formula_34 is the concatenation of all of the above vectors for all formula_40. Thus, formula_41. In order to obtain a fully general formula_27-way interaction ANOVA we must also concatenate every additional interaction term in the vector formula_34 and then add an intercept term. Let that vector be formula_44. With this notation in place, we now have the exact connection with linear regression. We simply regress response formula_24 against the vector formula_44. However, there is a concern about [[identifiability]]. In order to overcome such issues we assume that the sum of the parameters within each set of interactions is equal to zero. From here, one can use ''F''-statistics or other methods to determine the relevance of the individual factors. | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[
"Generalizations",
"Connection to linear regression",
"Example"
] | We can consider the 2-way interaction example where we assume that the first factor has 2 levels and the second factor has 3 levels. Define formula_47 if formula_48 and formula_49 if formula_50, i.e. formula_51 is the one-hot encoding of the first factor and formula_40 is the one-hot encoding of the second factor. With that, formula_53 where the last term is an intercept term. For a more concrete example suppose that formula_54 Then, formula_55 | 634 | Analysis of variance | [
"Analysis of variance",
"Design of experiments",
"Statistical tests",
"Parametric statistics"
] | [
"Permutational analysis of variance",
"Multivariate analysis of covariance",
"Two-way analysis of variance",
"Analysis of covariance",
"Linear trend estimation",
"Analysis of rhythmic variance",
"Repeated measures ANOVA",
"Expected mean squares",
"ANOVA on ranks",
"ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Multivariate analysis of variance",
"One-way analysis of variance",
"Explained variation",
"Variance decomposition",
"Mixed-design analysis of variance",
"Analysis of molecular variance"
] |
[] | [[Image:Methane-2D-stereo.svg|right|thumb|Chemical structure of [[methane]], the simplest alkane]] In [[organic chemistry]], an '''alkane''', or '''paraffin''' (a historical [[trivial name]] that also has [[Paraffin (disambiguation)|other meanings]]), is an [[Open-chain compound|acyclic]] [[Saturated and unsaturated compounds|saturated]] [[hydrocarbon]]. In other words, an alkane consists of [[hydrogen]] and [[carbon]] atoms arranged in a [[Tree (graph theory)|tree]] structure in which all the [[carbon–carbon bond]] are [[Single bond|single]]. Alkanes have the general chemical formula CH. The alkanes range in complexity from the simplest case of [[methane]] (CH), where ''n'' = 1 (sometimes called the parent molecule), to arbitrarily large and complex molecules, like [[Higher alkanes#Nonatetracontane to tetrapentacontane|pentacontane]] (CH) or 6-ethyl-2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl) octane, an [[isomer]] of [[tetradecane]] (CH). The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) defines alkanes as "acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having the general formula , and therefore consisting entirely of hydrogen atoms and saturated carbon atoms". However, some sources use the term to denote ''any'' saturated hydrocarbon, including those that are either monocyclic (i.e. the [[cycloalkane]]) or polycyclic, despite their having a distinct general formula (i.e. cycloalkanes are CH). In an alkane, each carbon atom is [[Orbital hybridisation|sp-hybridized]] with 4 [[sigma bond]] (either C–C or [[Carbon–hydrogen bond|C–H]]), and each hydrogen atom is joined to one of the carbon atoms (in a C–H bond). The longest series of linked carbon atoms in a molecule is known as its [[Skeletal formula|carbon skeleton]] or carbon backbone. The number of carbon atoms may be considered as the size of the alkane. One group of the [[higher alkanes]] are [[wax]], solids at [[Standard conditions for temperature and pressure|standard ambient temperature and pressure]] (SATP), for which the number of carbon atoms in the carbon backbone is greater than about 17. With their repeated –CH units, the alkanes constitute a [[homologous series]] of organic compounds in which the members differ in [[molecular mass]] by multiples of 14.03 [[Dalton (unit)|u]] (the total mass of each such [[Methylene bridge|methylene-bridge]] unit, which comprises a single carbon atom of mass 12.01 u and two hydrogen atoms of mass ~1.01 u each). Methane is produced by [[Methanogen|methanogenic bacteria]] and some long-chain alkanes function as pheromones in certain animal species or as protective waxes in plants and fungi. Nevertheless, most alkanes do not have much [[biological activity]]. They can be viewed as molecular trees upon which can be hung the more active/reactive [[functional group]] of biological molecules. The alkanes have two main commercial sources: [[petroleum]] (crude oil) and [[natural gas]]. An [[alkyl]] group is an alkane-based molecular fragment that bears one open valence for bonding. They are generally abbreviated with the symbol for any organyl group, R, although Alk is sometimes used to specifically symbolize an alkyl group (as opposed to an alkenyl group or aryl group). | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Structure and classification"
] | Ordinarily the C-C single bond distance is 1.53 Å. Saturated hydrocarbons can be linear, branched, or [[Cyclic compound|cyclic]]. The third group is sometimes called [[cycloalkane]]. Very complicated structures are possible by combining linear, branch, cyclic alkanes. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Isomerism"
] | [[Image:Saturated C4 hydrocarbons ball-and-stick.png|thumb|right| C alkanes and cycloalkanes (left to right): [[n-butane|''n''-butane]] and [[isobutane]] are the two CH isomers; [[cyclobutane]] and [[methylcyclopropane]] are the two CH alkane isomers. [[Bicyclobutane|Bicyclo[1.1.0]butane]] is the only CH alkane and has no alkane isomer; [[tetrahedrane]] (below) is the only CH alkane and so has no alkane isomer.]] Alkanes with more than three [[carbon]] atoms can be arranged in various ways, forming [[structural isomer]]. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is sometimes called the ''n''-isomer (''n'' for "normal", although it is not necessarily the most common). However the chain of carbon atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms. For example, for acyclic alkanes: (-) C: [[methane]] only (-) C: [[ethane]] only (-) C: [[propane]] only (-) C: 2 isomers: [[butane]] and [[isobutane]] (-) C: 3 isomers: [[pentane]], [[isopentane]], and [[neopentane]] (-) C: 5 isomers: [[hexane]], [[2-Methylpentane|2-methylpentane]], [[3-Methylpentane|3-methylpentane]], [[2,2-Dimethylbutane|2,2-dimethylbutane]], and [[2,3-Dimethylbutane|2,3-dimethylbutane]] (-) C: 9 isomers: [[heptane]], [[methylhexane]] (2 isomers), [[dimethylpentane]] (4 isomers), [[3-Ethylpentane|3-ethylpentane]], [[2,2,3-trimethylbutane]] (-) C: 355 isomers (-) C: 27,711,253,769 isomers (-) C: 22,158,734,535,770,411,074,184 isomers, many of which are not stable. Branched alkanes can be [[chirality (chemistry)|chiral]]. For example, [[3-methylhexane]] and its higher [[Homology (chemistry)|homologues]] are chiral due to their [[stereogenic center]] at carbon atom number 3. The above list only includes differences of connectivity, not stereochemistry. In addition to the alkane isomers, the chain of carbon atoms may form one or more rings. Such compounds are called [[cycloalkane]], and are also excluded from the above list because changing the number of rings changes the [[molecular formula]]. [[Cyclobutane]] and [[methylcyclopropane]] are isomers of each other, but are not isomers of butane. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Nomenclature"
] | The [[IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry#Alkanes|IUPAC nomenclature]] (systematic way of naming compounds) for alkanes is based on identifying hydrocarbon chains. Unbranched, saturated hydrocarbon chains are named systematically with a Greek numerical prefix denoting the number of carbons and the suffix "-ane". In 1866, [[August Wilhelm von Hofmann]] suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of vowels a, e, i, o and u to create suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine (or -yne), -one, -une, for the [[hydrocarbons]] CH, CH, CH, CH, CH. Now, the first three name hydrocarbons with single, double and triple bonds; "-one" represents a [[ketone]]; "-ol" represents an alcohol or OH group; "-oxy-" means an [[ether]] and refers to oxygen between two carbons, so that methoxymethane is the IUPAC name for [[dimethyl ether]]. It is difficult or impossible to find compounds with more than one [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] name. This is because shorter chains attached to longer chains are prefixes and the convention includes brackets. Numbers in the name, referring to which carbon a group is attached to, should be as low as possible so that 1- is implied and usually omitted from names of organic compounds with only one side-group. Symmetric compounds will have two ways of arriving at the same name. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Nomenclature",
"Linear alkanes"
] | Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix "n-" or "''n''-"(for "normal") where a non-linear [[isomer]] exists. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers, e.g., "[[butane|''n''-butane]]" rather than simply "butane" to distinguish it from [[isobutane]]. Alternative names for this group are: '''linear paraffins''' or '''''n''-paraffins'''. The first six members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: (-) [[methane]]: CH – one carbon and 4 hydrogen (-) [[ethane]] : CH – two carbon and 6 hydrogen (-) [[propane]]: CH – three carbon and 8 hydrogen (-) [[butane]] : CH – four carbon and 10 hydrogen (-) [[pentane]]: CH – five carbon and 12 hydrogen (-) [[hexane]] : CH – six carbon and 14 hydrogen The first four names were [[back-formation|derived]] from [[methanol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], [[propionic acid]] and [[butyric acid]]. Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the [[Affix|suffix]] '''-ane''' to the appropriate [[IUPAC numerical multiplier|numerical multiplier]] prefix with [[elision]] of any terminal vowel (''-a'' or ''-o'') from the basic numerical term. Hence, [[pentane]], CH; [[hexane]], CH; [[heptane]], CH; [[octane]], CH; etc. The [[numeral prefix]] is generally Greek, however alkanes with a carbon atom count ending in nine, for example [[nonane]], use the [[Latin language|Latin]] prefix '''non-'''. For a more complete list, see [[list of straight-chain alkanes]]. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Nomenclature",
"Branched alkanes"
] | [[Image:Isopentane-numbered-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|[[Ball-and-stick model]] of [[isopentane]] (common name) or 2-methylbutane (IUPAC systematic name)]] Simple branched alkanes often have a common name using a prefix to distinguish them from linear alkanes, for example [[pentane|''n''-pentane]], [[isopentane]], and [[neopentane]]. IUPAC naming conventions can be used to produce a systematic name. The key steps in the naming of more complicated branched alkanes are as follows: (-) Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms (-) Name this longest root chain using standard naming rules (-) Name each side chain by changing the suffix of the name of the alkane from "-ane" to "-yl" (-) Number the longest continuous chain in order to give the lowest possible numbers for the side-chains (-) Number and name the side chains before the name of the root chain (-) If there are multiple side chains of the same type, use prefixes such as "di-" and "tri-" to indicate it as such, and number each one. (-) Add side chain names in alphabetical (disregarding "di-" etc. prefixes) order in front of the name of the root chain | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Nomenclature",
"Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons"
] | Though technically distinct from the alkanes, this class of hydrocarbons is referred to by some as the "cyclic alkanes." As their description implies, they contain one or more rings. Simple cycloalkanes have a prefix "cyclo-" to distinguish them from alkanes. Cycloalkanes are named as per their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms in their backbones, e.g., [[cyclopentane]] (CH) is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like [[pentane]] (CH), but they are joined up in a five-membered ring. In a similar manner, [[propane]] and [[cyclopropane]], [[butane]] and [[cyclobutane]], etc. Substituted cycloalkanes are named similarly to substituted alkanes – the cycloalkane ring is stated, and the substituents are according to their position on the ring, with the numbering decided by the [[Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules]]. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Nomenclature",
"Trivial/common names"
] | The trivial (non-[[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic]]) name for alkanes is 'paraffins'. Together, alkanes are known as the 'paraffin series'. Trivial names for compounds are usually historical artifacts. They were coined before the development of systematic names, and have been retained due to familiar usage in industry. Cycloalkanes are also called naphthenes. It is almost certain that the term 'paraffin' stems from the [[petrochemical industry]]. Branched-chain alkanes are called '''isoparaffins'''. The use of the term "paraffin" is a general term and often does not distinguish between pure compounds and mixtures of [[isomer]], i.e., compounds of the same [[chemical formula]], e.g., [[pentane]] and [[isopentane]]. (-) In IUPAC The following trivial names are retained in the IUPAC system: (-) [[isobutane]] for 2-methylpropane (-) [[isopentane]] for 2-methylbutane (-) [[neopentane]] for 2,2-dimethylpropane. (-) Non-IUPAC Some non-IUPAC trivial names are occasionally used: (-) cetane, for [[hexadecane]] (-) cerane, for [[hexacosane]] | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties"
] | All alkanes are colorless. Alkanes with the lowest molecular weights are gasses, those of intermediate molecular weight are liquids, and the heaviest are waxy solids. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Boiling point"
] | [[Image:AlkaneBoilingMeltingPoint.png|right|thumb|400px|Melting (blue) and boiling (orange) points of the first 16 ''n''-alkanes in °C.]] Alkanes experience intermolecular [[van der Waals force]]. Stronger intermolecular van der Waals forces give rise to greater boiling points of alkanes. There are two determinants for the strength of the van der Waals forces: (-) the number of electrons surrounding the [[molecule]], which increases with the alkane's molecular weight (-) the surface area of the molecule Under [[standard conditions]], from CH to CH alkanes are gaseous; from CH to CH they are liquids; and after CH they are solids. As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight, it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has almost a linear relationship with the size ([[molecular weight]]) of the molecule. As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20–30 °C for each carbon added to the chain; this rule applies to other homologous series. A straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher than a branched-chain alkane due to the greater surface area in contact, thus the greater van der Waals forces, between adjacent molecules. For example, compare [[isobutane]] (2-methylpropane) and [[n-butane]] (butane), which boil at −12 and 0 °C, and 2,2-dimethylbutane and 2,3-dimethylbutane which boil at 50 and 58 °C, respectively. For the latter case, two molecules 2,3-dimethylbutane can "lock" into each other better than the cross-shaped 2,2-dimethylbutane, hence the greater van der Waals forces. On the other hand, cycloalkanes tend to have higher boiling points than their linear counterparts due to the locked conformations of the molecules, which give a plane of intermolecular contact. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Melting points"
] | The [[melting point]] of the alkanes follow a similar trend to [[boiling points]] for the same reason as outlined above. That is, (all other things being equal) the larger the molecule the higher the melting point. There is one significant difference between boiling points and melting points. Solids have more rigid and fixed structure than liquids. This rigid structure requires energy to break down. Thus the better put together solid structures will require more energy to break apart. For alkanes, this can be seen from the graph above (i.e., the blue line). The odd-numbered alkanes have a lower trend in melting points than even numbered alkanes. This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase, forming a well-organized structure, which requires more energy to break apart. The odd-numbered alkanes pack less well and so the "looser" organized solid packing structure requires less energy to break apart. For a visualization of the crystal structures see. The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, again depending on the ability of the alkane in question to pack well in the solid phase: This is particularly true for [[isoalkanes]] (2-methyl isomers), which often have melting points higher than those of the linear analogues. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Conductivity and solubility"
] | Alkanes do not conduct electricity in any way, nor are they substantially [[Relative static permittivity|polarized]] by an [[electric field]]. For this reason, they do not form [[hydrogen bond]] and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in [[entropy]]). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the [[second law of thermodynamics]] suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimized by minimizing the contact between alkane and water: Alkanes are said to be [[Hydrophobe|hydrophobic]] as they repel water. Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively high, a property that is called [[lipophilicity]]. Alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves. The density of the alkanes usually increases with the number of carbon atoms but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane–water mixture. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Molecular geometry"
] | [[Image:Ch4 hybridization.svg|thumb|right|sp-hybridization in [[methane]].]] The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the [[electron configuration]] of [[carbon]], which has four [[valence electron]]. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always sp-hybridized, that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a [[tetrahedron]], the angle of cos(−) ≈ 109.47° between them. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Bond lengths and bond angles"
] | An alkane has only C–H and C–C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of an sp orbital of carbon with the 1s orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp orbitals on adjacent carbon atoms. The [[bond length]] amount to 1.09 × 10 m for a C–H bond and 1.54 × 10 m for a C–C bond. [[Image:Ch4-structure.png|thumb|right|The tetrahedral structure of methane.]] The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Conformation"
] | The structural formula and the [[bond angle]] are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further [[degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degree of freedom]] for each carbon–carbon bond: the [[torsion angle]] between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its [[conformational isomerism|conformation]]. [[Image:Newman projection ethane.png|thumb|right|200px|Newman projections of the two conformations of ethane: eclipsed on the left, staggered on the right.]] [[Image:Ethane-rotamers-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Ball-and-stick model]]s of the two rotamers of ethane]] [[Ethane]] forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C–C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C–C bond, one will see the so-called [[Newman projection]]. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However, the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon–carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: [[eclipsed]] conformation and [[staggered conformation]]. The two conformations differ in energy: the staggered conformation is 12.6 kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation (the least stable). This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the [[torsion energy]], is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C–C bond. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10 seconds. The case of [[higher alkanes]] is more complex but based on similar principles, with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favored around each carbon–carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealized forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: Alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Spectroscopic properties"
] | Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon–carbon, and carbon–hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the ''absence'' of other characteristic spectroscopic features of a functional group like [[Alcohol (chemistry)|–OH]], [[Aldehyde|–CHO]], [[Carboxylic acid|–COOH]] etc. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Spectroscopic properties",
"Infrared spectroscopy"
] | The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960 [[Wavenumber|cm]], while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm and 1375 cm, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm and 1450 cm. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Spectroscopic properties",
"NMR spectroscopy"
] | The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at [[chemical shift|''δ'']] = 0.5–1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: ''δ'' = 8–30 (primary, methyl, –CH), 15–55 (secondary, methylene, –CH–), 20–60 (tertiary, methyne, C–H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of [[nuclear Overhauser effect]] and the long [[relaxation time]], and can be missed in weak samples, or samples that have not been run for a sufficiently long time. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Physical properties",
"Spectroscopic properties",
"Mass spectrometry"
] | Alkanes have a high [[ionization energy]], and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting [[free radical]]. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (''M'' − 15) is often absent, and other fragments are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH groups. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Chemical properties"
] | Alkanes are only weakly reactive with most chemical compounds. The [[acid dissociation constant]] (p''K'') values of all alkanes are estimated to range from 50 to 70, depending on the extrapolation method, hence they are extremely weak acids that are practically inert to bases (see: [[carbon acid]]). They are also extremely weak bases, undergoing no observable protonation in pure sulfuric acid (''H'' ~ –12), although [[superacid]] that are at least millions of times stronger have been known to protonate them to give hypercoordinate alkanium ions (see: [[Methanium|methanium ion]]). Similarly, they only show reactivity with the strongest of electrophilic reagents (e.g., [[dioxirane]] and salts containing the [[Tetrafluoroammonium|NF cation]]). By virtue of their strongly C–H bonds (~100 kcal/mol) and C–C bonds (~90 kcal/mol, but usually less sterically accessible), they are also relatively unreactive toward free radicals, although many electron-deficient radicals will react with alkanes in the absence of other electron-rich bonds (see below). This inertness is the source of the term ''paraffins'' (with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In [[crude oil]] the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. [[Free radical]], molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. Moreover, redox reactions of alkanes involving free radical intermediates, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced state; in the case of methane, carbon is in its lowest possible oxidation state (−4). Reaction with oxygen (''if'' present in sufficient quantity to satisfy the reaction [[stoichiometry]]) leads to combustion without any smoke, producing [[carbon dioxide]] and water. [[Free radical halogenation]] reactions occur with halogens, leading to the production of [[haloalkanes]]. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes in [[carbon-hydrogen bond activation|C–H bond activation]] reactions. In highly branched alkanes, the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) to accommodate bulky groups. Such distortions introduce a tension in the molecule, known as [[steric hindrance]] or strain. Strain substantially increases reactivity. However, in general and perhaps surprisingly, when branching is not extensive enough to make highly disfavorable 1,2- and 1,3-alkyl–alkyl steric interactions (worth ~3.1 kcal/mol and ~3.7 kcal/mol in the case of the eclipsing conformations of butane and pentane, respectively) unavoidable, the branched alkanes are actually more thermodynamically stable than their linear (or less branched) isomers. For example, the highly branched 2,2,3,3-tetramethylbutane is about 1.9 kcal/mol more stable than its linear isomer, ''n''-octane. Due to the subtlety of this effect, the exact reasons for this rule have been vigorously debated in the chemical literature and is yet unsettled. Several explanations, including stabilization of branched alkanes by electron correlation, destabilization of linear alkanes by steric repulsion, stabilization by neutral hyperconjugation, and/or electrostatic effects have been advanced as possibilities. The controversy is related to the question of whether the traditional explanation of hyperconjugation is the primary factor governing the stability of alkyl radicals. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Chemical properties",
"Reactions with oxygen (combustion reaction)"
] | All alkanes react with [[oxygen]] in a [[combustion]] reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is: CH + (''n'' + ) O → (''n'' + 1) HO + ''n'' CO or CH + () O → (''n'' + 1) HO + ''n'' CO In the absence of sufficient oxygen, [[carbon monoxide]] or even [[soot]] can be formed, as shown below: CH + (''n'' + ) [[oxygen|O]] → (''n'' + 1) HO + ''n'' [[carbon monoxide|CO]] CH + (''n'' + ) [[oxygen|O]] → (''n'' + 1) HO + ''n'' [[carbon|C]] For example, [[methane]]: 2 CH + 3 O → 4 HO + 2 CO CH + O → 2 HO + C See the [[Standard enthalpy change of formation (data table)#Alkanes|alkane heat of formation table]] for detailed data. The [[standard enthalpy change of combustion]], Δ''H'', for alkanes increases by about 650 kJ/mol per CH group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of Δ''H'' than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Chemical properties",
"Reactions with halogens"
] | Alkanes react with [[halogen]] in a so-called ''free radical halogenation'' reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. [[Free radical]] are the reactive species that participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]], and can lead to an explosion. These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three steps: (-) '''Initiation''' the halogen radicals form by [[homolysis (chemistry)|homolysis]]. Usually, energy in the form of heat or light is required. (-) '''Chain reaction''' or '''Propagation''' then takes place—the halogen radical abstracts a hydrogen from the alkane to give an alkyl radical. This reacts further. (-) '''Chain termination''' where the radicals recombine. Experiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not a statistical mixture: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane: [[Image:Monobromination of propane.png|500px|center|Monobromination of [[propane]]]] | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Chemical properties",
"Cracking"
] | Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermal or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a [[homolysis (chemistry)|homolytic]] mechanism with formation of [[free-radical]]. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of [[acid]] [[catalyst]] (usually solid acids such as [[silica-alumina]] and [[zeolite]]), which promote a [[heterolytic cleavage|heterolytic]] (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a [[carbocation]] and the very unstable [[hydride]] [[anion]]. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C–C scission in position [[beta scission|beta]] (i.e., cracking) and [[Intramolecular reaction|intra-]] and [[intermolecular]] hydrogen transfer or [[hydride]] transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding [[reactive intermediate]] (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Chemical properties",
"Isomerization and reformation"
] | Dragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization in alkanes. Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a [[platinum]] catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In other words, it does not lose any carbons or hydrogens, keeping the same molecular weight. In reformation, the alkanes become [[cycloalkane]] or [[aromatic hydrocarbon]], giving off hydrogen as a by-product. Both of these processes raise the [[octane number]] of the substance. Butane is the most common alkane that is put under the process of isomerization, as it makes many branched alkanes with high octane numbers. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Chemical properties",
"Other reactions"
] | Alkanes will react with [[steam]] in the presence of a [[nickel]] [[catalyst]] to give [[hydrogen]]. Alkanes can be [[Chlorosulfonation|chlorosulfonated]] and [[nitration|nitrated]], although both reactions require special conditions. The [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] of alkanes to [[carboxylic acid]] is of some technical importance. In the [[Reed reaction]], [[sulfur dioxide]], [[chlorine]] and [[photochemistry|light]] convert hydrocarbons to [[Sulfonic acid|sulfonyl chlorides]]. [[Nucleophilic abstraction|Nucleophilic Abstraction]] can be used to separate an alkane from a metal. Alkyl groups can be transferred from one compound to another by [[transmetalation]] reactions. A mixture of [[antimony pentafluoride]] (SbF) and [[fluorosulfonic acid]] (HSOF), called [[magic acid]], can protonate alkanes. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Occurrence",
"Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe"
] | [[Image:Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methane]] and [[ethane]] make up a tiny proportion of [[Jupiter]]'s atmosphere]] [[Image:Oil well.jpg|thumb|right|Extraction of oil, which contains many distinct [[hydrocarbon]]s including alkanes]] Alkanes form a small portion of the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmospheres]] of the outer gas planets such as [[Jupiter]] (0.1% methane, 2 [[parts per million|ppm]] ethane), [[Saturn]] (0.2% methane, 5 ppm ethane), [[Uranus]] (1.99% methane, 2.5 ppm ethane) and [[Neptune]] (1.5% methane, 1.5 ppm ethane). [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] (1.6% methane), a satellite of Saturn, was examined by the [[Huygens (spacecraft)|''Huygens'' probe]], which indicated that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane onto the moon's surface. Also on Titan the Cassini mission has imaged seasonal methane/ethane lakes near the polar regions of Titan. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] have also been detected in the tail of the comet [[Hyakutake]]. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal, which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space, away from the Sun, which would have evaporated these volatile molecules. Alkanes have also been detected in [[meteorite]] such as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Occurrence",
"Occurrence of alkanes on Earth"
] | Traces of methane gas (about 0.0002% or 1745 ppb) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by [[methanogenesis|methanogenic]] microorganisms, such as [[Archaea]] in the gut of ruminants. The most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and [[Petroleum|oil]]. Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some [[propane]] and [[butane]]: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other [[hydrocarbons]]. These hydrocarbons were formed when marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) died and sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an [[wikt:anoxic|anoxic]] environment and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction: CHO → 3 CH + 3 CO These hydrocarbon deposits, collected in porous rocks trapped beneath impermeable cap rocks, comprise commercial [[oil fields]]. They have formed over millions of years and once exhausted cannot be readily replaced. The depletion of these hydrocarbons reserves is the basis for what is known as the [[energy crisis]]. Methane is also present in what is called [[biogas]], produced by animals and decaying matter, which is a possible [[renewable energy source]]. Alkanes have a low solubility in water, so the content in the oceans is negligible; however, at high pressures and low temperatures (such as at the bottom of the oceans), methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid [[methane clathrate]] (methane hydrate). Although this cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the amount of combustible energy of the known methane clathrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together. Methane extracted from methane clathrate is, therefore, a candidate for future fuels. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Occurrence",
"Biological occurrence"
] | Acyclic alkanes occur in nature in various ways. (-) Bacteria and archaea [[Image:Rotbuntes Rind.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methanogen]]ic [[archaea]] in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the [[methane]] in Earth's atmosphere.]] Certain types of bacteria can metabolize alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains. On the other hand, certain [[archaea]], the [[methanogen]], produce large quantities of [[methane]] by the metabolism of [[carbon dioxide]] or other [[oxidation|oxidized]] organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of [[hydrogen]]: CO + 4 H → CH + 2 HO Methanogens are also the producers of [[marsh gas]] in [[wetlands]]. The methane output of [[cattle]] and other [[herbivore]], which can release 30 to 50 gallons per day, and of [[termite]], is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the [[intestine]] of humans. Methanogenic archaea are, hence, at the end of the [[carbon cycle]], with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by [[photosynthesis]]. It is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way. (-) Fungi and plants Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] groups of organisms: [[Fungus|fungi]], plants and animals. Some specialized yeasts, e.g., ''Candida tropicale'', ''[[Pichia]]'' sp., ''[[Rhodotorula]]'' sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon or energy. The fungus ''[[Amorphotheca resinae]]'' prefers the longer-chain alkanes in [[aviation fuel]], and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions. In plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the [[plant cuticle]] and [[epicuticular wax]] of many species, but are only rarely major constituents. They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between 27 and 33 carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants by [[decarboxylation]] of even-numbered [[fatty acid]]. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity. More volatile short-chain alkanes are also produced by and found in plant tissues. The [[Jeffrey pine]] is noted for producing exceptionally high levels of ''n''-[[heptane]] in its resin, for which reason its distillate was designated as the zero point for one [[octane rating]]. Floral scents have also long been known to contain volatile alkane components, and ''n''-[[nonane]] is a significant component in the scent of some [[rose]]. Emission of gaseous and volatile alkanes such as [[ethane]], [[pentane]], and [[hexane]] by plants has also been documented at low levels, though they are not generally considered to be a major component of biogenic air pollution. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Occurrence",
"Biological occurrence"
] | Edible vegetable oils also typically contain small fractions of biogenic alkanes with a wide spectrum of carbon numbers, mainly 8 to 35, usually peaking in the low to upper 20s, with concentrations up to dozens of milligrams per kilogram (parts per million by weight) and sometimes over a hundred for the total alkane fraction. (-) Animals Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% [[pristane]] (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, CH). They are important as [[pheromone]], chemical messenger materials, on which insects depend for communication. In some species, e.g. the support beetle ''[[Xylotrechus colonus]]'', [[pentacosane]] (CH), 3-methylpentaicosane (CH) and 9-methylpentaicosane (CH) are transferred by body contact. With others like the [[tsetse fly]] ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'', the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (CH), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (CH), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (CH) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (CH), and acts by smell over longer distances. [[waggle dance|Waggle-dancing]] [[honey bee]] produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Occurrence",
"Ecological relations"
] | [[Image:Ophrys sphegodes flower.jpg|thumb|right|Early spider orchid (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]'')]] One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the [[sand bee]] (''[[Andrena nigroaenea]]'') and the [[early spider orchid]] (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]''); the latter is dependent for [[pollination]] on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of ''A. nigroaenea'', the females emit a mixture of [[tricosane]] (CH), [[pentacosane]] (CH) and [[heptacosane]] (CH) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odor. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result, numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavor is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen, which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to other blooms. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Production",
"Petroleum refining"
] | [[Image:ShellMartinez-refi.jpg|thumb|right|An [[oil refinery]] at [[Martinez, California]].]] As stated earlier, the most important source of alkanes is natural gas and [[crude oil]]. Alkanes are separated in an [[oil refinery]] by [[fractional distillation]] and processed into many products. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Production",
"Fischer–Tropsch"
] | The [[Fischer–Tropsch process]] is a method to synthesize liquid hydrocarbons, including alkanes, from [[carbon monoxide]] and hydrogen. This method is used to produce substitutes for [[petroleum distillate]]. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Production",
"Laboratory preparation"
] | There is usually little need for alkanes to be synthesized in the laboratory, since they are usually commercially available. Also, alkanes are generally unreactive chemically or biologically, and do not undergo [[functional group interconversion]] cleanly. When alkanes are produced in the laboratory, it is often a side-product of a reaction. For example, the use of [[N-Butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]] as a strong [[base (chemistry)|base]] gives the conjugate acid, ''n''-butane as a side-product: CHLi + HO → CH + [[lithium hydroxide|LiOH]] However, at times it may be desirable to make a section of a molecule into an alkane-like functionality ([[alkyl]] group) using the above or similar methods. For example, an [[ethyl group]] is an alkyl group; when this is attached to a [[Hydroxyl|hydroxy]] group, it gives [[ethanol]], which is not an alkane. To do so, the best-known methods are [[hydrogenation]] of [[alkene]]: RCH=CH + H → RCHCH(R = [[alkyl]]) Alkanes or alkyl groups can also be prepared directly from [[alkyl halide]] in the [[Corey–House synthesis|Corey–House–Posner–Whitesides reaction]]. The [[Barton–McCombie deoxygenation]] removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols e.g. [[Image:Barton-McCombie Deoxygenation Scheme.svg|600px|[[Barton–McCombie deoxygenation]] scheme]] and the [[Clemmensen reduction]] removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes or alkyl-substituted compounds e.g.: [[Image:Clemmensen Reduction Scheme.png|250px|[[Clemmensen Reduction]]]] | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds"
] | Alkanes can be prepared from a variety of organic compounds.These include alkenes, alkynes, haloalkanes, alcohols, aldehydes and ketones and carboxylic acids. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds",
"From alkenes and alkynes"
] | When alkenes and alkynes are subjected to hydrogenation reaction by treating them with hydrogen in the presence of palladium or platinum or nickel catalyst, they produce alkanes. In this reaction powdered catalyst is preferred to increase the surface area so that adsorption of hydrogen on the catalyst increases. In this reaction the hydrogen gets attached on the catalyst to form a hydrogen-catalyst bond which leads to weakening of H-H bond, thereby leading to the addition of hydrogen on alkenes and alkynes. The reaction is exothermic because the product alkane is stable as it has more sigma bonds than the reactant alkenes and alkynes due to conversion of pi bond to sigma bonds. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds",
"From haloalkanes",
"Wurtz reaction"
] | When haloalkane is treated with sodium in dry ether, alkane with double the number of carbon atoms is obtained. This reaction proceeds through free radical intermediate and has possibility of alkene formation in case of tertiary haloalkanes and vicinal dihalides. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds",
"From haloalkanes",
"Corey-House-Synthesis"
] | When haloalkane is treated with dialkyl lithium cuprite, which is otherwise known as Gilman's reagent, any higher alkane is obtained. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds",
"From haloalkanes",
"Reaction with metal hydride"
] | When haloalkanes are treated with metal hydride, e.g., sodium hydride and lithium aluminium hydride. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds",
"From haloalkanes",
"Frankland reaction"
] | When haloalkane is treated with zinc in ester, alkane is obtained. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds",
"From haloalkanes",
"Fittig reaction"
] | When aryl halide is treated with sodium in dry ether, it forms biphenyl. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds",
"From haloalkanes",
"Ullmann biaryl synthesis"
] | When aryl halide is treated with copper, it forms biphenyl. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds",
"From haloalkanes",
"Wurtz-Fittig reaction"
] | When aryl halide is treated with haloalkane, we get alkyl benzene. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Applications"
] | The applications of alkanes depend on the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] are the main components of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas. [[Propane]] and [[butane]] are gases at atmospheric pressure that can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as [[liquified petroleum gas]] (LPG). Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles, butane in space heaters and disposable cigarette lighters. Both are used as propellants in [[aerosol spray]]. From [[pentane]] to [[octane]] the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in [[internal combustion engine]], as they vaporize easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes [[Engine knocking|knocking]], than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the [[octane rating]] of the fuel, where [[2,2,4-Trimethylpentane|2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (''isooctane'') has an arbitrary value of 100, and [[heptane]] has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good [[solvent]] for nonpolar substances. Alkanes from [[nonane]] to, for instance, [[hexadecane]] (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher [[viscosity]], less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] and [[aviation fuel]]. Diesel fuels are characterized by their [[cetane number]], cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly. Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of [[fuel oil]] and [[lubricating oil]]. In the latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as [[paraffin wax]], for example, in [[candle]]. This should not be confused however with true [[wax]], which consists primarily of [[ester]]. Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in [[bitumen]], used, for example, in road surfacing. However, the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]]. Some synthetic [[polymer]] such as [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]] are alkanes with chains containing hundreds or thousands of carbon atoms. These materials are used in innumerable applications, and billions of kilograms of these materials are made and used each year. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Environmental transformations"
] | Alkanes are chemically very inert apolar molecules which are not very reactive as organic compounds. This inertness yields serious ecological issues if they are released into the environment. Due to their lack of functional groups and low water solubility, alkanes show poor bioavailability for microorganisms. There are, however, some microorganisms possessing the metabolic capacity to utilize ''n''-alkanes as both carbon and energy sources. Some bacterial species are highly specialised in degrading alkanes; these are referred to as hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[
"Hazards"
] | Methane is flammable, explosive and dangerous to inhale; because it is a colorless, odorless gas, special caution must be taken around methane. Ethane is also extremely flammable, explosive, and dangerous to inhale. Both of them may cause suffocation. Propane, too, is flammable and explosive, and may cause drowsiness or unconsciousness if inhaled. Butane presents the same hazards as propane. Alkanes also pose a threat to the environment. Branched alkanes have a lower biodegradability than unbranched alkanes. Methane is considered to be the greenhouse gas that is most dangerous to the environment, although the amount of methane in the atmosphere is relatively low. | 639 | Alkane | [
"Alkanes",
"Hydrocarbons"
] | [
"Higher alkanes",
"Alkyne",
"Alkene",
"Cycloalkane"
] |
[] | '''United States appellate procedure''' involves the rules and regulations for filing [[appeal]] in [[state court (United States)|state courts]] and [[United States federal courts|federal courts]]. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the [[jurisdiction]] where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of [[standard of review]] for appeals, such as ''[[Trial de novo|de novo]]'' and [[abuse of discretion]]. However, most appeals begin when a party files a [[petition for review]] to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision. An [[appellate court]] is a [[court]] that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, a party to a [[court case]] who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, [[fact]], procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts. The specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the [[New Jersey Constitution]] vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Access to appellant status"
] | A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant", "plaintiff in error", "petitioner" or "pursuer", and a party on the other side is called an "appellee". A "cross-appeal" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay $50,000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money, then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200,000 instead of $50,000. The appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their [[lawsuit|claim]] in a [[lower court]] decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence. The appellant in the new case can be either the [[plaintiff]] (or claimant), [[defendant]], third-party [[intervenor]], or respondent (appellee) from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal. An appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court [[judgment (law)|judgment]] was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the [[petition]], [[oral argument]], and [[legal brief]] of the appellant. In general, the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court's decision should be affirmed. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Ability to appeal"
] | An appeal "as of right" is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal "by leave" or "permission" requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision. In the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]], review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari. In [[tort]], [[equity (law)|equity]], or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal "as of right". And due to the [[double jeopardy]] principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict of acquittal. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal "as of right" from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law "by leave" from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally. All parties must present grounds to appeal, or it will not be heard. By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses (in some cases twice) as the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the [[United States federal courts|federal courts]], the parties' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal is taken to the [[United States Courts of Appeals|circuit courts of appeals]], and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions"
] | Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context. The first is the traditional "direct" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner-appellant files the appeal in a court of first instance—usually the court that tried the case. The key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts. Relief in post-conviction is rare and is most often found in [[capital punishment|capital]] or violent [[felony]] cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating [[DNA]] evidence demonstrating the defendant's actual innocence. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions",
"Appellate review"
] | "Appellate review" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate [[jurisdiction]] take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from [[Judicial review (theory)|judicial review]], which refers to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons (which may vary by jurisdiction). In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal of the final [[Legal judgment|judgment]]. Generally, an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders cannot be appealed "as of right". However, certain critical interlocutory [[court order]], such as the denial of a request for an interim [[injunction]], or an order holding a person in [[contempt of court]], can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of. There are two distinct forms of appellate review, "direct" and "collateral". For example, a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court, and lose on "direct appeal" to higher state appellate courts, and if unsuccessful, mount a "collateral" action such as filing for a writ of [[habeas corpus]] in the [[United States federal courts|federal courts]]. Generally speaking, "[d]irect appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege errors of law or fact. ... [Collateral review], on the other hand, provide[s] an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and sentence, and as such are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at trial." "Graham v. Borgen", 483 F 3d. 475 (7th Cir. 2007) (no. 04–4103) (slip op. at 7) (citation omitted). In Anglo-American [[common law]] courts, appellate review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by [[prerogative writ]] in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any pure or continental [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal systems, though some mixed systems such as [[Civil Code of Quebec|Quebec]] recognize these prerogative writs. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions",
"Appellate review",
"Direct appeal"
] | After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal. The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions",
"Appellate review",
"Direct appeal",
"Preservation issues"
] | An appellant's claim(s) must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example, Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims: 1.the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error; 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right; 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant of a fair trial; 4. if subject to harmless error analysis, the state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions",
"Appellate review",
"State post-conviction relief: collateral appeal"
] | All States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review. Typical claims might include [[ineffective assistance of counsel]] and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal, however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal. After direct appeal, the conviction is considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as a direct appeal. That is, it goes to the intermediate appellate court, followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration, the sentence could be modified, or a new trial could be ordered. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Notice of appeal"
] | A "notice of appeal" is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country. The specific rules of the legal system will dictate exactly how the appeal is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both. Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site. In New Jersey, for example, the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants, though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used. The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Appellate procedure"
] | Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of [[evidence (law)|evidence]] presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue). If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision "below" (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse" or "vacate") the whole decision or any part of it. It may, in addition, send the case back ("remand" or "remit") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect. In some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision "de novo" (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial [[motion to dismiss]] or motion for [[summary judgment]] which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony. Another situation is where appeal is by way of "re-hearing". Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court. Sometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.) Generally, there is no [[Jury trial|trial]] in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed—unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in "very" rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as [[prosecutorial misconduct]]. In some systems, an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Appellate procedure"
] | The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or "[[pro se]]" if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written [[brief (law)|briefs]] and sometimes in [[oral argument]] to the court at a [[hearing (law)|hearing]]. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs. In an [[adversarial system]], appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against [[Precedent|legal precedent]], that judgment will stand if not appealed – even if it might have been overturned on appeal. The United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial "de novo" or an appeal on the record. A [[trial de novo]] is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial [[trial (law)|trial]]. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial "de novo" by a [[court of record]]. In such a proceeding, all issues and [[evidence (law)|evidence]] may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals. In some cases, an application for "trial de novo" effectively erases the prior trial as if it had never taken place. The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that '"This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to "annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been no previous trial."' The only exception to this is that if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses, where they are convicted on a lesser offense, the appeal is of the lesser offense; the conviction represents an acquittal of the more serious offenses. "[A] trial on the same charges in the circuit court does not violate double jeopardy principles, . . . subject only to the limitation that conviction in [the] district court for an offense lesser included in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offense, permitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the lesser-included offense." | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Appellate procedure"
] | In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. [[Precedent]] and [[case law]] figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed [[reversible error]], that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously [[improper argument]] by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting. In cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an "abuse of discretion" standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard. In some cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]] or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial. A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court." | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Appellate procedure"
] | After an appeal is heard, the "mandate" is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the [[Court clerk|clerk]] of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's [[court opinion|opinion]], which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the "remittitur". | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[
"Results"
] | The result of an appeal can be: Affirmed: Where the reviewing court basically agrees with the result of the lower courts' ruling(s). Reversed: Where the reviewing court basically disagrees with the result of the lower courts' ruling(s), and overturns their decision. Vacated: Where the reviewing court overturns the lower courts' ruling(s) as invalid, without necessarily disagreeing with it/them, e.g. because the case was decided on the basis of a legal principle that no longer applies. Remanded: Where the reviewing court sends the case back to the lower court. There can be multiple outcomes, so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings, reverse others and remand the case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. "Generally speaking, an appellate court's judgment provides 'the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified'". Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than ''review improvidently granted''. In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of ''review improvidently granted'' is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval. | 640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | [
"United States appellate procedure",
"Legal procedure",
"United States procedural law"
] | [
"Criminal procedure",
"Interlocutory appeal",
"Writ of mandamus",
"Court of Appeals",
"List of wrongful convictions in the United States",
"Pursuer",
"List of legal topics",
"Petition for stay",
"Defendant",
"Appellee",
"Writ of habeas corpus",
"Appellate court",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Civil procedure",
"Plaintiff",
"En banc",
"Writ of Certiorari",
"Courts-martial in the United States",
"Reversible error"
] |
[] | In law, an '''answer''' was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or [[defense (legal)|defense]], a reply to a [[question]] or response, or [[objection (law)|objection]], or a correct solution of a problem. In the [[common law]], an '''answer''' is the first [[pleading]] by a [[defendant]], usually filed and served upon the [[plaintiff]] within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[Information (formal criminal charge)|information]] or [[indictment]] has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an ''optional'' "pre-answer" [[motion to dismiss]] or [[demurrer]]; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant ''must'' file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse [[default judgment]]. In a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either [[guilt (law)|guilt]] or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of [[equitable remedy]] such as [[restitution]] or a permanent [[injunction]]. Criminal cases may lead to [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or other [[punishment]], such as [[imprisonment]]. The famous Latin ''Responsa Prudentium'' ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman [[lawyer]], a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative. During debates of a contentious nature, deflection, colloquially known as 'changing the topic', has been widely observed, and is often seen as a failure to answer a question. | 642 | Answer (law) | [
"Common law",
"Legal documents"
] | [] |
[] | An '''appellate court''', commonly called an '''''appeals court''''', '''''court of appeals''''' ([[American English]]), '''''appeal court''''', '''''court of appeal''''' ([[British English]]), '''''court of second instance''''' or '''''second instance court''''', is any [[court of law]] that is empowered to hear an [[appeal]] of a [[trial court]] or other lower [[tribunal]]. In most [[jurisdiction]], the court system is divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a [[supreme court]] (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts. A jurisdiction's supreme court is that jurisdiction's highest appellate court. Appellate courts nationwide can operate under varying rules. The authority of appellate courts to review the decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some areas, the appellate court has limited powers of review. Generally, an appellate court's judgment provides the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified. | 643 | Appellate court | [
"Courts by type",
"Appellate courts"
] | [
"Court of cassation",
"Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)",
"High Court (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)"
] |
[
"Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals"
] | While many appellate courts have jurisdiction over all cases decided by lower courts, some systems have appellate courts divided by the type of jurisdiction they exercise. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the [[Texas Court of Criminal Appeals]], which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit|U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit]], which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the [[Court of Federal Claims]] on the other. In the United States, Alabama, Tennessee, and Oklahoma also have separate courts of criminal appeals. Texas and Oklahoma have the final determination of criminal cases vested in their respective courts of criminal appeals, while Alabama and Tennessee allow decisions of its court of criminal appeals to be finally appealed to the state supreme court. | 643 | Appellate court | [
"Courts by type",
"Appellate courts"
] | [
"Court of cassation",
"Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)",
"High Court (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)"
] |
[
"Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals",
"Courts of criminal appeals"
] | '''Court of Criminal Appeals''' include: (-) Civilian (-) [[Court of Criminal Appeal (England and Wales)]], abolished 1966 (-) [[Court of Criminal Appeal (Ireland)]], abolished 2014 (-) U.S. States: (-) [[Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals]] (-) [[Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals]] (-) [[Tennessee Court of Criminal Appeals]] (-) [[Texas Court of Criminal Appeals]] (-) Military (-) [[United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals]] (-) [[Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals]] (United States) (-) [[Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals]] (United States) (-) [[Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals]] (United States) | 643 | Appellate court | [
"Courts by type",
"Appellate courts"
] | [
"Court of cassation",
"Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)",
"High Court (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)"
] |
[
"Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals",
"Courts of civil appeals"
] | (-) [[Alabama Court of Civil Appeals]] (-) [[Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals]] | 643 | Appellate court | [
"Courts by type",
"Appellate courts"
] | [
"Court of cassation",
"Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)",
"High Court (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)"
] |
[
"Appellate courts by country",
"New Zealand"
] | The [[Court of Appeal of New Zealand]], located in [[Wellington]], is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court. In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the [[Supreme Court of New Zealand|Supreme Court]]. | 643 | Appellate court | [
"Courts by type",
"Appellate courts"
] | [
"Court of cassation",
"Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)",
"High Court (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)"
] |
[
"Appellate courts by country",
"Sri Lanka"
] | The [[Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka]], located in [[Colombo]], is the second senior court in the [[Courts of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan legal system]]. | 643 | Appellate court | [
"Courts by type",
"Appellate courts"
] | [
"Court of cassation",
"Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)",
"High Court (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)"
] |
[
"Appellate courts by country",
"United States"
] | In the United States, both state and [[United States courts of appeals|federal]] appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal. In most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an [[appeal]] to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some appellate courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of [[discretionary review]], meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case. | 643 | Appellate court | [
"Courts by type",
"Appellate courts"
] | [
"Court of cassation",
"Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)",
"High Court (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)"
] |
[
"Appellate courts by country",
"United States",
"Institutional titles"
] | Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court a '''''court of appeal''''' or '''''court of appeals'''''. Historically, others have titled their appellate court a '''''court of errors''''' (or '''''court of errors and appeals'''''), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the [[New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals]] (which existed from 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the [[Connecticut Supreme Court]]), the Kentucky Court of Errors (renamed the [[Kentucky Supreme Court]]), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the [[Supreme Court of Mississippi]]). In some jurisdictions, a court able to hear appeals is known as an '''appellate division'''. The phrase "court of appeals" most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the Maryland and New York systems are different. The [[Maryland Court of Appeals]] and the [[New York Court of Appeals]] are the highest appellate courts in those states. The [[New York Supreme Court]] is a trial court of general jurisdiction. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. | 643 | Appellate court | [
"Courts by type",
"Appellate courts"
] | [
"Court of cassation",
"Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)",
"High Court (Hong Kong)",
"Court of Appeal (England and Wales)"
] |
[] | '''Arraignment''' is a formal reading of a [[crime|criminal]] charging document in the presence of the [[defendant]], to inform them of the charges against them. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a [[plea]]. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdictions, but they generally include "guilty", "not guilty", and the [[peremptory pleas]] (or pleas in bar) setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. Pleas of "[[nolo contendere]]" (no contest) and the "[[Alford plea|''Alford'' plea]]" are allowed in some circumstances. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"Australia"
] | In Australia, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the [[court clerk|clerk]] of the [[court]] reading out the [[indictment]]. The judge will testify during the indictment process. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"Canada"
] | In every province in Canada except British Columbia, defendants are arraigned on the day of their trial. In British Columbia, arraignment takes place in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether he or she pleads guilty or not guilty to each charge. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"France"
] | In France, the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of the arrest. However, police custody can last another 24 hours in specific circumstances, especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment, or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra time, and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism, drug trafficking or organised crime. The police needs to have the consent of the prosecutor (in the vast majority of cases, the prosecutor will consent). | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"Germany"
] | In Germany, if one has been arrested and taken into custody by the police one must be brought before a judge as soon as possible and at the latest on the day after the arrest. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"New Zealand"
] | At the first appearance, the accused is read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are, guilty, not guilty, and no plea. No plea allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"South Africa"
] | In South Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against him, the demanding of the accused whether he be guilty or not guilty, and the entering of his plea. His plea having been entered he is said to stand arraigned. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"United Kingdom"
] | In England, Wales, and [[Northern Ireland]], arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the [[court clerk|clerk]] of the [[court]] reading out the [[indictment]]. In England and Wales, the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them unless an officer with the rank of superintendent (or above) authorises detention for a further 12 hours (36 hours total), or a judge (who will be a magistrate) authorises detention by the police before charge for up to a maximum of 96 hours, but for terrorism-related offences people can be held by the police for up to 28 days before charge. If they are not released after being charged, they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"United States"
] | Under the United States [[Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure]], "arraignment shall [...] [consist of an] open [...] reading [of] the [[indictment]] [...] to the defendant [...] and call[] on him to plead thereto. He/she shall be given a copy of the indictment [...] before he/she is called upon to plead." In federal courts, arraignment takes place in two stages. The first is called the initial arraignment and must take place within 48 hours of an individual's arrest, 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able to go before a judge until Monday. During this arraignment the defendant is informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to retain counsel. The presiding judge also decides at what amount, if any, to set [[bail]]. During the second arraignment, a post-indictment arraignment (PIA), the defendant is allowed to enter a plea. In New York, most people arrested must be released if they are not arraigned within 24 hours. In California, arraignments must be conducted without unnecessary delay and, in any event, within 48 hours of arrest, excluding weekends and holidays. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"Form of the arraignment"
] | The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. However, it generally conforms with the following principles: (1) The accused person ([[defendant]]) is addressed by [[name]]; (2) The [[criminal charge|charge]] against the accused person is read, including the alleged date, time, and place of offense (and sometimes the names of the state's witnesses and the range of punishment for the charge(s)); and, (3) The accused person is asked formally how he or she [[plea]]. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"Video arraignment"
] | '''Video arraignment''' is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of [[videoconferencing]] technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the [[court]] to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the [[courtroom]] by using an [[audio-visual]] link between the location where the defendant is being held and the courtroom. Use of the video arraignment process addresses the problems associated with having to transport defendants. The transportation of defendants requires time, puts additional demands on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the public, court personnel and for the security of the population held in detention. It also addresses the rising costs of transportation. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"Guilty and not-guilty pleas"
] | If the defendant pleads guilty, an [[Preliminary hearing|evidentiary hearing]] usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge assesses the offense, the [[mitigating factor]], and the defendant's character, and passes [[Sentence (law)|sentence]]. If the defendant pleads [[not guilty (plea)|not guilty]], a date is set for a [[preliminary hearing]] or a [[trial]]. In the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or "stood mute") was subject to [[peine forte et dure]] ([[Law French]] for "strong and hard punishment"). Today in [[Common law|common-law]] jurisdictions, the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea. The rationale for this is the defendant's [[right to silence]]. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[
"Pre-trial release"
] | This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction. | 649 | Arraignment | [
"Legal terminology",
"Prosecution",
"United States criminal procedure",
"Criminal law of the United Kingdom",
"Australian criminal law"
] | [
"Desk appearance ticket"
] |
[] | "'''America the Beautiful'''" is a [[Patriotism|patriotic]] American song. Its lyrics were written by [[Katharine Lee Bates]] and its music was composed by church organist and choirmaster [[Samuel A. Ward]] at [[Grace Church (Newark)|Grace Episcopal Church]] in Newark, New Jersey. The two never met. Bates originally wrote the words as a poem entitled "'''Pikes Peak'''" that was first published in the [[Fourth of July]] 1895 edition of the church periodical, ''The Congregationalist''. It was at that time that the poem was first entitled "America". Ward had initially composed the song's melody in 1882 to accompany lyrics to "Materna", basis of the hymn, "[[O Mother dear, Jerusalem]]", though the hymn was not first published until 1892. The combination of Ward's melody and Bates's poem was first entitled "America the Beautiful" in 1910. The song is one of the most popular of the many U.S. patriotic songs. | 651 | America the Beautiful | [
"1895 songs",
"American Christian hymns",
"American patriotic songs",
"Pikes Peak",
"History of Colorado Springs, Colorado",
"Songs based on poems",
"Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients"
] | [] |
[
"History"
] | In 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at [[Wellesley College]], had taken a train trip to [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]], Colorado, to teach at [[Colorado College]]. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in [[Chicago]], the "White City" with its promise of the future contained within its gleaming white buildings; the wheat fields of America's heartland [[Kansas]], through which her train was riding on July 16; and the majestic view of the [[Great Plains]] from high atop [[Pikes Peak]]. On the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original [[Antlers Hilton Hotel|Antlers Hotel]]. The poem was initially published two years later in ''The Congregationalist'' to commemorate [[Independence Day (United States)|the Fourth of July]]. It quickly caught the public's fancy. An amended version was published in 1904. The first known melody written for the song was sent in by [[Silas Pratt]] when the poem was published in ''The Congregationalist''. By 1900, at least 75 different melodies had been written. A [[hymn tune]] composed in 1882 by [[Samuel A. Ward]], the organist and choir director at [[Grace Church, Newark]], was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem, Ward, too, was inspired. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from [[Coney Island]] back to his home in [[New York City]] after a leisurely summer day and he immediately wrote it down. He composed the tune for the old hymn "O Mother Dear, Jerusalem", retitling the work "Materna". Ward's music combined with Bates's poem were first published together in 1910 and titled "America the Beautiful". Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain. Bates was more fortunate, since the song's popularity was well established by the time of her death in 1929. It is included in songbooks in many religious congregations in the United States. | 651 | America the Beautiful | [
"1895 songs",
"American Christian hymns",
"American patriotic songs",
"Pikes Peak",
"History of Colorado Springs, Colorado",
"Songs based on poems",
"Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients"
] | [] |
[
"History"
] | At various times in the more than one hundred years that have elapsed since the song was written, particularly during the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration, there have been efforts to give "America the Beautiful" legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]", but so far this has not succeeded. Proponents prefer "America the Beautiful" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as "The Star-Spangled Banner". Some prefer "America the Beautiful" over "The Star-Spangled Banner" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery; others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner" for the same reason. While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, "America the Beautiful" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans, and was even being considered before 1931 as a candidate to become the national anthem of the United States. | 651 | America the Beautiful | [
"1895 songs",
"American Christian hymns",
"American patriotic songs",
"Pikes Peak",
"History of Colorado Springs, Colorado",
"Songs based on poems",
"Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients"
] | [] |
[
"Popular versions"
] | [[Bing Crosby]] included the song in a medley on his album ''[[101 Gang Songs]]'' (1961). [[Frank Sinatra]] recorded the song with [[Nelson Riddle]] during the sessions for ''[[The Concert Sinatra]]'' in February 1963, for a projected 45 single release. The 45 was not commercially issued however, but the song was later added as a bonus track to the enhanced 2012 CD release of ''[[The Concert Sinatra]]''. In 1976, while the United States celebrated its bicentennial, a soulful version popularized by [[Ray Charles]] peaked at number 98 on the US R&B chart. His version was traditionally played on New Year's Eve in [[Times Square]] following the ball drop. Three different renditions of the song have entered the [[Hot Country Songs]] charts. The first was by [[Charlie Rich]], which went to number 22 in 1976. A second, by [[Mickey Newbury]], peaked at number 82 in 1980. An [[all-star]] version of "America the Beautiful" performed by [[country music|country]] singers [[Trace Adkins]], [[Sherrié Austin]], [[Billy Dean]], [[Vince Gill]], [[Carolyn Dawn Johnson]], [[Toby Keith]], [[Brenda Lee]], [[Lonestar]], [[Lyle Lovett]], [[Lila McCann]], [[Lorrie Morgan]], [[Jamie O'Neal]], [[The Oak Ridge Boys]], [[Collin Raye]], [[Kenny Rogers]], [[Keith Urban]] and [[Phil Vassar]] reached number 58 in July 2001. The song re-entered the chart following the [[September 11 attacks]]. Popularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11 attacks; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the ''[[Late Show with David Letterman]]'' following the attacks, CBS newsman [[Dan Rather]] cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse. For [[Super Bowl XLVIII]], [[The Coca-Cola Company]] aired a multilingual version of the song, sung in several different languages. The commercial received some criticism on social media sites, such as Twitter and Facebook, and from some conservatives, such as [[Glenn Beck]]. Despite the controversies, Coca-Cola later reused the Super Bowl ad during [[Super Bowl LI]], the opening ceremonies of the [[2014 Winter Olympics]] and [[2016 Summer Olympics]] and for patriotic holidays. | 651 | America the Beautiful | [
"1895 songs",
"American Christian hymns",
"American patriotic songs",
"Pikes Peak",
"History of Colorado Springs, Colorado",
"Songs based on poems",
"Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients"
] | [] |
[
"Idioms"
] | "From sea to shining sea", originally used in the charters of some of the English Colonies in North America, is an American [[idiom]] meaning "from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]]" (or vice versa). Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song "[[God Bless the U.S.A.]]" and [[Schoolhouse Rock]]'s "Elbow Room". The phrase and the song are also the namesake of the [[Shining Sea Bikeway]], a [[bike path]] in Bates's hometown of [[Falmouth, Massachusetts]]. The phrase is similar to the Latin phrase "''''" ("From sea to sea"), which is the official motto of [[Canada]]. "Purple mountain majesties" refers to the shade of the [[Pikes Peak]] in [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]], which inspired Bates to write the poem. In 2003, [[Tori Amos]] appropriated the phrase "for amber waves of grain" to create a [[personification]] for her song "Amber Waves". Amos imagines Amber Waves as an exotic dancer, like the character of the same name portrayed by [[Julianne Moore]] in ''[[Boogie Nights]]''. | 651 | America the Beautiful | [
"1895 songs",
"American Christian hymns",
"American patriotic songs",
"Pikes Peak",
"History of Colorado Springs, Colorado",
"Songs based on poems",
"Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients"
] | [] |
[
"Books"
] | [[Lynn Sherr]]'s 2001 book ''America the Beautiful'' discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has [[Common meter|the same meter]] as that of "[[Auld Lang Syne]]"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Additionally, Sherr discusses the evolution of the lyrics, for instance, changes to the original third verse written by Bates. Melinda M. Ponder, in her 2017 biography ''Katharine Lee Bates: From Sea to Shining Sea'', draws heavily on Bates's diaries and letters to trace the history of the poem and its place in American culture. | 651 | America the Beautiful | [
"1895 songs",
"American Christian hymns",
"American patriotic songs",
"Pikes Peak",
"History of Colorado Springs, Colorado",
"Songs based on poems",
"Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients"
] | [] |
[] | [[Image:Hoergeraet analog 050609.jpg|thumb|Hearing aid]] '''Assistive technology''' (AT) is a term for assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for [[Disability|people with disabilities]] or the elderly population. People with disabilities often have difficulty performing [[activities of daily living]] (ADLs) independently, or even with assistance. ADLs are self-care activities that include toileting, mobility (ambulation), eating, bathing, dressing, grooming, and personal device care. Assistive technology can ameliorate the effects of disabilities that limit the ability to perform ADLs. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the [[technology]] needed to accomplish such tasks. For example, wheelchairs provide independent mobility for those who cannot walk, while [[assistive eating devices]] can enable people who cannot feed themselves to do so. Due to assistive technology, people with disability have an opportunity of a more positive and easygoing lifestyle, with an increase in "social participation," "security and control," and a greater chance to "reduce institutional costs without significantly increasing household expenses." | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Adaptive Technology"
] | Adaptive technology and assistive technology are different. ''Assistive technology'' is something that is used to help disabled people, while ''adaptive technology'' covers items that are specifically designed for disabled people and would seldom be used by a non-disabled person. In other words, assistive technology is any object or system that helps people with disabilities, while adaptive technology is specifically designed for disabled people. Consequently, adaptive technology is a subset of assistive technology. Adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and information technology access. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Occupational Therapy"
] | [[Occupational therapy]] (OT) is a healthcare profession that specializes in maintaining or improving the quality of life for individuals that experience challenges when independently performing life's occupations. According to the ''Occupational Therapy Practice Framework: Domain and Process'' (3rd ed.; [[AOTA]], 2014), occupations include areas related to all basic and instrumental activities of daily living (ADLs), rest and sleep, education, work, play, leisure and social participation. [[Occupational therapists]] have the specialized skill of employing assistive technology (AT) in the improvement and maintenance of optimal, functional participation in occupations. The application of AT enables an individual to adapt aspects of the environment, that may otherwise be challenging, to the user in order to optimize functional participation in those occupations. As a result, occupational therapists may educate, recommend, and promote the use of AT to improve the quality of life for their clients. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
[
"Mobility impairments",
"Wheelchairs"
] | Wheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled, and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people have. Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility-related [[activities of daily living]] which include feeding, toileting, dressing, grooming, and bathing. The devices come in a number of variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to manage motors and seating control actuators through a [[joystick]], [[sip-and-puff]] control, [[head switches]] or other input devices. Often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to do the pushing or input devices for caregivers. Wheelchairs are used by people for whom [[walking]] is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. People with both sitting and walking disability often need to use a wheelchair or walker. Newer advancements in wheelchair design enable wheelchairs to climb stairs, go off-road or propel using [[segway]] technology or additional add-ons like [[Handcycle|handbikes]] or [[Wheelchair power add-on|power assists]]. | 653 | Assistive technology | [
"Assistive technology",
"Educational technology",
"Web accessibility"
] | [
"Durable medical equipment",
"Assisted Living",
"OATS",
"Design for All (in ICT)",
"Accessibility",
"Occupational Therapy",
"WP:SEEALSO",
"Braille technology",
"Augmentative and alternative communication",
"Matching person and technology model",
"Transgenerational design",
"Universal access to education"
] |
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