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[
"Scientific career",
"Old quantum theory",
"Wave–particle duality"
]
| Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a ''[[Privatdozent]]'' at the University of Bern. In "''Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung''" ("[[s:Translation:The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation|The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation]]"), on the [[quantization (physics)|quantization]] of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined [[momentum|momenta]] and act in some respects as independent, [[point particle|point-like particles]]. This paper introduced the ''photon'' concept (although the name ''photon'' was introduced later by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1926) and inspired the notion of [[wave–particle duality]] in [[quantum mechanics]]. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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"Scientific career",
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| In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of [[zero-point energy]] in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant [[Otto Stern]]. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'' that proposed the possibility of [[stimulated emission]], the physical process that makes possible the [[maser]] and the [[laser]]. This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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"Scientific career",
"Old quantum theory",
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| Einstein discovered [[Louis de Broglie]]'s work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for [[Matter wave|de Broglie waves]], which Einstein suggested was the [[Hamilton–Jacobi equation]] of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice". Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about [[quantum mechanics]] between Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]], who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the [[philosophy of science]]. Their debates would influence later [[interpretations of quantum mechanics]]. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in the [[EPR paradox|"EPR paper"]]. In a [[Einstein's thought experiments|thought experiment]], he considered two particles which had interacted such that their properties were strongly correlated. No matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the position of the other particle; likewise a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. Given Einstein's concept of [[local realism]], there were two possibilities: (1) either the other particle had these properties already determined, or (2) the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality of the position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein rejected this second possibility (popularly called "spooky action at a distance"). Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that, while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not in question, it must be incomplete. But as a physical principle, local realism was shown to be incorrect when the [[Aspect experiment]] of 1982 confirmed [[Bell's theorem]], which [[J. S. Bell]] had delineated in 1964. The results of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics cannot be represented by any version of the picture of physics in which "particles are regarded as unconnected independent classical-like entities, each one being unable to communicate with the other after they have separated." Although Einstein was wrong about local realism, his clear prediction of the unusual properties of its opposite, [[Quantum entanglement|entangled quantum states]], has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the top ten papers published in ''[[Physical Review]]''. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of [[quantum information theory]]. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| Following his research on general relativity, Einstein attempted to generalize his theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "[[unified field theory]]" in a ''[[Scientific American]]'' article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". Although he was lauded for this work, his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. Notably, Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the [[strong nuclear force|strong]] and [[weak nuclear force]], neither of which were well understood until many years after his death. Although mainstream physics long ignored Einstein's approaches to unification, Einstein's work has motivated modern quests for a [[theory of everything]], in particular [[string theory]], where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to [[force]], [[superconductivity]], and other research. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| In addition to longtime collaborators [[Leopold Infeld]], [[Nathan Rosen]], [[Peter Bergmann]] and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a [[torsion pendulum]]. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a [[Bose–Einstein condensate|Bose–Einstein gas]] by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it. This formulation is a form of [[second quantization]], but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the [[thermodynamic]] properties of a [[Quantum chaos|semiclassical]] [[ideal gas]]. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the [[Einstein refrigerator]]. This [[absorption refrigerator]] was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. On 11 November 1930, was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company [[Electrolux]]. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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[
"Non-scientific legacy"
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| While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's [[Albert Einstein Archives]], told the [[BBC]] that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein's [[Personality rights|right of publicity]] was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired, that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right. [[Branded Entertainment Network|Corbis]], successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the [[Trademark|use of his name and associated imagery]], as agent for the university. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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[
"In popular culture"
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| Einstein became one of the most famous [[Scientific celebrity|scientific celebrities]], beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919. Despite the general public having little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and received adulation and publicity. In the period before World War II, ''[[The New Yorker]]'' published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein." Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music. He is a favorite model for depictions of [[absent-minded professor]]; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true". Many popular [[quotations]] are often [[False attribution|misattributed]] to him. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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[
"Awards and honors"
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| Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by [[Alfred Nobel]], so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| (-) First of a series of papers on this topic. (-) A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, . (-) . Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the [[Princeton University Press]] Einstein Page | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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| (-) . The ''chasing a light beam'' thought experiment is described on pages 48–51. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
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[]
| '''Afghanistan''' (; [[Pashto]]/[[Dari language|Dari]]: , Pashto: , Dari: ), officially the '''Islamic Republic of Afghanistan''', is a [[landlocked country]] at the crossroads of [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia]]. Afghanistan is bordered by [[Pakistan]] to the east and south; [[Iran]] to the west; [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Tajikistan]] to the north; and [[China]] to the northeast. Occupying , it is a mountainous country with plains in the north and southwest. [[Kabul]] is the capital and largest city. Its population is around 32 million, composed mostly of ethnic [[Pashtuns]], [[Tajiks]], [[Hazaras]], and [[Uzbeks]]. Humans lived in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago. [[Neolithic|Settled life]] emerged in the region 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the [[Indus civilization]] ([[Shortugai]] site), the [[Oxus civilization]] (Dashlyji site), and the [[Helmand civilization]] ([[Mundigak]] site) of the 3rd millennium BCE. [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryans]] migrated through [[Bactria]]-[[Margiana]] area to [[Gandhara]], followed by the rise of the [[Iron Age]] [[Yaz culture|Yaz I culture]] (ca. 1500–1100 BCE), which has been closely associated with the culture depicted in the [[Avesta]], the ancient religious texts of [[Zoroastrianism]]. The region, then known as "[[Ariana]]", fell to [[Achaemenid]] Persians in the 6th century BCE, who conquered the areas to their east [[Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|as far as the Indus River]]. [[Alexander the Great]] invaded the region in the 4th century BCE, who married [[Roxana]] in Bactria before his [[Cophen campaign|Kabul Valley campaign]], where he faced resistance from [[Aspasioi]] and Assakan tribes. The [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] became the eastern end of the [[Hellenistic world]]. Following the conquest by [[Mauryan]] Indians, [[Buddhism in Afghanistan|Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism in Afghanistan|Hinduism]] flourished in the region for centuries. The [[Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka]], who ruled from his twin capitals of [[Kapisi]] and [[Puruṣapura]], played an important role in the spread of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism to China and Central Asia. Various other Buddhist dynasties originated from this region as well, including the [[Kidarites]], [[Hephthalites]], [[Alkhons]], [[Nezak]], [[Zunbils]] and [[Turk Shahi]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [[Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|Muslims brought Islam]] to [[Sassanian]]-held [[Herat]] and [[Zaranj]] in the mid-7th century, while fuller Islamization was achieved between the 9th and 12th centuries under the [[Saffarid]], [[Samanid]], [[Ghaznavid]], and [[Ghurid]] dynasties. Parts of the region were later ruled by the [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazmian]], [[Khalji]], [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]], [[Lodi dynasty|Lodi]], [[Sur Empire|Sur]], [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]], and [[Safavid]] empires. The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the [[Hotak dynasty]], whose founder [[Mirwais Hotak]] declared southern Afghanistan independent in 1709. In 1747, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] established the [[Durrani Empire]] with its capital at [[Kandahar]]. In 1776, the Durrani capital was moved to Kabul while [[Peshawar]] became the winter capital; the latter was [[Battle of Nowshera|lost to Sikhs in 1823]]. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a [[buffer state]] in the "[[Great Game]]" between British India and the Russian Empire. In the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]], the [[British East India Company]] seized control of Afghanistan briefly, but following the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] in 1919 the country was free of foreign influence, eventually becoming a monarchy under [[Amanullah Khan]], until almost 50 years later when [[Zahir Shah]] was overthrown and a republic was established. In 1978, after a second coup, Afghanistan first became a socialist state, evoking the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] in the 1980s against [[Mujahideen#Afghanistan|mujahideen]] rebels. By 1996, most of the country was captured by the Islamic fundamentalist [[Taliban]], who ruled as a totalitarian regime for over five years; they were removed from power after the [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|US invasion]] in 2001 but still control a significant portion of the country. The [[War in Afghanistan (2001-present)|ongoing war]] between the government and the Taliban has contributed to the perpetuation of Afghanistan's problematic [[Human rights in Afghanistan|human rights record]] including complications of [[Women's rights in Afghanistan|women's rights]], with numerous abuses committed by both sides, such as the killing of civilians. Afghanistan is a unitary presidential [[Islamic republic]]. The country has high levels of [[terrorism]], poverty, child malnutrition, and corruption. It is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]], the [[Group of 77]], the [[Economic Cooperation Organization]], and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. Afghanistan's economy is the world's 96th largest, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $72.9 billion by [[purchasing power parity]]; the country fares much worse in terms of per-capita GDP (PPP), ranking 169th out of 186 countries as of 2018. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| The [[root (linguistics)|root]] name "[[Afghan (ethnonym)|''Afghān'']]" is, according to some scholars, derived from the name of the ''[[Aśvaka]]'' or ''Assakan'', ancient inhabitants of the [[Hindu Kush]] region. ''Aśvakan'' literally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or "[[cavalry]]" (from ''[[aśva]]'' or ''aspa'', the [[Sanskrit]] and [[Avestan]] words for "[[horse]]"). Historically, the ethnonym ''Afghān'' was used to refer to ethnic [[Pashtuns]]. The Arabic and Persian form of the name, ''Afġān'' was first attested in the 10th-century geography book ''[[Hudud al-'Alam]]''. The last part of the name, "''[[-stan]]''" is a Persian suffix for "place of". Therefore, "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical sense. According to the third edition of the ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'': The modern [[Constitution of Afghanistan]] states that the word "Afghan" shall apply to every [[Demographics of Afghanistan|citizen of Afghanistan]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power in Afghanistan, such as the [[Greco-Bactrians]], [[Indo-Scythians]], [[Kushan]], [[Kidarites]], [[Hephthalites]], [[Alkhons]], [[Nezaks]], [[Zunbils]], [[Turk Shahi]], [[Hindu Shahi]], [[Lawiks]], [[Saffarids]], [[Samanids]], [[Ghaznavids]], [[Ghurids]], [[Khwarazmians]], [[Khalji]], [[Kartids]], [[Lodi dynasty|Lodis]], [[Sur Empire|Surs]], [[Mughals]], and finally, the [[Hotak dynasty|Hotak]] and [[Durrani dynasty|Durrani]] dynasties, which marked the political origins of the modern state. Throughout millennia several cities within the modern day Afghanistan served as capitals of various empires, namely Bactra ([[Balkh]]), Alexandria on the Oxus ([[Ai-Khanoum]]), [[Kapisi]], [[Sigal, Sakastan|Sigal]], [[Kabul]], [[Kunduz]], [[Zaranj]], [[Firozkoh]], [[Herat]], Ghazna ([[Ghazni]]), Binban ([[Bamyan]]), and [[Kandahar]]. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and often fought. It has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the [[ancient Iranian peoples]] who established the dominant role of [[Indo-Iranian languages]] in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within vast regional empires, among them the [[Achaemenid Empire]], the [[Macedonian Empire]], the [[Maurya Empire]], and the [[Islamic Empire]]. For its success in resisting foreign occupation during the 19th and 20th centuries, Afghanistan has been called the "graveyard of empires", though it is unknown who coined the phrase. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [[Excavations]] of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to [[Egypt]] in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. [[Archaeological]] exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical of the [[Paleolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age|Bronze]], and [[Iron Age]] have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of [[Mundigak]] (near [[Kandahar]] in the south of the country) was a center of the [[Helmand culture]]. More recent findings established that the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilization today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest [[Pakistan]] to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the [[Oxus River]] at [[Shortugai]] in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well. After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking [[Indo-Iranians]]. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the [[Caspian Sea]]. The region at the time was referred to as [[Ariana]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| The religion [[Zoroastrianism]] is believed by some to have originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 and 800 BCE, as its founder [[Zoroaster]] is thought to have lived and died in [[Balkh]]. Ancient [[Eastern Iranian languages]] may have been spoken in the region around the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the [[Medes]] and incorporated [[Arachosia]], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]], and [[Bactria]] within its eastern boundaries. An [[Epigraphy|inscription]] on the tombstone of [[Darius I of Persia]] mentions the [[Kabulistan|Kabul Valley]] in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.. The region of [[Arachosia]], around Kandahar in modern day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to [[Persis|Persia]] and is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastriansm".. [[Alexander the Great]] and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating [[Darius III of Persia]] a year earlier in the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the [[Seleucid Empire]] controlled the region until 305 BCE when they gave much of it to the [[Maurya Empire]] as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of the [[Hindu Kush]] until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after [[Ashoka]]'s rule ended, leading to the [[Hellenistic]] reconquest by the [[Greco-Bactrians]]. Much of it soon broke away from them and became part of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. They were defeated and expelled by the [[Indo-Scythians]] in the late 2nd century BCE. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| The [[Silk Road]] appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia and north to the cities of [[Bukhara]], [[Samarkand]] and [[Khiva]] in present-day Uzbekistan. Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading [[lapis lazuli]] stones mainly from the [[Badakhshan]] region. During the first century BCE, the [[Parthian Empire]] subjugated the region but lost it to their [[Indo-Parthian]] vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast [[Kushan Empire]], centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, making [[Buddhism]] flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the [[Sassanids]] in the 3rd century CE, though the [[Indo-Sassanids]] continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the [[Kidarite]] who, in turn, were replaced by the [[Hephthalites]]. They were replaced by the [[Turk Shahi]] in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was called [[Hindu Shahi]]. Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by [[Buddhist]] culture. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [[Arab]] [[Muslim]] brought Islam to [[Herat]] and [[Zaranj]] in 642 CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before Islam was introduced, people of the region were mostly Buddhists and Zoroastrians, but there were also [[Surya]] and [[Nana (Afghan goddess)|Nana]] worshipers, [[History of the Jews in Afghanistan|Jews]], and others. The [[Zunbils]] and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by the [[Saffarid]] Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the [[Samanids]] extended their Islamic influence south of the [[Hindu]] Kush. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side in Kabul before the [[Ghaznavids]] rose to power in the 10th century. By the 11th century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively [[Islamized]] the wider region, with the exception of [[Kafiristan]]. Mahmud made [[Ghazni]] into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historian [[Al-Biruni]] and the poet [[Ferdowsi]]. The [[Ghaznavid dynasty]] was overthrown by the [[Ghurids]], whose architectural achievements included the remote [[Minaret of Jam]]. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by the [[Khwarazmian dynasty]] in 1215. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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"Mongols and Babur"
]
| In 1219 AD, [[Genghis Khan]] and his [[Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongol army overran the region]]. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of [[Herat]] and [[Balkh]] as well as [[Bamyan, Afghanistan|Bamyan]]. The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society. Mongol rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]] in the northwest while the [[Khalji dynasty]] administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of [[Timur]] (aka Tamerlane), who established the [[Timurid Empire]] in 1370. Under the rule of [[Shah Rukh]] the city served as the focal point of the [[Timurid Renaissance]], whose glory matched [[Florence]] of the [[Italian Renaissance]] as the center of a cultural rebirth. In the early 16th century, [[Babur]] arrived from [[Ferghana]] and captured Kabul from the [[Arghun dynasty]]. Between the 16th and 18th century, the Uzbek [[Khanate of Bukhara]], Iranian [[Safavids]], and Indian [[Mughals]] ruled parts of the territory. During the Medieval Period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Two of the four capitals of Khorasan ([[Herat]] and [[Balkh]]) are now located in Afghanistan, while the regions of [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]], [[Zabulistan]], [[Ghazni]], [[Kabulistan]], and [[name of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] formed the [[frontier]] between Khorasan and [[Hindustan]]. However, up to the 19th century the term Khorasan was commonly used among natives to describe their country; [[Sir George Elphinstone]] wrote with amazement that the country known to outsiders as "Afghanistan" was referred to by its own inhabitants as "Khorasan" and that the first Afghan official whom he met at the border welcomed him to Khorasan. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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"States and territories established in 1709",
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"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Modern history",
"Hotak and Durrani dynasties"
]
| In 1709, [[Mirwais Hotak]], a local [[Ghilzai]] tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated [[Gurgin Khan]] and established his own kingdom. Mirwais died of natural causes in 1715 and was succeeded by his brother [[Abdul Aziz Hotak|Abdul Aziz]], who was soon killed by Mirwais' son [[Mahmud Hotak|Mahmud]] for treason. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of [[Isfahan]], captured the city after the [[Battle of Gulnabad]] and proclaimed himself King of Persia. The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by [[Nader Shah]] after the 1729 [[Battle of Damghan (1729)|Battle of Damghan]]. In 1738, Nader Shah and his [[Afsharid dynasty|forces]] captured Kandahar, the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah [[Hussain Hotak]], at which point the incarcerated 16-year-old [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] was freed and made the commander of an Afghan regiment. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|invaded India]]. By 1747, the [[Afghans]] chose Durrani as their head of state. Durrani and his Afghan army conquered much of present-day Afghanistan, [[Pakistan]], the [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]] and [[Quhistan|Kohistan]] provinces of Iran, and Delhi in India. He defeated the Indian [[Maratha Empire]], and one of his biggest victories was the [[Battle of Panipat (1761)|1761 Battle of Panipat]]. In October 1772, Durrani died of natural causes and was buried at a site now adjacent to the [[Shrine of the Cloak]] in Kandahar. He was succeeded by his son, [[Timur Shah]], who transferred the capital of his kingdom from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776, with [[Peshawar]] becoming the [[winter capital]]. After Timur's death in 1793, the Durrani throne passed down to his son [[Zaman Shah]], followed by [[Mahmud Shah Durrani|Mahmud Shah]], [[Shuja Shah]] and others. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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"Iranian Plateau",
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"Landlocked countries",
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"States and territories established in 1709",
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]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Modern history",
"Barakzai dynasty and British wars"
]
| By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the [[Qajar dynasty|Persians]] in the west and the [[Sikh Empire]] in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the [[Barakzai dynasty|Barakzai tribe]], had installed 21 of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. After his death, they rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] declared himself emir in 1823. [[Punjab]] and [[Kashmir]] were lost to [[Ranjit Singh]], who invaded [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in March 1823 and captured the city of [[Peshawar]] at the [[Battle of Nowshera]]. In 1837, during the [[Battle of Jamrud]] near the [[Khyber Pass]], [[Wazir Akbar Khan|Akbar Khan]] and the Afghan army failed to capture the [[Jamrud Fort]] from the [[Sikh Khalsa Army]], but killed Sikh Commander [[Hari Singh Nalwa]], thus ending the [[Afghan-Sikh Wars]]. By this time the British were advancing from the east and the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|first major conflict]] during "[[The Great Game]]" was initiated. In 1838, the British marched into Afghanistan and arrested [[Dost Mohammad Khan (Emir of Afghanistan)|Dost Mohammad]], sent him into exile in India and replaced him with the previous ruler, [[Shah Shuja Durrani|Shah Shuja]]. Following an uprising, the [[1842 retreat from Kabul]] of British-Indian forces and the annihilation of [[William George Keith Elphinstone|Elphinstone]]'s army, and the [[Battle of Kabul (1842)|Battle of Kabul]] that led to its recapture, the British placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew their military forces from Afghanistan. In 1878, the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] was fought over perceived Russian influence, [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] replaced [[Mohammad Ayub Khan (Emir of Afghanistan)|Ayub Khan]], and Britain gained control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of the [[Treaty of Gandamak]] of 1879. In 1893, [[Mortimer Durand]] made Amir Abdur Rahman Khan sign a controversial agreement in which the ethnic [[Pashtun]] and [[Baloch people|Baloch]] territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]]. This was a standard [[divide and rule]] policy of the British and would lead to strained relations, especially with the later new state of Pakistan. [[Shia Islam in Afghanistan|Shia]]-dominated [[Hazarajat]] and pagan [[Kafiristan]] remained politically independent until being [[Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|conquered]] by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes. The ''Iron Amir'' viewed railway and telegraph lines coming from the Russian and British empires as "[[trojan horse]]" and therefore prevented railway development in Afghanistan. He died in 1901, replaced by his son [[Habibullah Khan]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Modern history",
"Barakzai dynasty and British wars"
]
| During [[World War I]], when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the Central Powers in the [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]], to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. Their efforts to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it caused discontent among the population for keeping neutrality against the British. Habibullah was assassinated during a hunting trip in 1919, and [[Amanullah Khan]] eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan evoked the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]], entering British India via the [[Khyber Pass]]. After the end Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919|Treaty of Rawalpindi]] on 19 August 1919, King Amanullah Khan declared Afghanistan a [[sovereign state|sovereign]] and fully [[independent state]]. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Weimar Republic]] of Germany. Following a 1927–28 tour of Europe and [[Turkey]], he introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was [[Mahmud Tarzi]], an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 [[constitution of Afghanistan|constitution]], which made elementary education compulsory. The institution of [[slavery]] was abolished in 1923. Khan's wife Queen [[Soraya Tarzi]] was a figure during this period. Some of the reforms that were put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional [[burqa]] for women and the opening of several co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders, and this led to the [[Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)]]. Faced with the overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah Khan abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell to [[Saqqawist]] forces led by [[Habibullah Kalakani]]. Prince [[Mohammed Nadir Shah]], Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization but was assassinated in 1933 by [[Abdul Khaliq Hazara (assassin)|Abdul Khaliq]], a fifteen-year-old [[Hazara people|Hazara]] student who was an [[Amanullah loyalist]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Modern history",
"Barakzai dynasty and British wars"
]
| [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]], Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. The [[Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947|tribal revolts of 1944–1947]] saw Zahir Shah's reign being challenged by [[Zadran (Pashtun tribe)|Zadran]], [[Safi (Pashtun tribe)|Safi]], [[Mangal (Pashtun tribe)|Mangal]], and [[Wazir (Pashtun tribe)|Wazir]] tribesmen led by [[Mazrak Zadran]], [[Salemai]], and [[Faqir Ipi|Mirzali Khan]], among others, many of whom were [[Amanullah loyalist]]. Close relations with the Muslim states [[Turkey]], the [[Kingdom of Iraq]] and [[Pahlavi dynasty|Iran/Persia]] were also pursued, while further international relations were sought by joining the [[League of Nations]] in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a [[Da Afghanistan Bank|national bank]], and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry. The country built close relationships with the [[Axis powers]], with Germany having the largest share in Afghan development at the time, along with [[Afghanistan-Italy relations|Italy]] and [[Afghanistan-Japan relations|Japan]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Contemporary history"
]
| Until 1946, Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]] and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, [[Shah Mahmud Khan]], became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], the king's cousin and brother-in-law, and a [[Pashtun]] nationalist who sought the creation of a [[Pashtunistan]], leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan. During his ten years at the post until 1963, Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the [[Soviet Union]]. Afterward, the [[1964 Constitution of Afghanistan|1964 constitution]] was formed, and the first non-royal Prime Minister was sworn in. King Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. However, Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in [[World War II]] nor aligned with either power bloc in the [[Cold War]] thereafter. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure in the post-period. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet [[development aid]] than any other country. Afghanistan had, therefore, good relations with both Cold War enemies. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a [[1973 Afghan coup|bloodless coup]] and became the first [[President of Afghanistan]], abolishing the monarchy. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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"Central Asian countries",
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"States and territories established in 1709",
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"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Contemporary history",
"Democratic Republic regime and Soviet war"
]
| In April 1978, the communist [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], in what is called the [[Saur Revolution]]. The PDPA declared the establishment of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]], with its first leader named as [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|People's Democratic Party]] general secretary [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]]. This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded (albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of international terrorism. The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state of [[War in Afghanistan (1978–present)|civil war]] by 1979, waged by guerrilla ''[[mujahideen]]'' (and smaller [[Maoist]] guerillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into a [[proxy war]] as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States [[Operation Cyclone|supported]] them through Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI), and the [[Soviet Union]] sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime. Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the dominant [[Khalq]] and the more moderate [[Parcham]]. In September 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by fellow Khalq member, then-Prime minister [[Hafizullah Amin]], who assumed the new general secretary of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|People's Democratic Party]]. The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin and thousands of people went missing. Displeased with Amin's government, the [[Soviet Army]] invaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin just 3 days later. A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham's [[Babrak Karmal]] but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]]. The United States and Pakistan, along with smaller actors like [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[China]], continued supporting the rebels, delivering billions of dollars in cash and weapons including two thousand [[FIM-92 Stinger]] [[surface-to-air missiles]]. Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000 and 2 million Afghans, and displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly to [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]]. Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions of [[landmine]] were planted, and some cities such as [[Herat]] and [[Kandahar]] were also damaged from bombardment. Pakistan's [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North-West Frontier Province]] functioned as an organisational and networking base for the anti-Soviet Afghan resistance, with the province's influential [[Deobandi]] ulama playing a major supporting role in promoting the 'jihad'. After the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|Soviet withdrawal]], the [[Afghan Civil War (1989-92)|civil war ensued]] until the communist regime under People's Democratic Party leader [[Mohammad Najibullah]] collapsed in 1992. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Contemporary history",
"Post-Cold War conflict and Taliban regime"
]
| Another civil war broke out after the [[Peshawar Accords|creation]] of a dysfunctional coalition [[Islamic State of Afghanistan|government]] between leaders of various ''mujahideen'' factions. Amid a state of [[anarchy]] and factional infighting, various ''mujahideen'' factions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion, while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting. Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders. The [[Taliban]] emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (''talib'') from Islamic [[Madrassas in Pakistan|madrassas (schools) in Pakistan]], who soon had military support from Pakistan. Taking control of [[Kandahar]] city that year, they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government of [[Burhanuddin Rabbani|Rabbani]] from Kabul in 1996, where they established an [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|emirate]] that gained international recognition from only three countries. The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic [[sharia]] law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially [[Taliban treatment of women|women]]. During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy of [[scorched earth]], burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes. [[Battle of Kabul (1992–96)|After the fall of Kabul]] to the Taliban, [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] and [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] formed the [[Northern Alliance]], later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the [[Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif (1997–98)]]; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, [[Pervez Musharraf]], began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.<ref name="Ahmed Rashid/The Telegraph"></ref> By 2000 the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the north-east. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab [[suicide attack]] in [[Panjshir Valley]]. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001. In October 2001, the [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|United States invaded Afghanistan]] to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over [[Osama Bin Laden]], the prime suspect of the [[September 11 attacks]], who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating his [[al-Qaeda]] network in Afghanistan. The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion of their country. During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Contemporary history",
"Post-2001"
]
| In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the [[Afghan Interim Administration]] under [[Hamid Karzai]] was formed. The [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) was established by the [[UN Security Council]] to help assist the [[Karzai administration]] and provide basic security. By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acute [[famine]] at the time, Afghanistan had one of the highest [[infant mortality|infant]] and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry, and infrastructure was in ruins. Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country. Taliban forces meanwhile began regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition troops entered Afghanistan to help the rebuilding process. The [[Taliban insurgency|Taliban began an insurgency]] to regain control of Afghanistan. Over the next decade, ISAF and [[Afghan National Army|Afghan troops]] led many offensives against the Taliban, but failed to fully defeat them. Afghanistan remains one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack of foreign investment, [[Corruption in Afghanistan|government corruption]], and the Taliban insurgency. Meanwhile, Karzai attempted to unite the peoples of the country, and the [[Afghan government]] was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the [[Afghan National Security Forces]]. Following 2002, nearly five million [[Afghan diaspora|Afghans]] were [[repatriated]]. The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011, dropping to about 16,000 in 2018. In September 2014 [[Ashraf Ghani]] became president after the [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]] where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred. On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led [[Operation Resolute Support]] was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF. Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces and continue their fight against the Taliban. It was estimated in 2015 that "about 147,000 people have been killed in the Afghanistan war since 2001. More than 38,000 of those killed have been civilians". A report titled ''Body Count'' concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians have been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Geography"
]
| Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia. indeed the region particularly centered at Afghanistan is considered the "crossroads of Asia", and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia. The renowned [[Urdu]] poet [[Allama Iqbal]] once wrote about the country: At over , Afghanistan is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|41st largest country]], slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afghanistan is [[landlocked]]. It shares borders with Pakistan in the south and east (including Indian-claimed [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]); Iran in the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north; and China in the far east. The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins. It is dominated by the [[Hindu Kush]] range, the western extension of the [[Himalayas]] that stretches to eastern [[Tibet]] via the [[Pamir Mountains]] and [[Karakoram Mountains]] in Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys. The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely the [[Turkestan]] Plains and the [[Sistan Basin]]; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively. Forests exist in the corridor between [[Nuristan]] and [[Paktika]] provinces, and [[tundra]] in the north-east. The country's highest point is [[Noshaq]], at above sea level. The lowest point lies in [[Jowzjan Province]] along the Amu River bank, at above sea level. Despite having numerous rivers and [[list of dams and reservoirs in Afghanistan|reservoirs]], large parts of the country are dry. The [[endorheic]] Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world. The [[Amu Darya]] rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearby [[Hari Rud]] flows west towards [[Herat]], and the [[Arghandab River]] from the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of the [[Indus River]], such as the [[Helmand River]]. One exception is the [[Kabul River]] which flows in an easternly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean. Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in the [[Hindu Kush]] and [[Pamir Mountains]], and the melting snow in the spring season enters the [[list of rivers of Afghanistan|rivers, lakes, and streams]]. However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries of [[Iran]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkmenistan]]. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Geography"
]
| The northeastern Hindu Kush [[mountain range]], in and around the [[Badakhshan Province]] of Afghanistan, is in a [[natural environment#Geological activity|geologically active]] area where earthquakes may occur almost every year. They can be deadly and destructive, causing [[landslide]] in some parts or [[2009 Afghan avalanches|avalanches]] during the winter. The last strong earthquakes were in [[February 1998 Afghanistan earthquake|1998]], which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan. This was followed by the [[2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes]] in which over 150 people were killed and over 1,000 injured. A [[2010 Afghanistan earthquake|2010 earthquake]] left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured, and more than 2,000 houses destroyed. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Climate"
]
| Afghanistan has a [[continental climate]] with harsh winters in the [[Hazarajat|central highlands]], the glaciated northeast (around [[Nuristan]]), and the [[Wakhan Corridor]], where the average temperature in January is below and can reach , and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the [[Sistan Basin]] of the southwest, the [[Jalalabad]] basin in the east, and the [[Afghan Turkestan|Turkestan]] plains along the [[Amu River]] in the north, where temperatures average over in July and can go over . The country is generally [[arid]] in the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to India, Afghanistan is mostly outside the [[monsoon]] zone, except the [[Nuristan Province]] which occasionally receives summer monsoon rain. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Biodiversity"
]
| Several types of [[mammal]] exist throughout Afghanistan. [[Snow leopard]], [[Siberian tiger]] and [[brown bear]] live in the high elevation [[alpine tundra]] regions. The [[Marco Polo sheep]] exclusively live in the [[Wakhan Corridor]] region of north-east Afghanistan. [[Fox]], [[wolves]], [[otter]], [[deer]], [[wild sheep]], [[lynx]] and other big cats populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains, wildlife include a variety of birds, [[hedgehog]], [[gopher]], and large carnivores such as [[jackal]] and [[hyena]]. [[Gazelle]], [[wild boar|wild pigs]] and jackals populate the [[steppe]] plains of the south and west, while [[mongoose]] and [[cheetah]] exist in the semi-desert south. [[Marmot]] and [[ibex]] also live in the high mountains of Afghanistan, and [[pheasant]] exist in some parts of the country. The [[Afghan hound]] is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the west. [[Endemic]] fauna of Afghanistan includes the [[Afghan flying squirrel]], [[Afghan snowfinch]], [[Afghanodon]] (or the "[[Paghman]] mountain salamander"), ''[[Stigmella kasyi]]'', ''[[Vulcaniella kabulensis]]'', [[Afghan leopard gecko]], ''[[Wheeleria parviflorellus]]'', amongst others. Endemic flora include ''[[Iris afghanica]]''. Afghanistan has a wide variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within. The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such as [[pine tree]], [[spruce tree]], [[fir tree]] and [[larch]], whereas the steppe grassland regions consist of [[broadleaf tree]], short grass, [[perennial plant]] and [[shrubland]]. The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants. Several regions are designated [[List of protected areas of Afghanistan|protected areas]]; there are three National Parks: [[Band-e Amir]], [[Wakhan National Park|Wakhan]] and [[Nuristan National Park|Nuristan]]. Afghanistan had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Demographics"
]
| The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9 million as of 2019 by the Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority, whereas the UN estimates over 38.0 million. About 23.9% of them are [[urban area|urbanite]], 71.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.7% are nomadic.<ref name= "https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/afghanistan-population/"></ref> An additional 3 million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboring [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]], most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world, a title held for 32 years. The current population growth rate is 2.37%, one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current population trends continue. The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan. Millions have since returned and the war conditions has meant a high fertility rate compared to global and regional trends. Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Ethnic groups"
]
| Afghanistan's population is divided into several [[ethnolinguistic]] groups. The ethnicities are represented on the table on the right. The percentages given are estimates only, as accurate and current statistical data on ethnicity are not available. Generally the four major ethnic groups are the [[Pashtuns]], [[Tajiks]], [[Hazaras]] and [[Uzbeks]]. A further 10 other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in the [[Afghan National Anthem]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Languages"
]
| [[Dari]] and [[Pashto]] are the [[official language]] of Afghanistan; [[bilingualism]] is very common. Dari, which is a variety of and mutually intelligible with [[Persian language|Persian]] (and very often called 'Farsi' by some Afghans like in [[Iran]]) functions as the [[lingua franca]] in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country. Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Pashayi language|Pashayi]], and [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]]. When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or understand [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Urdu]]-[[Hindi]]), partly due to returning Afghan refugees from Pakistan and the popularity of [[Bollywood]] films respectively. English is also understood by some of the population, and has been gaining popularity as of the 2000s. Some Afghans retain some ability of Russian, which was taught to public schools during the 1980s. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Religion"
]
| An estimated 99.7% of the Afghan population is Muslim and most are thought to adhere to the [[Sunni]] [[Hanafi]] school. According to [[Pew Research Center]], as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7% [[Shia]] and 3% [[non-denominational Muslim|non-denominational]]. The [[CIA]] Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia. Dr [[Michael Izady]] estimated 70% of the population to be followers of Sunni Islam, 25% [[Imamiyyah|Imami Shia Islam]], 4.5% [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili Shia Islam]], and 0.5% [[Religion in Afghanistan#Minority religious groups|other religions]]. Thousands of Afghan [[Sikhism in Afghanistan|Sikhs]] and [[Hinduism in Afghanistan|Hindus]] are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar) accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs. There was a small [[History of the Jews in Afghanistan|Jewish community in Afghanistan]] who had emigrated to Israel and the United States by the end of the twentieth century; at least one Jew, [[Zablon Simintov]], remains, who is the caretaker of the only remaining synagogue. [[Afghan Christians]], who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Urbanisation"
]
| As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than [[Cambodia]], [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital [[Kabul]], due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants. Urbanization in Afghanistan has been noted to be different than traditional urbanization, in that it's centered on a few cities rather than evenly spread out nationwide. The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of the country. The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands, namely [[Kandahar]] in the south, [[Herat]] in the west, [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] and [[Kunduz]] in the north, and [[Jalalabad]] in the east. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance"
]
| Afghanistan is an [[Islamic republic]] consisting of three branches, the executive, legislative, and judicial. The nation is led by President [[Ashraf Ghani]] with [[Amrullah Saleh]] and [[Sarwar Danish]] as vice presidents. The [[National Assembly of Afghanistan|National Assembly]] is the legislature, a [[bicameral]] body having two chambers, the [[House of the People (Afghanistan)|House of the People]] and the [[House of Elders]]. The [[Afghan Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] is led by [[Chief Justice of Afghanistan|Chief Justice]] [[Said Yusuf Halem]], the former Deputy Minister of Justice for Legal Affairs. According to [[Transparency International]], Afghanistan remains in the top most corrupt countries list. A January 2010 report published by the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] revealed that bribery consumed an amount equal to 23% of the GDP of the nation. On 17 May 2020, President [[Ashraf Ghani]] reached a power-sharing deal with his rival from presidential elections, [[Abdullah Abdullah]], deciding on who would manage the respected key ministries. The agreement ended months-long [[political deadlock]] in the country. It was agreed that while Ghani will lead Afghanistan as the president, Abdullah will oversee the [[Afghan peace process|peace process]] with the [[Taliban]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance",
"Elections and parties"
]
| One instrument of Afghan governance is the ''[[loya jirga]]'' (grand assembly), a [[Pashtun]] consultative meeting that is mainly organized for choosing a new [[head of state]], adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war. Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747, with the most recent one occurring in 2013. Under the [[Constitution of Afghanistan|2004 constitution]], both presidential and parliamentary elections are to be held every five years. However, due to the disputed [[2014 Afghan presidential election|2014 presidential election]], the scheduled 2015 parliamentary elections were delayed until [[2018 Afghan parliamentary election|2018]]. Presidential elections use the [[two-round system]]; if no candidate receives a majority of the vote in the first round, a second round will be held featuring the top two candidates. Parliamentary elections have only one round and are based on the [[single non-transferable vote]] system, which allows some candidates to be elected with as little as one percent of the vote. The [[Afghan presidential election, 2004|2004 Afghan presidential election]] was relatively peaceful, in which Hamid Karzai won in the first round with 55.4% of the votes. However, the [[Afghan presidential election, 2009|2009 presidential election]] was characterized by lack of security, low voter turnout, and widespread electoral fraud, ending in Karzai's reelection. The [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]] ended with Ashraf Ghani winning by 56.44% of the votes. Political parties played a marginal role in post-2001 Afghan politics, in part due to Karzai's opposition to them. In the [[Afghan parliamentary election, 2005|2005 parliamentary election]], the ballots did not show candidates' party affiliation, so the results were dictated by the personal prestige of the candidates. Among the elected officials were a large mix of former mujahideen, [[Islamic fundamentalists]], warlords, tribal nationalists, former communists, [[reformists]], urban professionals, [[royalism|royalists]] and several former Taliban associates. In the same period, Afghanistan became the 30th highest nation in terms of female representation in the National Assembly. Parties became more influential after 2009, when a new law established more stringent requirements for party registration. Nearly a hundred new parties were registered after the law came into effect, and party activity increased in the 2014 elections, but party influence remained limited. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance",
"Administrative divisions"
]
| Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (''[[wilayat]]''). Each province is the size of a [[U.S. county]], having a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial [[Districts of Afghanistan|districts]], each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor. The [[list of current governors of Afghanistan|provincial governors]] are appointed by the [[President of Afghanistan]], and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years. The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions. According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government. The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order: (1) [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]] (2) [[Badghis Province|Badghis]] (3) [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]] (4) [[Balkh Province|Balkh]] (5) [[Bamyan Province|Bamyan]] (6) [[Daykundi Province|Daykundi]] (7) [[Farah Province|Farah]] (8) [[Faryab Province|Faryab]] (9) [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]] (10) [[Ghor Province|Ghor]] (11) [[Helmand Province|Helmand]] (12) [[Herat Province|Herat]] (13) [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]] (14) [[Kabul Province|Kabul]] (15) [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]] (16) [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]] (17) [[Khost Province|Khost]] (18) [[Kunar Province|Kunar]] (19) [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]] (20) [[Laghman Province|Laghman]] (21) [[Logar Province|Logar]] (22) [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]] (23) [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]] (24) [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]] (25) [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]] (26) [[Paktia Province|Paktia]] (27) [[Paktika Province|Paktika]] (28) [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]] (29) [[Parwan Province|Parwan]] (30) [[Samangan Province|Samangan]] (31) [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]] (32) [[Takhar Province|Takhar]] (33) [[Wardak Province|Wardak]] (34) [[Zabul Province|Zabul]] | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance",
"Foreign relations"
]
| Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946. It enjoys cordial relations with a number of [[NATO]] and allied nations, particularly the [[Afghanistan–United States relations|United States]], [[Afghanistan–Canada relations|Canada]], [[Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations|United Kingdom]], [[Afghanistan–Germany relations|Germany]], Australia, and [[Afghanistan–Turkey relations|Turkey]]. In 2012, the United States and Afghanistan signed their [[U.S.–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement|Strategic Partnership Agreement]] in which Afghanistan became a [[major non-NATO ally]]. Afghanistan has historically had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the [[Soviet Union]], which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and [[Afghanistan–India relations|India]], with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950. Relations with [[Afghanistan–Pakistan relations|Pakistan]] have often been tense for various reasons such as the [[Durand Line]] border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups. Afghanistan also has diplomatic relations with neighboring [[Afghanistan–China relations|China]], [[Afghanistan–Iran relations|Iran]], [[Afghanistan–Tajikistan relations|Tajikistan]], [[Foreign relations of Turkmenistan#Afghanistan|Turkmenistan]], and [[Foreign relations of Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]], including with regional states such as [[Afghanistan–Bangladesh relations|Bangladesh]], [[Afghanistan–Japan relations|Japan]], [[Foreign relations of Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]], [[Foreign relations of Nepal|Nepal]], [[Afghanistan–Russia relations|Russia]], [[Afghanistan–South Korea relations|South Korea]], and the [[Afghanistan–United Arab Emirates relations|UAE]]. The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)|Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] continues to develop [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan|diplomatic relations]] with other countries around the world. The [[United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan]] (UNAMA) was established in 2002 to help the country recover from decades of war. Today, several NATO member states deploy about 17,000 troops in Afghanistan as part of the [[Resolute Support Mission]]. Its main purpose is to [[NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan|train the Afghan National Security Forces]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance",
"Military"
]
| The [[Afghan Armed Forces]] are under the [[Ministry of Defense (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Defense]], which includes the [[Afghan Air Force]] (AAF) and the [[Afghan National Army]] (ANA). The [[Afghan Defense University]] houses various educational establishments for the Afghan Armed Forces, including the [[National Military Academy of Afghanistan]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance",
"Law enforcement"
]
| Law enforcement in Afghanistan is the responsibility of the [[Afghan National Police]] (ANP), which is part of the [[Ministry of Interior Affairs (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Interior Affairs]]. The ANP consists of two primary branches, the Afghan Uniformed Police and the [[Afghan Border Police]]. The mission of the Uniformed Police is to ensure security within Afghanistan, prevent crime, and protect property. The Border Police is responsible for securing and maintaining the nation's borders with neighboring states as well as all international airports within the country. Afghanistan's [[intelligence agency]], the [[National Directorate of Security]] (NDS), assists the ANP with security matters. All parts of Afghanistan are considered dangerous due to militant activities and terrorism-related incidents. Kidnapping for ransom and robberies are common in major cities. Every year hundreds of [[list of Afghan security forces fatality reports in Afghanistan|Afghan police are killed]] in the line of duty. Afghanistan is also the world's leading [[opium production in Afghanistan|producer of opium]]. Afghanistan's [[opium poppy]] harvest produces more than 90% of illicit heroin globally, and more than 95% of the European supply. The [[Afghan Ministry of Counter Narcotics]] is responsible for the monitoring and eradication of the illegal drug business. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance",
"Human rights"
]
| [[Freedom of expression]] and the press is permitted and promoted in the current 2004 constitution, so long as it does not threaten national or religious integrity or does not [[defame]] individuals. In 2019, [[Reporters Without Borders]] listed the media environment of Afghanistan as 121st out of 179 on its [[Press Freedom Index]], with 1st being most free. However many issues regarding human rights exist contrary to the law, often committed by local tribes, lawmakers and hardline clerics. Journalists in Afghanistan face threat from both the security forces and insurgents. The Afghan Journalists Safety Committee (AJSC) claimed in 2017 that the Afghan government accounted for 46% of the attacks on Afghans journalists, while insurgents were responsible for rest of the attacks. According to [[Global Rights]], almost 90% of women in Afghanistan have experienced physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse or forced marriage. The perpetrators of these crimes are the families of the victim. A 2009 proposal for a law against the violence of women could only be passed through a presidential decree. In 2012, Afghanistan recorded 240 cases of [[honor killing]], but the total number is believed to be much higher. Of the reported honor killings, 21% were committed by the victims' husbands, 7% by their brothers, 4% by their fathers, and the rest by other relatives. Homosexuality is [[taboo]] in Afghan society; according to the Penal Code, homosexual intimacy is punished by up to a year in prison. With implementing [[Sharia law]] offenders can be [[Death penalty for homosexuality|punished by death]]. However an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between youngsters and older men (typically wealthy or elite people) called ''[[bacha bazi]]'' persists. This act is also illegal under the Penal Code and offenders can be imprisoned. On August 14, 2020, [[UN Human Rights Council]] experts issued a joint statement urging Afghanistan officials to prevent the killings of [[human rights defenders]] as there have been nine deaths of human rights defenders since January 2020. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Countries in Asia",
"Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Pashto-speaking countries and territories",
"Persian-speaking countries and territories",
"Iranian countries and territories",
"Central Asian countries",
"South Asian countries",
"1709 establishments in Asia",
"States and territories established in 1709",
"States and territories established in 1747",
"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Economy"
]
| Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $21.7 billion in 2018, or $72.9 billion by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP). Its [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] is $2,024 (PPP). Despite having $1 trillion or more in mineral deposits, it remains one of the world's [[least developed countries]]. Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability. The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods but exports only $784 million, mainly fruits and [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]]. It has $2.8 billion in [[external debt]]. The service sector contributed the most to the GDP (55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%). While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed with donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. [[Da Afghanistan Bank]] serves as the central bank of the nation and the [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar. A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including the [[Afghanistan International Bank]], [[New Kabul Bank]], [[Azizi Bank]], [[Pashtany Bank]], [[Standard Chartered Bank]], and the [[First MicroFinance Bank-Afghanistan|First Micro Finance Bank]]. One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million [[Afghan diaspora|expatriates]], who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country. Some of the major national construction projects include the New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town]] near Jalalabad. Similar development projects have also begun in [[Herat]], [[Mazar-e-Sharif]], and other cities. An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year. Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in [[Telecommunication|telecom]] investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003. [[Afghan rug]] are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items. Afghanistan is a member of [[WTO]], [[SAARC]], [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]], and [[OIC]]. It holds an observer status in [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]]. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Agriculture"
]
| Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018. The country is known for producing [[pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]], grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. It is also known as the world's largest producer of [[Opium production in Afghanistan|opium]] – as much as 16% or more of the nation's economy is derived from the cultivation and sale of opium. It is also one of the world's top producers of [[cannabis]]. [[Saffron]], the most expensive spice, grows in Afghanistan, particularly [[Herat Province]]. In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and farmers are trying to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute. Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469 kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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"Territories under military occupation"
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Mining"
]
| The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, [[lithium]], [[uranium]], [[rare earth element]], [[chromite]], gold, [[zinc]], [[talc]], [[barite]], [[sulfur]], lead, [[marble]], precious and [[semi-precious stones]], natural gas, and petroleum, among other things. In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the [[US Geological Survey]] are worth at least . [[Michael E. O'Hanlon]] of the [[Brookings Institution]] estimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10 billion per year from its [[mining in Afghanistan|mineral deposits]], its [[gross national product]] would double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs. The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average of [[crude oil]], of natural gas, and of [[natural gas liquids]]. In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with [[China National Petroleum Corporation]] (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north. The country has significant amounts of [[lithium]], copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other [[minerals]]. The [[Khanashin]] [[carbonatite]] in Helmand Province contains of [[rare earth element]]. In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the [[Mes Aynak#Copper Mine|Aynak]] copper mine to the [[China Metallurgical Group]] for $3 billion, making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history. The state-run [[Steel Authority of India]] won the mining rights to develop the huge [[Hajigak Pass|Hajigak]] iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan. Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least . One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium". In a 2011 news story, the ''[[The Christian Science Monitor|CSM]]'' reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afghanistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers." Access to [[biocapacity]] in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Infrastructure",
"Energy"
]
| According to the [[World Bank]], 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008. Overall the figure stands at 98.7%. As of 2016, Afghanistan produces 1,400 [[megawatt]] of power, but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states. The majority of electricity production is via [[hydropower]], helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains. However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul. In recent years an increasing number of [[Solar power|solar]], [[biomass]] and wind power plants have been constructed. Currently under development are the [[CASA-1000]] project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and the [[Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India pipeline|Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India]] (TAPI) gas pipeline. Power is managed by the [[Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat]] (DABS, Afghanistan Electricity Company). Important dams include the [[Kajaki Dam]], [[Dahla Dam]], and the [[Sardeh Band Dam]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Infrastructure",
"Tourism"
]
| Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues. Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016. In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque [[Bamyan]] Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity. Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as the [[Wakhan]] Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities. From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous [[hippie trail]], attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities including [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]] before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, and [[Nepal]]. Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict. The city of [[Ghazni]] has significant history and historical sites, and together with [[Bamyan]] city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively. The cities of [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]], [[Balkh]], and [[Zaranj]] are also very historic. The [[Minaret of Jam]] in the [[Hari River, Afghanistan|Hari River]] valley is a [[UNESCO World Heritage site]]. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]] is kept inside the [[Shrine of the Cloak]] in Kandahar, a city founded by [[Alexander the Great]] and the first capital of Afghanistan. The [[citadel of Alexander]] in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is the [[Shrine of Ali]], believed by many to be the location where [[Ali]] was buried. The [[National Museum of Afghanistan]] is located in Kabul and hosts a large number of Buddhist, [[Bactria]] Greek and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Infrastructure",
"Communication"
]
| Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided by [[Afghan Telecom]], [[Afghan Wireless]], [[Etisalat]], [[MTN Group]], and [[Roshan (telco)|Roshan]]. The country uses its own space [[satellite]] called [[Afghansat 1]], which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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"Territories under military occupation"
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Infrastructure",
"Transportation"
]
| Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country have historically been difficult. The backbone of Afghanistan's road network is [[Highway 1 (Afghanistan)|Highway 1]], often called the "Ring Road", which extends for and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif, with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush. The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy. A key portion of the Ring Road is the [[Salang Tunnel]], completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afghanistan. It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the [[Kabul–Kandahar Highway|Kabul–Kandahar]] and the [[Kabul–Jalalabad Road]]. Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant activities. Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier, [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]], and by the private company [[Kam Air]]. Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These include [[Air India]], [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]], [[Gulf Air]], [[Iran Aseman Airlines]], [[Pakistan International Airlines]], and [[Turkish Airlines]]. The country has four international airports: [[Hamid Karzai International Airport]] (formerly Kabul International Airport), [[Kandahar International Airport]], [[Herat International Airport]], and [[Mazar-e Sharif International Airport]]. Including domestic airports, there are 43. [[Bagram Air Base]] is a major military airfield. The country has three rail links: one, a line from [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] to the [[Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge|Uzbekistan border]]; a long line from [[Toraghundi]] to the [[Turkmenistan]] border (where it continues as part of [[Turkmen Railways]]); and a short link from [[Aqina]] across the Turkmen border to [[Kerki]], which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan. These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line between [[Khaf, Iran|Khaf]], Iran and [[Herat]], western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, is under construction as of 2019. About of the line will lie on the Afghan side. There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail lines in the country. Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow in color and consist of both cars and [[auto rickshaw]]. In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use [[donkey]], [[mule]] or [[horse]] to transport or carry goods. [[Camel]] are primarily used by the [[Kochi]] nomads. Bicycles are popular throughout Afghanistan. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Infrastructure",
"Education"
]
| [[Education in Afghanistan]] includes [[K–12]] and higher education, which is overseen by the [[Ministry of Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Education]] and the [[Ministry of Higher Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Higher Education]]. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different [[List of universities in Afghanistan|universities around the country]]. About 21% of these are females. Former Education Minister [[Ghulam Farooq Wardak]] had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived of [[formal learning]]. The top universities in Afghanistan are the [[American University of Afghanistan]] (AUAF) followed by [[Kabul University]] (KU), both of which are located in Kabul. The [[National Military Academy of Afghanistan]], modeled after the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point, is a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the [[Afghan Armed Forces]]. The [[Afghan Defense University]] was constructed near [[Qargha]] in Kabul. Major universities outside of Kabul include [[Kandahar University]] in the south, [[Herat University]] in the northwest, [[Balkh University]] and [[Kunduz University]] in the north, [[Nangarhar University]] and [[Khost University]] in the east. The United States is building six faculties of education and five provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two large secondary schools in Kabul, and one school in Jalalabad. Kabul University was founded in 1932 and is a respected institute that played a significant part in the country's education; from the 1960s the Kabul University was also a hotbed of radical political ideologies such as Marxism and Islamism, which played major parts in society, politics and the war that began in 1978. As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%). The Afghan National Security Forces are provided with mandatory literacy courses. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Infrastructure",
"Health"
]
| According to the [[Human Development Index]], Afghanistan is the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|15th least developed country in the world]]. The average [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] is estimated to be around 60 years. The country's [[maternal mortality]] rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its [[infant mortality]] rate is 66 to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live births. The [[Ministry of Public Health (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Public Health]] plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020. The country has more than 3,000 [[midwifery|midwives]], with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year. There are over 100 [[hospitals in Afghanistan]], with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The [[French Medical Institute for Children]] and [[Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital]] in Kabul are the leading [[children's hospital]] in the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the [[Jamhuriat Hospital]] and [[Jinnah Hospital (Kabul)|Jinnah Hospital]]. In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment. It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility. [[Disability]] rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war. It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs. Non-governmental charities such as [[Save the Children]] and [[Mahboba's Promise]] assist orphans in association with governmental structures. [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] is working with the [[Indian Institute of Health Management Research]] and others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on [[maternal death]], among other things. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture"
]
| Since antiquity, Afghanistan has been part of what is now referred to as Central Asia – politically, economically, and culturally. Afghanistan is a predominantly tribal society, with different regions of the country having their own cultures as a result of differing ethnicities and geographic obstacles that makes much of the country remote. Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families are often headed by a [[patriarch]]. In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to the [[Pashtun culture]] by following [[Pashtunwali]] (the Pashtun way). Key tenets of Pashtunwali include [[melmastia|hospitality]], the provision of [[nanawatai|sanctuary]] to those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood. The Pashtuns (and [[Baloch people|Baloch]]) are largely connected to the culture of South Asia. The remaining Afghans are culturally [[Persianization|Persian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called [[Pashtunization]], while some Pashtuns have been [[Persianization|Persianized]]. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious. Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor. One writer considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle. There are various [[ethnic groups in Afghanistan|Afghan tribes]], and an estimated 2–3 million [[Kochi people|nomads]]. Afghan culture is deeply [[Islamic culture|Islamic]], but pre-Islamic practices persist. One example is ''[[bacha bazi]]'', a term for activities involving sexual relations between older men and younger adolescent men, or boys. [[Child marriage in Afghanistan|Child marriage]] is prevalent in Afghanistan; the legal age for marriage is 16. The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one's [[parallel cousin]], and the groom is often expected to pay a [[bride price]]. In the villages, families typically occupy [[mudbrick]] houses, or compounds with mudbrick or [[stone wall]] houses. Villages typically have a headman (''malik''), a master for water disribution (''mirab'') and a religious teacher (''mullah''). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest. About 15% of the population are [[nomadic]], locally called ''[[kochi]]''. When nomads pass villages they often buy supplies such as tea, wheat and [[kerosene]] from the villagers; villagers buy [[wool]] and milk from the nomads. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture"
]
| [[Afghan clothing]] for both men and women typically consists of various forms of [[shalwar kameez]], especially ''[[perahan tunban]]'' and ''[[khet partug]]''. Women would normally wear a ''[[chador]]'' for head covering; some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear the ''[[burqa]]'', a full body covering. These were worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but the [[Taliban]] enforced this dress on women when they were in power. Another popular dress is the ''[[chapan]]'' which acts as a coat. The ''[[Karakul (hat)|karakul]]'' is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by President [[Hamid Karzai]]. The ''[[pakol]]'' is another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerilla leader [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]]. The ''Mazari hat'' originates from northern Afghanistan. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture",
"Architecture"
]
| The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages, including [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Buddhist]] stupas, monasteries, monuments, temples and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are the [[Great Mosque of Herat]], the [[Blue Mosque (Mazar-i-Sharif)|Blue Mosque]], the [[Minaret of Jam]], the [[Chil Zena]], the Qala-i Bost in [[Lashkargah]], the ancient Greek city of [[Ai-Khanoum]]. However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars. The two famous [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]] were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[idolatrous]]. Despite that, archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country, some of them dating back to the 2nd century. As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan, European-style architecture is rare; most notably the Victory Arch at [[Paghman]], and the [[Darul Aman Palace]] in Kabul, were built in this style in the 1920s by the Afghans themselves. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture",
"Art and ceramics"
]
| Carpet [[weaving]] is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are still [[Handicraft|handmade]] by tribal and nomadic people today. Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women. Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of the [[Soviet-Afghan War]], "[[war rugs]]" were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict. Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs. In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills. [[Pottery]] has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of [[Istalif]], north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery, and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries. Much of ''[[lapis lazuli]]'' stones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan which were used in [[Chinese porcelain]] as [[cobalt blue]], later used in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Turkey]]. The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage of [[oil painting]] found in cave murals in the country. A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan is [[Gandhara Art]], produced by a fusion of [[Greco-Roman]] art and [[Buddhist art]] between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. Later eras saw increased use of the [[Persian miniature]] style, with [[Kamaleddin Behzad]] of [[Herat]] being one of the most notable miniature artists of the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] and early [[Safavid]] periods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art. [[Abdul Ghafoor Breshna]] was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
"Afghanistan",
"Iranian Plateau",
"Islamic republics",
"Landlocked countries",
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"States and territories established in 1709",
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"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture",
"Media and entertainment"
]
| Afghanistan has around 350 [[List of radio stations in Afghanistan|radio stations]] and over 200 television stations. [[Radio Television Afghanistan]], originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such as [[TOLO (TV channel)|TOLO]] and [[Shamshad TV]]. The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873, and there are hundreds of print outlets today. By the 1920s, [[Radio Kabul]] was broadcasting local radio services. [[Voice of America]], [[BBC World Service|BBC]], and [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio. Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002, after more than two decades of tight controls. Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian [[Bollywood]] films and listening to its [[filmi]] songs. It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film industry. The stereotypes of [[Afghans in India]] (''Kabuliwala'' or ''Pathani'') has also been represented in some Bollywood films by actors. Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including [[Salman Khan]], [[Saif Ali Khan]], [[Shah Rukh Khan]], [[Aamir Khan]], [[Feroz Khan (Indian actor)|Feroz Khan]], [[Kader Khan]], [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Zarine Khan]], [[Celina Jaitly]], and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afghanistan, including ''[[Dharmatma]]'', ''[[Khuda Gawah]]'', ''[[Escape from Taliban]]'', and ''[[Kabul Express]]''. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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"Territories under military occupation"
]
| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture",
"Music"
]
| Afghan classical music has close historical links with [[Indian classical music]] and use the same Hindustani terminology and theories like [[raga]]. Genres of this style of music include [[ghazal]] (poetic music) and instruments such as the Indian [[tabla]], [[sitar]] and [[harmonium]], and local instruments like [[zerbaghali]], as well as [[dayereh]] and [[tanbur]] which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucusus and the Middle East. The [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]] is the country's national instrument and precurses the Indian [[sarod]] instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music include [[Ustad Sarahang]] and [[Abdul Rahim Sarban|Sarban]]. Pop music developed in the 1950s through [[Radio Kabul]] and was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at first [[Mermon Parwin]]. Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was [[Ahmad Zahir]], who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979. Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan music include [[Nashenas]], [[Ubaidullah Jan]], [[Mahwash]], [[Ahmad Wali]], [[Farhad Darya]], and [[Naghma]]. [[Attan]] is the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds. The dance is considered part of Afghan identity. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture",
"Cuisine"
]
| Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat, maize, [[barley]] and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk, [[yogurt]] and [[whey]]. [[Kabuli palaw]] is the [[national dish]] of Afghanistan. The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity. Afghanistan is known for its high quality [[Pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]], grapes, and sweet melons. Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans, and they typically eat [[naan]] breads, yoghurts, rice and meat in a typical diet. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture",
"Literature"
]
| Classic [[Persian literature|Persian]] and [[Pashto poetry]] are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. One of the poetic styles is called [[Landay (poetry)|landay]]. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are [[Dev (mythology)|devs]], monstrous creatures. Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city of [[Herat]] when men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems. The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and writers from the Middle Ages to the present day, among which three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran), namely: [[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari]] of Herat, a great mystic and [[Sufi]] saint in the 11th century, [[Sanai]] of Ghazni, author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally, [[Rumi]] of Balkh, in the 13th century, considered the persophonist throughout the world as the greatest mystical poet of the entire Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres (novel, theater), movements and stylistic features imported from Europe. [[Khushal Khan Khattak]] of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets include [[Rabi'a Balkhi]], [[Jami]], [[Rahman Baba]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]], and [[Parween Pazhwak]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture",
"Holidays and festivals"
]
| Afghanistan's official New Year starts with [[Nowruz]], an ancient tradition that started as a [[Zoroastrian]] celebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at the [[March equinox|vernal equinox]]. [[Nauruz in Afghanistan|In Afghanistan]], Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance, as well as holding [[buzkashi]] tournaments. [[Yaldā]], another nationally celebrated ancient tradition, commemorates the ancient goddess [[Mithra]] and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the [[winter solstice]] (; usually falling on 20 or 21 December), during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly the red fruits watermelon and [[pomegranate]], as well as [[mixed nuts]]. Religious festivals are also celebrated; as a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such as [[Ramadan]], [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Ashura]] are widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival of [[Vaisakhi]] is celebrated by the Sikh community and the Hindu festival [[Diwali]] by the Hindu community. [[Afghan Independence Day|National Independence Day]] is celebrated on 19 August to mark the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919]] under King [[Amanullah Khan]] and the country's full independence. Several international celebrations are also officially held in Afghanistan, such as [[International Workers' Day]] and [[International Women's Day]]. Some regional festivals include the Pamir Festival, which celebrates the culture of the [[Wakhi people|Wakhi]] and [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] peoples, the Red Flower Festival (during Nowruz) in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] and the Damboora Festival in [[Bamyan Province]]. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[
"Culture",
"Sports"
]
| Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the [[Afghan Sports Federation]]. [[Cricket]] and association football are the two most popular sports in the country. The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, [[basketball]], [[volleyball]], [[golf]], [[team handball|handball]], [[boxing]], [[taekwondo]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[bodybuilding]], [[track and field]], [[ice skating|skating]], [[bowling]], [[snooker]], [[chess]], and other sports. Afghanistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles at international events. Its [[Afghanistan national basketball team|basketball team]] won the first team sports title at the [[2010 South Asian Games]]. Later that year, the country's [[Afghanistan national cricket team|cricket team]] followed as it won the [[2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup]]. In 2012, the country's [[Afghanistan national 3x3 team|3x3 basketball team]] won the gold medal at the [[3-on-3 basketball at the 2012 Asian Beach Games|2012 Asian Beach Games]]. In 2013, Afghanistan's [[Afghanistan national football team|football team]] followed as it won the [[SAFF Championship]]. The [[Afghan national cricket team]], which was formed in 2001, participated in the [[2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier]], [[2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One]] and the [[2010 ICC World Twenty20]]. It won the [[ACC Twenty20 Cup]] in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team eventually made it and played in the [[2015 Cricket World Cup]]. The [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The [[Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground]] serves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country, including the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium]] near [[Jalalabad]]. Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces. The [[Afghanistan national football team]] has been competing in international [[Association football|football]] since 1941. The national team plays its home games at the [[Ghazi Stadium]] in Kabul, while [[football in Afghanistan]] is governed by the [[Afghanistan Football Federation]]. The national team has never competed or qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup]] but has recently won an international football trophy in 2013. The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football. The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan is [[buzkashi]], mainly popular in the north, but also having a following in other parts of the country. It is similar to [[polo]], played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. The [[Afghan Hound]] (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was formerly used in [[wolf hunting with dogs|wolf hunting]]. In 2002, traveler [[Rory Stewart]] reported that dogs were still used for wolf hunting in remote areas. | 737 | Afghanistan | [
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| [
"Outline of Afghanistan",
"Index of Afghanistan-related articles"
]
|
[]
| '''Albania''' ( ; or ), officially the '''Republic of Albania''' (), is a country in [[Southeast Europe|Southeastern Europe]]. It is located on the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] and [[Ionian Sea]] within the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and shares [[land border]] with [[Montenegro]] to the northwest, [[Kosovo]] to the northeast, [[North Macedonia]] to the east, [[Greece]] to the south; and [[maritime border]] with Greece, Montenegro and [[Italy]] to the west. [[Tirana]] is its capital and largest city, followed by [[Durrës]], [[Vlorë]] and [[Shkodër]]. [[Geography of Albania|Geographically]], Albania displays varied climatic, geological, hydrological, and morphological conditions, defined in an area of . It possesses significant diversity with the landscape ranging from the snow-capped mountains in the [[Albanian Alps]] as well as the [[Korab]], [[Central Mountain Range, Albania#Skanderbeg Mountains|Skanderbeg]], [[Pindus Mountains|Pindus]] and [[Ceraunian Mountains]] to the hot and sunny coasts of the [[Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast|Albanian Adriatic]] and [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast|Ionian Sea]] along the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean Sea]]. [[History of Albania|Historically]], Albania has been inhabited by numerous civilisations such as the [[Illyrians]], [[Thracians]], [[Ancient Greek]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Venetian Empire|Venetians]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. The [[Albanians]] established the autonomous [[Principality of Arbër]] in the 12th century. The [[Kingdom of Albania (medieval)|Kingdom of Albania]] and [[Principality of Albania (medieval)|Principality of Albania]] formed between the 13th and 14th centuries. Prior to the [[Ottoman Albania|Ottoman conquest of Albania]] in the 15th century, the [[Skanderbeg#Rebellion against the Ottomans|Albanian resistance]] to Ottoman expansion into Europe led by [[Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg]] won them acclaim over most of Europe. Between the 18th and 19th centuries, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to the [[Albanian Renaissance]]. After the defeat of the Ottomans in the [[Balkan Wars]], the modern [[nation state]] of Albania [[Declaration of independence of Albania|declared independence]] in 1912. In the 20th century, the [[Kingdom of Albania (1928–39)|Kingdom of Albania]] was invaded by [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] which formed [[Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Greater Albania]] before becoming a [[Albanian Kingdom (1943–44)|protectorate]] of [[Nazi Germany]]. [[Enver Hoxha]] formed the [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania]] after [[World War II]], modeled under the terms of [[Hoxhaism]]. The [[Revolutions of 1989|Revolutions of 1991]] concluded the [[fall of communism in Albania]] and eventually the establishment of the current Republic of Albania. [[Politics of Albania|Politically]], Albania is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional republic]] and a [[developing country]] with an upper-middle income [[Economy of Albania|economy]] dominated by the service sector, followed by manufacturing. It went through a process of transition following the end of communism in 1990, from [[centralized planning]] to a [[market-based economy]]. Albania provides [[universal health care]] and free primary and secondary [[Education in Albania|education]] to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, [[World Bank]], [[UNESCO]], [[NATO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Council of Europe|COE]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], and [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|OIC]]. It is an [[Accession of Albania to the European Union|official candidate]] for membership in the [[European Union]]. It is one of the founding members of the [[Energy Community]], including the [[Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation]] and [[Union for the Mediterranean]]. | 738 | Albania | [
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]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Etymology"
]
| The term Albania is the [[medieval Latin]] name of the country. It may be derived from the [[Illyrian tribe]] of [[Albani (Illyrian tribe)|Albani]] () recorded by [[Ptolemy]], the geographer and astronomer from [[Alexandria]], who drafted a map in 150 AD which shows the city of [[Albanopolis]] located northeast of [[Durrës]]. The term may have a continuation in the name of a medieval settlement called [[Principality of Arbanon|Albanon]] or Arbanon, although it is not certain that this was the same place. In his history written in the 10th century, the [[Byzantine]] historian [[Michael Attaliates]] was the first to refer to [[Albanoi]] as having taken part in a revolt against [[Constantinople]] in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke of [[Dyrrachium]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], the [[Albanians|Albanian]] called their country '''' and referred to themselves as ''''. Nowadays, Albanians call their country ''''. The words ''Shqipëri'' and ''Shqiptar'' are attested from 14th century onward, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename ''Shqipëria'' and the ethnic demonym ''Shqiptarë'' gradually replaced ''Arbëria'' and ''Arbëreshë'' amongst [[Albanian language|Albanian]] speakers. The two terms are popularly interpreted as "Land of the Eagles" and "Children of the Eagles". | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Prehistory"
]
| The first attested traces of [[neanderthal]] presence in the territory of Albania dates back to the [[Middle Paleolithic|middle]] and [[upper Paleolithic]] period and were discovered in [[Xarrë]] and at [[Mount Dajt]] in the adjacent region of [[Tirana]]. Archaeological sites from this period include the [[Kamenica Tumulus]], [[Konispol]] Cave and [[Pellumbas Cave]]. The discovered objects in a cave near Xarrë include [[flint]] and [[jasper]] objects along with fossilised animal bones, while those discoveries at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the [[Aurignacian culture]]. They also demonstrate notable similarities with objects of the equivalent period found at Crvena Stijena in [[Montenegro]] and northwestern [[Greece]]. Multiple artifacts from the [[Iron Age|Iron]] and [[Bronze Age]] near [[tumulus]] burials have been unearthed in central and southern Albania, which has similar affinity with the sites in southwestern [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and [[Lefkada]]. Archaeologists have come to the conclusion that these regions were inhabited from the middle of the third millennium BC by [[Indo-European migrations|Indo-European people]] who spoke a [[Proto-Greek language]]. Hence, a part of this historical population later moved to [[Mycenae]] around 1600 BC and properly established the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean civilisation]]. | 738 | Albania | [
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Antiquity"
]
| In ancient times, the incorporated territory of Albania was historically inhabited by [[Indo-European people]], among them numerous [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[Illyrian tribe|tribes]], [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Thracians]]. In view of the Illyrian tribes, there is no evidence that these tribes used any collective nomenclature for themselves, while it is regarded to be unlikely that they used a common [[endonym]]. The endonym ''Illyrians'' seems to be the name applied to a specific Illyrian tribe, which was the first to come in liaison with the Ancient Greeks resulting the endonym ''Illyrians'' to be applied ''[[pars pro toto]]'' to all people of similar language and customs. The territory referred to as [[Illyria]] corresponded roughly to the area east of the [[Adriatic Sea]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] extending in the south to the mouth of the [[Vjosë]]. The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from [[Periplus of the Euxine Sea]], an ancient Greek text written in the middle of the 4th century BC. The west was inhabited by the Thracian tribe of the [[Bryges]] while the south was inhabited by the Ancient Greek-speaking tribe of the [[Chaonians]], whose capital was at [[Phoenice]]. Other colonies such as [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]], [[Epidamnos]] and [[Amantia]], were established by Ancient Greek city-states on the coast by the 7th century BC. The Illyrian [[Ardiaei]] tribe, centered in Montenegro, ruled over most of the territory of Albania. Their [[Ardiaean Kingdom]] reached its greatest extent under [[Agron of Illyria|King Agron]], the son of [[Pleuratus II]]. Agron extended his rule over other neighboring tribes as well. Following Agron's death in 230 BC, his wife, [[Teuta]], inherited the Ardiaean kingdom. Teuta's forces extended their operations further southward to the Ionian Sea. In 229 BC, Rome declared war on the kingdom for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227 BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by [[Gentius]] in 181 BC. Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC, initiating the [[Third Illyrian War]]. The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of the region by 167 BC. The Romans split the region into three administrative divisions. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
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|
[
"History",
"Middle Ages"
]
| The [[Roman Empire]] was split in 395 upon the death of [[Theodosius I]] into an [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern]] and [[Western Roman Empire]] in part because of the increasing pressure from threats during the [[Barbarian Invasions]]. From the 6th century into the 7th century, the [[South Slavs|Slavs]] crossed the [[Danube]] and largely absorbed the indigenous Ancient Greeks, Illyrians and Thracians in the [[Balkans]]; thus, the Illyrians were mentioned for the last time in historical records in the 7th century. In the 11th century, the [[Great Schism of 1054|Great Schism]] formalised the break of communion between the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Western Catholic Church]] that is reflected in Albania through the emergence of a Catholic north and Orthodox south. The Albanian people inhabited the west of [[Lake Ochrida]] and the upper valley of [[Shkumbin|River Shkumbin]] and established the [[Principality of Arbanon]] in 1190 under the leadership of [[Progon of Kruja]]. The realm was succeeded by his sons [[Gjin Progoni|Gjin]] and Dhimitri. Upon the death of Dhimiter, the territory came under the rule of the Albanian-Greek [[Gregory Kamonas]] and subsequently under the [[Golem of Kruja]]. In the 13th century, the principality was dissolved. Arbanon is considered to be the first sketch of an Albanian state, that retained a [[semi-autonomous]] status as the western extremity of the [[Byzantine Empire]], under the Byzantine [[Doukas|Doukai]] of [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] or [[Laskaris|Laskarids]] of [[Empire of Nicaea|Nicaea]]. Towards the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, [[Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)|Serb]] and [[Venetian Empire|Venetians]] started to take possession over the territory. The [[ethnogenesis]] of the Albanians is uncertain; however the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates back in historical records from 1079 or 1080 in a work by [[Michael Attaliates]], who referred to the [[Albanoi]] as having taken part in a revolt against [[Constantinople]]. At this point the Albanians were fully Christianized. | 738 | Albania | [
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[
"History",
"Middle Ages"
]
| Few years after the dissolution of Arbanon, [[Charles I of Naples|Charles of Anjou]] concluded an agreement with the Albanian rulers, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties. In 1272, he established the [[Kingdom of Albania (medieval)|Kingdom of Albania]] and conquered regions back from the [[Despotate of Epirus]]. The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory from [[Dyrrhachium]] along the Adriatic Sea coast down to [[Butrint]]. A catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans of spreading [[Catholicism]] in the Balkan Peninsula. This plan found also the support of [[Helen of Anjou]], a cousin of Charles of Anjou. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule mainly in northern Albania. Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century enabled Serbs' most powerful medieval ruler, [[Stefan Dusan]], to establish a [[Serbian Empire|short-lived empire]] that included all of Albania except Durrës. In 1367, various Albanian rulers established the [[Despotate of Arta]]. During that time, several [[Albanian principalities]] were created, notably the [[Balsha]], [[Thopia family|Thopia]], [[Kastrioti Principality|Kastrioti]], [[Muzaka family|Muzaka]] and [[Arianiti family|Arianiti]]. In the first half of the 15th century, the [[Ottoman Empire]] invaded most of Albania, and the [[League of Lezhë]] was held under [[Skanderbeg]] as a ruler, who became the national hero of the Albanian medieval history. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
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|
[
"History",
"Middle Ages",
"Ottoman Empire"
]
| With the [[fall of Constantinople]], the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into [[Ottoman conquest of the Balkans|Southeast Europe]]. They reached the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]] in 1385 and erected their garrisons across [[Southern Albania]] in 1415 and then occupied most of Albania in 1431. Thousands of Albanians consequently fled to Western Europe, particularly to [[Calabria]], [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]] and [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]], whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible [[Geography of Albania|Mountains of Albania]]. The Albanians, as Christians, were considered as an [[Rayah|inferior class]] of people, and as such they were subjected to heavy [[Jizya|tax]] among others by the [[Devshirme]] system that allowed the [[Sultan]] to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from their families to compose the [[Janissary]]. The Ottoman conquest was also accompanied with the gradual process of [[Islamisation]] and the rapid construction of mosques which consequently modified the religious picture of Albania. A prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of the [[League of Lezhë|Assembly of Lezhë]] until the [[Siege of Shkodra|Siege of Shkodër]] under the leadership of [[Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg]], multiple times defeating major Ottoman armies led by [[Sultan]] [[Murad II]] and [[Mehmed II]]. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the [[Arianiti family|Arianiti]], [[Dukagjini family|Dukagjini]], [[Zaharia family|Zaharia]] and [[Thopia family|Thopia]], and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming the [[Skanderbeg|Lord of Albania]]. Skanderbeg consistently pursued the goal relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to constitute a European coalition against the Ottomans. He thwarted every attempt by the Ottomans to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and Western Europe. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe also among others financial and military aid from the [[Papacy]] and [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] and [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]]. When the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region, Albanian towns were organised into four principal [[sanjaks]]. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain. The city of [[Vlorë]] saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets, cotton goods, mohairs, carpets, spices and leather from [[Bursa]] and [[Constantinople]]. Some citizens of Vlorë even had business associates throughout Europe. The phenomenon of Islamisation among the Albanians became primarily widespread from the 17th century and continued into the 18th century. Islam offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. However, motives for conversion were, according to some scholars, diverse depending on the context though the lack of source material does not help when investigating such issues. Because of increasing suppression of Catholicism, mostly catholic Albanians converted in the 17th century, while orthodox Albanians followed suit mainly in the following century. | 738 | Albania | [
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
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|
[
"History",
"Middle Ages",
"Ottoman Empire"
]
| Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the [[Ottoman military]] and bureaucracy. A couple of Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions who culturally contributed to the broader [[Muslim world]]. Enjoying this privileged position, they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen Albanian [[Grand Viziers]] among others members of the prominent [[Köprülü family]], [[Zagan Pasha]], [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]] and [[Ali Pasha of Tepelena]] however, two sultans such as [[Bayezid II]] and [[Mehmed III]] had both mothers of Albanian origin. | 738 | Albania | [
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Rilindja"
]
| The [[Albanian Renaissance]] was a period with its roots in the late 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, during which the Albanian people gathered spiritual and intellectual strength for an independent cultural and political life within an [[Independent Albania|independent nation]]. Modern [[Albanian culture]] flourished too, especially [[Albanian literature]] and [[Albanian art|arts]], and was frequently linked to the influences of the [[Romanticism]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] principles. Prior to the [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]], Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries, and Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or conscience by the Albanian people. Through literature, Albanians started to make a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future. The victory of Russia over the Ottoman Empire following the [[Russian-Ottoman War]] resulted the execution of the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] which overlooked to assign Albanian-populated lands to the Slavic and Greek neighbours. However, the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] consequently blocked the arrangement and caused the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]]. From this point, Albanians started to organise themselves with the goal to protect and unite the Albanian-populated lands into a unitary nation, leading to the formation of the [[League of Prizren]]. The league had initially the assistance of the Ottoman authorities whose position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim people and landlords connected with the [[Ottoman Porte|Ottoman administration]]. They favoured and protected the Muslim solidarity and called for defense of Muslim lands simultaneously constituting the reason for titling the league [[League of Prizren#Formation|Committee of the Real Muslims]]. Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed by delegates from Bosnia, the [[sanjakbey|administrator]] of the [[Sanjak of Prizren]] as representatives of the central authorities and no delegates from [[Vilayet of Scutari]]. Signed by only 47 Muslim deputies, the league issued the [[Kararname (League of Prizren)|Kararname]] that contained a proclamation that the people from northern Albania, [[Epirus]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] are willing to defend the [[territorial integrity]] of the Ottoman Empire by all possible means against the troops of [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]]. Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league, under [[Abdyl Frashëri]], became focused on working toward Albanian autonomy and requested merging four [[Ottoman vilayet|vilayet]], including [[Kosovo Vilayet|Kosovo]], [[Scutari Vilayet|Shkodër]], [[Monastir Vilayet|Monastir]] and [[Janina Vilayet|Ioannina]], into an unified vilayet, the [[Albanian Vilayet]]. The league used military force to prevent the annexing areas of [[Plav Municipality|Plav]] and [[Gusinje]] assigned to Montenegro. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops, such as the [[Battle of Novšiće]], the league was forced to retreat from their contested regions. The league was later defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the sultan. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
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"Southern European countries",
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
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]
|
[
"History",
"Rilindja",
"Independence"
]
| Albania [[Albanian Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from the Ottoman Empire on 28 November 1912, accompanied with the establishment of the [[Senate of Albania|Senate]] and [[Provisional Government of Albania|Government]] by the [[Assembly of Vlorë]] on 4 December 1912. Its sovereignty was recognised by the [[London Conference of 1912–1913|Conference of London]]. On 29 July 1913, the [[Treaty of London (1913)|Treaty of London]] delineated the borders of the country and its neighbors, leaving many Albanians outside Albania, predominantly [[Partition (politics)|partitioned]] between [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]], [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]]. Headquartered in Vlorë, the [[International Commission of Control]] was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of newly established Albania, until its own political institutions were in order. The [[International Gendarmerie]] was established as the first law enforcement agency of the [[Principality of Albania]]. In November, the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country. Prince of Albania [[Wilhelm of Wied]] ''(Princ Vilhelm Vidi)'' was selected as the first prince of the principality. On 7 March, he arrived in the provisional capital of [[Durrës]] and started to organise his government, appointing [[Turhan Pasha Përmeti]] to form the first Albanian cabinet. In November 1913, the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war Minister of Albanian origin, [[Ahmed Izzet Pasha]]. The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that the new regime was a tool of the six Christian [[Great Power]] and local landowners, that owned half of the arable land. In February 1914, the [[Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus]] was proclaimed in [[Gjirokastër]] by the local [[Greeks in Albania|Greek population]] against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short lived, and in 1921 the southern provinces were incorporated into the Albanian Principality. Meanwhile, the [[Peasant Revolt in Albania|revolt of Albanian peasants]] against the new Albanian regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered around [[Essad Pasha Toptani]], who proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and Islam. In order to gain support of the [[Mirdita]] Catholic volunteers from the northern part of Albania, Prince [[Wilhelm of Wied|Wied]] appointed their leader, [[Prênk Bibë Doda]], to be the foreign minister of the Principality of Albania. In May and June 1914, the International Gendarmerie was joined by [[Isa Boletini]] and his men, mostly from [[Kosovo]], and northern [[Mirdita]] Catholics, were defeated by the rebels who captured most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914. The regime of Prince Wied collapsed, and he left the country on 3 September 1914. | 738 | Albania | [
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
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]
|
[
"History",
"First Republic"
]
| Following the end of the government of [[Fan Noli]], the parliament adopted a new constitution and proclaimed the country as a parliamentary republic in which King [[Zog I of Albania]] (Ahmet Muhtar Zogu) served as the [[head of state]] for a seven-year term. Immediately after, [[Tirana]] was endorsed officially as the country's permanent capital. The politics of Zogu was authoritarian and conservative with the primary aim of the maintenance of stability and order. He was forced to adopt a policy of cooperation with Italy where a pact had been signed between both countries, whereby Italy gained a monopoly on shipping and trade concessions. Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official through money and patronage. In 1928, the country was eventually replaced by [[Kingdom of Albania (1928–1939)|another monarchy]] with a strong support by the [[Italian Fascism|fascist regime]] of Italy however, both maintained close relations until the [[Italian invasion of Albania|Italian invasion]] of the country. Zogu remained a conservative but initiated reforms and placed great emphasis on the development of infrastructure. In an attempt at social modernisation, the custom of adding one's region to one's name was dropped. He also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals. The armed forces were trained and supervised by instructors from Italy, and as a counterweight, he kept British officers in the [[Gendarmerie]] despite strong Italian pressure to remove them. After being militarily occupied by Italy from 1939 until 1943, the [[Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Kingdom of Albania]] was a [[protectorate]] and a [[Dependent territory|dependency]] of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] governed by [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] and his government. In October 1940, Albania served as a staging ground for an unsuccessful Italian [[Greco-Italian War|invasion of Greece]]. A counterattack resulted in a sizeable portion of southern Albania coming under Greek military control until April 1941 when Greece capitulated during the [[Battle of Greece|German invasion]]. In April 1941, territories of [[Yugoslavia]] with substantial Albanian population were annexed to Albania inclusively western Macedonia, a strip of eastern Montenegro, the town of [[Tutin, Serbia|Tutin]] in central Serbia and most of Kosovo. Germans started to occupy the country in September 1943 and subsequently announced that they would recognise the independence of a neutral Albania and set about organising a new government, military and law enforcement. [[Balli Kombëtar]], which had fought against Italy, formed a neutral government and side by side with the Germans fought against the communist-led [[National Liberation Movement (Albania)|National Liberation Movement]] of Albania. During the last years of the war, the country fell into a civil war-like state between the communists and nationalists. The communists defeated the last anti-communist forces in the south in 1944. Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana, and the communists took control by attacking it. The partisans entirely liberated the country from German occupation on 29 November 1944. A provisional government, which the communists had formed at Berat in October, administered Albania with [[Enver Hoxha]] as the head of government. | 738 | Albania | [
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| [
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|
[
"History",
"First Republic"
]
| By the end of the [[Second World War]], the main military and political force of the nation, the Communist party sent forces to northern Albania against the nationalists to eliminate its rivals. They faced open resistance in [[Nikaj-Mërtur]], [[Dukagjin highlands|Dukagjin]] and [[Kelmendi (tribe)|Kelmend]] led by [[Prek Cali]]. On 15 January 1945, a clash took place between partisans of the first Brigade and nationalist forces at the Tamara Bridge, resulting in the defeat of the nationalist forces. About 150 [[Kelmendi (tribe)|Kelmendi]] people were killed or tortured. This event was the starting point of many other issues which took place during [[Enver Hoxha]]'s dictatorship. [[Class conflict|Class struggle]] was strictly applied, human freedom and human rights were denied. The Kelmend region was almost isolated by both the border and by a lack of roads for another 20 years, the institution of [[agricultural cooperative]] brought about economic decline. Many Kelmendi people fled, and some were executed trying to cross the border. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Communism"
]
| In the aftermath of World War II and the defeat of the [[Axis powers|Axis Powers]], the country became initially a [[Soviet satellite|satellite state]] of the [[Soviet Union]], and Enver Hoxha emerged as the leader of the newly established [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|People's Republic of Albania]]. Soviet-Albanian relations [[Soviet–Albanian split|began to deteriorate]] after Stalin's death in 1953. At this point, the country started to develop foreign relations with other communist countries, among others with the [[People's Republic of China]]. During this period, the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, a rapid collectivisation and economic growth which led to a higher standard of living. The government called for the development of infrastructure and most notably the introduction of a [[Hekurudha Shqiptare|railway system]] that completely revamped transportation. The new land reform laws were passed granting ownership of the land to the workers and peasants who tilled it. Agriculture became [[Worker cooperative|cooperative]], and production increased significantly, leading to the country becoming agriculturally self-sufficient. In the field of education, illiteracy was eliminated among the country's adult population. The government also oversaw the emancipation of women and the expansion of healthcare and education throughout the country. The average annual increase in the country's national income was 29% and 56% higher than the world and European average, respectively. The nation incurred large debts initially with Yugoslavia until 1948, then the Soviet Union until 1961 and China from the middle of the 1950s. The constitution of the communist regime did not allow taxes on individuals, instead, taxes were imposed on cooperatives and other organisations, with much the same effect. Today a [[secular state]] without any [[official religion]], [[Freedom of religion in Albania|religious freedoms]] and practices were severely curtailed during the communist era with all forms of worship being outlawed. In 1945, the Agrarian Reform Law meant that large swaths of property owned by religious groups were nationalised, mostly the [[waqfs]] along with the estates of mosques, tekkes, monasteries and dioceses. Many believers, along with the [[ulema]] and many priests, were arrested and executed. In 1949, a new Decree on Religious Communities required that all their activities be sanctioned by the state alone. After hundreds of mosques and dozens of Islamic libraries containing priceless manuscripts were destroyed, Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first [[State atheism|atheist state]] in 1967. The churches had not been spared either and many were converted into cultural centres for young people. A 1967 law banned all fascist, religious, and antisocialist activity and propaganda. Preaching religion carried a three to ten-year prison sentence. Nonetheless, many Albanians continued to practice their beliefs secretly. The anti-religious policy of Hoxha attained its most fundamental legal and political expression a decade later: "The state recognizes no religion", states the 1976 constitution, "and supports and carries out atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people". | 738 | Albania | [
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Fourth Republic"
]
| After forty years of communism and [[Isolationism|isolation]] as well as the [[revolutions of 1989]], people, most notably students, became politically active and campaigned against the government that led to the transformation of the existing order. Following the popular support in the first [[multi-party elections]] of [[Albanian parliamentary election, 1991|1991]], the communists retained a stronghold in the [[Parliament of Albania|parliament]] until the victory in the [[Albanian parliamentary election, 1992|general elections]] of 1992 led by the [[Democratic Party of Albania|Democratic Party]]. Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted to [[Pyramid schemes in Albania|pyramid schemes]] that were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the population of the country. Despite the warnings of the [[International Monetary Fund]], [[Sali Berisha]] defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes. The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded by firing on the demonstrators. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armouries open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resulting [[Albanian Civil War|civil war]] caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and refugees. The crisis led both [[Aleksandër Meksi]] and [[Sali Berisha]] to resign from office in the wake of the general election. In April 1997, [[Operation Alba]], a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered the country with two goals exclusively to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and to secure the ground for international organisations. The main international organisation that was involved was the [[Western European Union]]'s [[Albanian civil war of 1997#International intervention|multinational]] [[Albanian Police]] element, which worked with the government to restructure the [[Judicial system of Albania|judicial system]] and simultaneously the Albanian police. | 738 | Albania | [
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"History",
"Contemporary"
]
| Following the disintegration of the [[Communist Albania|communist system]], Albania focussed on an active process of [[Westernisation]] with the goal of accession to the [[European Union]] (EU) and [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO). In 2009, the country, along with [[Croatia]], gained [[Albania–NATO relations|active membership]] for accession to the NATO simultaneously becoming among the first countries in Southeast Europe to enter the partnership for peace programme. Out side of it, it also [[Accession of Albania to the European Union|applied]] to join the European Union on 28 April 2009 however, it received, upon its application, an [[Future enlargement of the European Union|official candidate status]] on 24 June 2014. Following its application, the EU twice rejected the country's accession to its EU membership. Between 2013 and 2017, [[Edi Rama]] of the [[Socialist Party of Albania|Socialist Party]] won both the [[Albanian parliamentary election, 2013|2013]] and [[Albanian parliamentary election, 2017|2017 parliamentary elections]]. As a [[Prime Minister of Albania|Prime Minister]], he implemented numerous reforms focused on [[Modernism|modernising]] the [[Economy of Albania|economy]], as well as democratising the state institutions, including the country's [[Judiciary of Albania|judiciary]] and [[Law enforcement in Albania|law enforcement]]. Unemployment has been steadily reduced while having the 4th lowest [[List of countries by unemployment rate|unemployment rate]] in the Balkans. Rama has also placed [[gender equality]] at the center of its agenda, since 2017 almost 50% of the ministers are female, making it the largest number of women serving in the country's history. On 26 November 2019, a 6.4 [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] [[earthquake]] ravaged Albania with the [[epicenter]] positioned southwest of the town of [[Mamurras]]. The tremor was felt in [[Tirana]] and in places as far away as [[Taranto]], Italy, and [[Belgrade]], Serbia, thus, the most affected areas were the coastal city of [[Durrës]] and [[Kodër-Thumanë]]. Response to the earthquake included substantial humanitarian aid, designed to help the Albanian people, from the [[Albanian diaspora]] and several countries [[2019 Albania earthquake#International assistance|around the world]]. On 9 March 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Albania|coronavirus disease 2019]] (COVID-19) was confirmed to have spread to Albania. From March to June, the government declared a [[state of emergency]], as a measure to limit the rapid spread of the pandemic in the country. On 28 July 2020, the country reported its 5 thousandth case, at this time, there had been nearly 150 reported deaths. | 738 | Albania | [
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| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Geography"
]
| Albania has an area of and is located on the [[Balkan Peninsula]] in [[Southern Europe|South]] and [[Southeast Europe]]. Its shoreline faces the [[Adriatic Sea]] to the northwest and the [[Ionian Sea]] to the southwest along the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Albania lies between latitudes [[42nd parallel north|42°]] and [[39th parallel north|39° N]], and longitudes [[21st meridian east|21°]] and [[19th meridian east|19° E]]. Its northernmost point is [[Vërmosh]] at 42° 35' 34" northern latitude; the southernmost is [[Konispol]] at 39° 40' 0" northern latitude; the westernmost point is [[Sazan Island|Sazan]] at 19° 16' 50" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is [[Vërnik]] at 21° 1' 26" eastern longitude. The highest point is [[Mount Korab]] at [[Metres above the Adriatic|above the Adriatic]]; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea at . The distance from the east to west is and from the north to south about . For a small country, much of Albania rises into mountains and hills that run in different directions across the length and breadth of its territory. The most extensive mountain ranges are the [[Albanian Alps]] in the north, the [[Korab|Korab Mountains]] in the east, the [[Pindus Mountains]] in the southeast, the [[Ceraunian Mountains]] in the southwest and the [[Skanderbeg Mountains]] in the centre. Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the country is the presence of numerous important lakes. The [[Lake of Shkodër]] is the largest lake in [[List of largest lakes of Europe|Southern Europe]] and located in northwest. In the [[Albanian Ohrid Lake Coast|southeast]] rises the [[Lake of Ohrid]] that is one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world. Farther south extends the [[Prespa Lake|Large]] and [[Small Prespa Lake|Small Lake of Prespa]], which are among the highest positioned lakes in the Balkans. Rivers rise mostly in the east of Albania and discharge into the Adriatic Sea but as well as into the Ionian Sea to a lesser extent. The longest river in the country, measured from its mouth to its source, is the [[Drin River|Drin]] that starts at the confluence of its two headwaters, the [[Black Drin|Black]] and [[White Drin]]. Of particular concern is the [[Vjosë]], which represents one of the last intact large river systems in Europe. | 738 | Albania | [
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"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Climate"
]
| The [[climate of Albania|climate]] in the country is extremely variable and diverse owing to the differences in latitude, longitude and altitude. Albania experiences predominantly a [[mediterranean climate|mediterranean]] and [[continental climate]], with four distinct seasons. Defined by the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen classification]], it accommodates five major climatic types ranging from mediterranean and [[Humid subtropical climate|subtropical]] in the western half to [[Oceanic climate|oceanic]], [[Humid continental climate|continental]] and [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] in the eastern half of Albania. The warmest areas of the country are immediately placed along the [[Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast|Adriatic]] and [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast|Ionian Sea Coasts]]. On the contrary, the coldest areas are positioned within the [[Northern Mountain Range (Albania)|northern]] and [[Central Mountain Range (Albania)|eastern highlands]]. The mean monthly temperature ranges between in winter to in summer. The highest temperature of was recorded in [[Kuçovë]] on 18 July 1973. The lowest temperature of was registered in the village of Shtyllë, [[Librazhd]] on 9 January 2017. Rainfall naturally varies from season to season and from year to year. The country receives most of the [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] in winter months and less in summer months. The average precipitation is about . The mean annual precipitation ranges between and depending on geographical location. The [[Northern Mountain Range (Albania)|northwestern]] and [[Southern Mountain Range (Albania)|southeastern highlands]] receive the intenser amount of precipitation, whilst the [[Northern Mountain Range (Albania)|northeastern]] and [[Southern Mountain Range (Albania)|southwestern highlands]] as well as the [[Western Lowlands]] the more limited amount. The [[Albanian Alps]] in the far north of the country are considered to be among the most humid regions of Europe, receiving at least of rain annually. An expedition from the [[University of Colorado]] discovered four [[glacier]] within these mountains at a relatively low altitude of , which is extremely rare for such a southerly latitude. Snowfall occurs frequently in winter in the highlands of the country, particularly on the mountains in the north and east, including the [[Albanian Alps]] and [[Korab]] Mountains. Snow also falls on the coastal areas in the southwest almost every winter such as in the [[Ceraunian Mountains]], where it can lie even beyond March. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Biodiversity"
]
| A [[biodiversity hotspot]], Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting [[biodiversity]] on account of its geographical location at the centre of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the great diversity in its [[climatic]], geological and [[hydrological]] conditions. Because of remoteness, the mountains and hills of Albania are endowed with forests, trees and grasses that are essential to the lives for a wide variety of animals, among others for two of the most [[endangered species]] of the country, the [[Balkan lynx|lynx]] and [[brown bear]], as well as the [[wildcat]], [[gray wolf]], [[red fox]], [[golden jackal]], [[egyptian vulture]] and [[golden eagle]], the latter constituting the national animal of the country. The estuaries, wetlands and lakes are extraordinarily important for the [[greater flamingo]], [[pygmy cormorant]] and the extremely rare and perhaps the most iconic bird of the country, the [[dalmatian pelican]]. Of particular importance are the [[mediterranean monk seal]], [[loggerhead sea turtle]] and [[green sea turtle]] that use to nest on the country's coastal waters and shores. In terms of [[phytogeography]], Albania is part of the [[Boreal Kingdom]] and stretches specifically within the [[Illyria]] province of the [[Circumboreal Region|Circumboreal]] and [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean Region]]. Its territory can be subdivided into four terrestrial [[ecoregion]] of the [[Palearctic realm]] namely within the [[Illyrian deciduous forests]], [[Balkan mixed forests]], [[Pindus Mountains mixed forests]] and [[Dinaric Mountains mixed forests]]. Approximately 3,500 different species of plants can be found in Albania which refers principally to a [[Mediterranean]] and [[Eurasia]] character. The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and [[Medicinal Purposes|medicinal practices]]. At the minimum 300 plants growing locally are used in the preparation of herbs and medicines. The trees within the forests are primarily made up of [[fir]], [[oak]], [[beech]] and [[pine]]. In the 2010 [[Environmental Performance Index]], Albania was ranked 23rd out of 163 countries in the world. It advanced from 23rd to 15th in the 2012 index while simultaneously ranking among the highest in [[Southern Europe|South]] and [[Eastern Europe]], and [[Central Asia]]. In 2005, the country was the 24th greenest country in the world according to the [[Environmental Sustainability Index]]. Nevertheless, for 2016, it was ranked the 13th best performing country on the [[Happy Planet Index]]. Albania had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 6.77 of total 10, ranking it 64th globally out of 172 countries. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Protected areas"
]
| The [[protected areas of Albania]] are areas designated and managed by the [[Albanian government]]. There are 15 [[national park]], 4 [[ramsar site]], 1 [[biosphere reserve]] and 786 other types of conservation reserves. Albania has fifteen officially designated [[National parks of Albania|national park]] scattered across its territory. Encircled by numerous [[two-thousander]], [[Valbonë Valley National Park]] and [[Theth National Park]] cover a combined territory of within the rugged [[Albanian Alps]] in northern Albania. [[Shebenik-Jabllanicë National Park]] and [[Prespa National Park (Albania)|Prespa National Park]] protect the spectacular mountainous scenery of eastern Albania as well as the country's sections of the [[Prespa Lake|Great]] and [[Small Prespa Lake|Small Lakes of Prespa]]. [[Divjakë-Karavasta National Park]] extends along the central [[Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast]] and possesses one of the largest lagoons in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Lagoon of Karavasta]]. The [[Ceraunian Mountains]] in southern Albania, rising immediately along the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], characterises the topographical picture of [[Llogara National Park]] and continue on the [[Karaburun Peninsula (Albania)|Peninsula of Karaburun]] within the [[Karaburun-Sazan Marine Park]]. Further south sprawls the [[Butrint National Park]] on a peninsula that is surrounded by the [[Lake Butrint|Lake of Butrint]] and [[Vivari Channel|Channel of Vivari]] on the eastern half of the [[Straits of Corfu]]. [[Dajti National Park]] is equipped with a cable car and trails to some spectacular scenery is a popular retreat in the capital, Tirana. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance"
]
| Albania is a [[parliamentary republic|parliamentary]] [[constitutional republic]] and [[sovereign state]] whose [[Politics of Albania|politics]] operate under a framework laid out in the [[Constitution of Albania|constitution]] wherein the [[President of Albania|president]] functions as the [[head of state]] and the [[Prime Minister of Albania|prime minister]] as the [[head of government]]. The [[sovereignty]] is vested in the [[Albanian people]] and exercised by the Albanian people through their representatives or directly. The [[government of Albania|government]] is based on the separation and balancing of powers among the [[legislative]], [[judiciary]] and executive. The [[legislative power]] is held by the [[Parliament of Albania|parliament]] and is elected every four years by a system of [[party-list proportional representation]] by the Albanian people on the basis of free, equal, universal and periodic [[suffrage]] by [[secret ballot]]. The [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], codified and based on the [[Napoleonic Code]], is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts. The [[judicial power]] is vested in the [[Supreme Court of Albania|supreme court]], [[Constitutional Court of Albania|constitutional court]], [[Appeals courts of Albania|appeal court]] and [[Administrative Courts in Albania|administrative court]]. [[Law enforcement]] in the country is primarily the responsibility of the [[Albanian Police]], the main and largest state law enforcement agency. It carries out nearly all general police duties including criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing and border control. The [[executive power]] is exercised by the president and prime minister whereby the power of the president is very limited. The president is the [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Albanian Armed Forces|military]] and the representative of the unity of the Albanian people. The tenure of the president depends on the [[Confidence and supply|confidence]] of the parliament and is elected for a five-year [[Term of office|term]] by the parliament by a majority of three-fifths of all its members. The prime minister, appointed by the president and approved by the parliament, is authorized to constitute the [[Cabinet of Albania|cabinet]]. The cabinet is composed primarily of the prime minister inclusively its deputies and ministers. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance",
"Foreign relations"
]
| In the time since the [[Fall of communism in Albania|end of communism]] and [[isolationism]], Albania has extended its responsibilities and position in continental and international affairs, developing and establishing friendly [[Foreign relations of Albania|relations]] with other countries around the world. The country's foreign policy priorities are its [[Accession of Albania to the European Union|accession]] into the [[European Union]] (EU), the [[international recognition of Kosovo]] and the [[expulsion of Cham Albanians]], as well as helping and protecting the rights of the [[Albanians]] in [[Albanians in Kosovo|Kosovo]], [[Albanians in Montenegro|Montenegro]], [[Albanians in Macedonia|North Macedonia]], [[Albanians in greece|Greece]], [[Albanians in south Serbia|Serbia]], [[Arbëreshë people|Italy]] and the [[Albanian diaspora|Diaspora]]. Albania's [[Albania-NATO relations|admission]] into the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) was considered by Albanian politicians as a significant ambition for the country's foreign policy. The country has been extensively engaged with the NATO and has maintained its position as a stability factor and a strong ally of the United States and the European Union (EU) in the region of the [[Balkans]]. Albania maintains strong [[Albanian American relations|ties]] with the United States ever after it supported the Albania's independence and democracy. Nowadays, both countries have signed a number of agreements and [[treaties]]. In 2007, Albania welcomed [[George W. Bush]] who became the first President of the United States ever to visit the country. Albania and [[Kosovo]] are culturally, socially and economically very closely rooted due to the Albanian majority population in Kosovo. In 1998, the country contributed in supporting allied efforts to end the [[Kosovo War|humanitarian tragedy in Kosovo]] and secure the peace after the [[NATO bombing of Yugoslavia]]. Albania has been an active member of the United Nations since 1955. They country took on membership for the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] from 2005 to 2007 as well as in 2012. It served as vice president of the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC]] in 2006 and 2013. In 2014, it also joined the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] from 2015 to 2017 and was elected vice president in 2015. Albania is a full member of numerous international organisations inclusively the [[Council of Europe]], [[International Organisation for Migration]], [[World Health Organization]], [[Union for the Mediterranean]], [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[World Trade Organization]] and [[La Francophonie]]. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance",
"Military"
]
| The [[Albanian Armed Forces]] consist of [[Albanian Land Force|Land]], [[Albanian Air Force|Air]] and [[Albanian Naval Force|Naval Force]] and constitute the military and paramilitary forces of the country. They are led by a [[commander-in-chief]] under the supervision of the [[Ministry of Defence (Albania)|Ministry of Defence]] and by the [[President of Albania|President]] as the supreme commander during wartime however, in times of peace its powers are executed through the [[Prime Minister of Albania|Prime Minister]] and the [[Ministry of Defence (Albania)|Defence Minister]]. The chief purpose of the armed forces of Albania is the defence of the independence, the [[sovereignty]] and the [[territorial integrity]] of the country, as well as the participation in humanitarian, combat, non-combat and peace support operations. [[Military service]] is voluntary since 2010 with the age of 19 being the legal minimum age for the duty. Albania has committed to increase the participations in multinational operations. Since the fall of communism, the country has participated in six international missions but participated in only one United Nations mission in [[UNOMIG|Georgia]], where it sent 3 military observers. Since February 2008, Albania has participated officially in NATO's [[Operation Active Endeavor]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It was invited to join NATO on 3 April 2008, and it became a full member on 2 April 2009. Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65,000 in 1988 to 14,500 in 2009. The military now consists mainly of a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. In the 1990s, the country scrapped enormous amounts of obsolete hardware from China, such as tanks and [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM systems]]. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for [[NATO]] integration. Military spending has generally been low. As of 1996 military spending was an estimated 1.5% of the country's GDP, only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Governance",
"Administrative divisions"
]
| Albania is defined within a territorial area of in the [[Balkan Peninsula]]. The country is divided into three regions, the [[Northern Albania|Northern]], [[Central Albania|Central]] and [[Southern Albania|Southern Region]], which consist of a number of [[counties of Albania|counties]] (''qarqe'') and [[Municipalities of Albania|municipalities]] (''bashkia''). The highest level of [[Subdivisions of Albania|administrative divisions]] are the twelve constituent counties. Each county has the same status but vary in their areas, [[List of counties of Albania by population|populations]] and contributions to the economy. Nonetheless, they are further subdivided into 61 municipalities with each of them being responsible for geographical, economic, social and cultural purposes inside the counties. The counties were created on 31 July 2000 to replace the 36 former districts. The [[Government of Albania|government]] introduced the new administrative divisions to be implemented in 2015, whereby municipalities were reduced to 61, while the rurals were abolished. The defunct municipalities are known as neighborhoods or villages. There are overall 2980 villages or communities in the entire country, formerly known as localities. The municipalities are the first level of local governance, responsible for local needs and [[Law enforcement in Albania|law enforcement]]. The largest county in Albania, by population, is [[Tirana County]] with over 800,000 people. The smallest county, by population, is [[Gjirokastër County]] with over 70,000 people. The largest in the county, by area, is [[Korçë County]] encompassing of the southeast of Albania. The smallest county, by area, is [[Durrës County]] with an area of in the west of Albania. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Economy"
]
| The transition from a socialist [[planned economy]] to a capitalist [[mixed economy]] in Albania has been largely successful. The country has a [[Developing country|developing]] mixed economy classified by the [[World Bank]] as an [[List of countries by GNI (nominal, Atlas method) per capita#Upper-middle-income group|upper-middle income economy]]. In 2016, it had the 4th lowest [[List of countries by unemployment rate|unemployment rate]] in the [[Balkans]] with an estimated value of 14.7%. Its largest trading partners are Italy, Greece, China, Spain, Kosovo and the United States. The [[Albanian lek|lek]] (ALL) is the country's currency and is [[Fixed exchange rate|pegged]] at approximately 132,51 lek per euro. The cities of [[Tirana]] and [[Durrës]] constitute the economic and financial heart of Albania due to their high population, modern infrastructure and strategic geographical location. The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both of the cities, connecting the north to the south as well as the west to the east. Among the largest [[List of companies of Albania|companies]] are the petroleum [[Taçi Oil]], [[Albpetrol]], [[ARMO oil refiner|ARMO]] and Kastrati, the mineral [[AlbChrome]], the cement [[Antea Cement|Antea]], the investment [[Samir Mane|BALFIN Group]] and the technology [[Albtelecom]], [[Vodafone Albania|Vodafone]], [[Telekom Albania]] and others. In 2012, Albania's [[GDP per capita]] stood at 30% of the [[European Union]] average, while [[GDP (PPP) per capita]] was 35%. Albania were one of three countries in Europe to record an economic growth in the first quarter of 2010 after the [[global financial crisis]]. The [[International Monetary Fund]] predicted 2.6% growth for Albania in 2010 and 3.2% in 2011. According to the [[Forbes]] , the [[Gross Domestic Product (GDP)]] was growing at 2.8%. The country had a [[trade balance]] of −9.7% and [[unemployment rate]] of 14.7%. The [[Foreign direct investment]] has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious program to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. The economy is expected to expand in the near term, driven by a recovery in consumption and robust investments. Growth is projected to be 3.2% in 2016, 3.5% in 2017, and 3.8% in 2018. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
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"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Primary sector"
]
| Agriculture in the country is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. It remains a significant sector of the [[economy of Albania]]. It employs 41% of the population, and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. One of the earliest farming sites in Europe has been found in the southeast of the country. As part of the pre-accession process of Albania to the [[European Union]], farmers are being aided through [[Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance|IPA]] funds to improve Albanian agriculture standards. Albania produces significant amounts of fruits (apples, [[olive]], grapes, oranges, lemons, [[apricot]], [[peach]], [[Cherry|cherries]], [[figs]], [[Prunus cerasus|sour cherries]], [[plum]], and [[Strawberry|strawberries]]), [[Vegetable oil|vegetables]] (potatoes, tomatoes, maize, onions, and wheat), [[sugar beet]], tobacco, meat, [[honey]], [[dairy product]], traditional medicine and [[Essential oil|aromatic plants]]. Further, the country is a worldwide significant producer of [[salvia]], [[rosemary]] and [[Gentiana lutea|yellow gentian]]. The country's proximity to the [[Ionian Sea]] and the [[Adriatic Sea]] give the underdeveloped fishing industry great potential. The [[World Bank]] and [[European Community]] economists report that, Albania's fishing industry has good potential to generate export earnings because prices in the nearby Greek and Italian markets are many times higher than those in the Albanian market. The fish available off the coasts of the country are [[carp]], [[trout]], [[sea bream]], [[mussel]] and [[crustacean]]. Albania has one of Europe's longest histories of [[viticulture]]. The today's region was one of the few places where vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 to 6,000 years old. In 2009, the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine. During the communist era, the production area expanded to some . | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Secondary sector"
]
| The secondary sector of Albania have undergone many changes and diversification, since the collapse of the communist regime in the country. It is very diversified, from [[Electronics industry|electronics]], [[Manufacturing industries|manufacturing]], [[Textile industry|textiles]], to [[Food industry|food]], [[Cement industry|cement]], [[Mining industry|mining]], and [[Energy industry|energy]]. The [[Antea Cement]] plant in [[Fushë-Krujë]] is considered as one of the largest industrial greenfield investments in the country. Albanian oil and gas is represents of the most promising albeit strictly regulated sectors of its economy. Albania has the [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|second largest oil deposits]] in the [[Balkan peninsula]] after [[Romania]], and the largest [[Patos-Marinza Oil Field|oil reserves]] in Europe. The [[Albpetrol]] company is owned by the Albanian state and monitors the state petroleum agreements in the country. The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by approaching companies from the [[European Union]] (EU) in Albania. According to the [[Institute of Statistics (Albania)|Institute of Statistics (INSTAT)]] , the textile production marked an annual growth of 5.3% and an annual turnover of around 1.5 billion euros. Albania is a significant minerals producer and is ranked among the world's leading [[chromium]] producers and exporters. The nation is also a notable producer of copper, [[nickel]] and coal. The [[Batra mine]], [[Bulqizë mine]], and [[Thekna mine]] are among the most recognised Albanian mines that are still in operation. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Tertiary sector"
]
| The [[tertiary sector]] represents the fastest growing sector of the country's economy. 36% of the population work in the service sector which contributes to 65% of the country's GDP. Ever since the end of the 20th century, the [[banking industry]] is a major component of the tertiary sector and remains in good conditions overall due to [[privatization]] and the commendable [[monetary policy]]. Previously one of the most [[Isolationism|isolated]] and controlled countries in the world, [[telecommunication industry]] represents nowadays another major contributor to the sector. It developed largely through privatisation and subsequent investment by both domestic and foreign investors. [[Eagle Mobile|Eagle]], [[Vodafone Albania|Vodafone]] and [[Telekom Albania]] are the leading [[telecommunications service provider]] in the country. Tourism is recognised as an industry of national importance and has been steadily increasing since the beginnings of the 21st century. It directly accounted for 8.4% of GDP in 2016 though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to 26%. In the same year, the country received approximately 4.74 million visitors mostly from across Europe and the United States as well. The increase of foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2 million, an increase of 740 percent in only 7 years. In 2015, tourism in summer increased by 25 percent in contrast the previous year according to the country's tourism agency. In 2011, [[Lonely Planet]] named as a top travel destination, while [[The New York Times]] placed Albania as number 4 global touristic destination in 2014. The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the [[Adriatic]] and [[Ionian Sea]] in the west of the country. However, the [[Albanian Riviera]] in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches, and is often called the pearl of the Albanian coast. Its coastline has a considerable length of . The coast has a particular character because it is rich in varieties of virgin beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, sea caves and many landforms. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, which represent in this prospective unexplored areas, which are very rare within the [[Mediterranean]]. Other attractions include the mountainous areas such as the [[Albanian Alps]], [[Ceraunian Mountains]] and [[Korab]] Mountains but also the historical cities of [[Berat]], [[Durrës]], [[Gjirokastër]], [[Sarandë]], [[Shkodër]] and [[Korçë]]. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
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"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
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"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Transport"
]
| Transportation in Albania is managed within the functions of the [[Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy (Albania)|Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy]] and entities such as the [[Albanian Road Authority]] (ARRSH), responsible for the construction and maintenance of the [[Highways in Albania|highways]] and [[motorways in Albania|motorways]] in Albania, as well as the [[Civil Aviation Authority (Albania)|Albanian Aviation Authority]] (AAC), with the responsibility of coordinating civil aviation and airports in the country. The [[Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza|international airport]] of [[Tirana]] is the premier air gateway to the country, and is also the principal hub for Albania's national [[flag carrier]] airline, [[Air Albania]]. The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 with connections to many destinations in other countries around [[Europe]], [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. The country plans to progressively increase the number of airports especially in the south with possible locations in [[Sarandë]], [[Gjirokastër]] and [[Vlorë International Airport|Vlorë]]. The [[Highways in Albania|highways]] and [[motorways in Albania]] are properly maintained and often still under construction and renovation. The [[A1 motorway (Albania)|Autostrada 1]] (A1) represents an integral transportation corridor in Albania and the longest motorway of the country. It will prospectively link [[Durrës]] on the Adriatic Sea across [[Pristina]] in Kosovo with the [[Pan-European Corridor X]] in Serbia. The [[A2 motorway (Albania)|Autostrada 2]] (A2) is part of the [[Adriatic–Ionian motorway|Adriatic–Ionian Corridor]] as well as the [[Pan-European Corridor VIII]] and connects [[Fier]] with [[Vlorë]]. The [[A3 motorway (Albania)|Autostrada 3]] (A3) is currently under construction and will connect, after its completion, [[Tirana]] and [[Elbasan]] with the Pan-European Corridor VIII. When all three corridors are completed, Albania will have an estimated of highway linking it with all of its neighboring countries. [[Port of Durrës|Durrës]] is the busiest and largest [[seaport]] in the country, followed by [[Port of Vlorë|Vlorë]], [[Port of Shëngjin|Shëngjin]] and [[Port of Sarandë|Sarandë]]. , it is as one of the largest passenger ports on the [[Adriatic Sea]] with annual passenger volume of approximately 1.5 million. The principal ports serve a system of ferries connecting Albania with numerous islands and coastal cities in Croatia, Greece and Italy. The rail network is administered by the national railway company [[Hekurudha Shqiptare]] which was extensively promoted by the dictator [[Enver Hoxha]]. There has been a considerable increase in private car ownership and bus usage while rail use decreased since the end of communism. However, a new railway line from Tirana and its airport to Durrës is currently planned. The specific location of this railway, connecting the most populated urban areas in Albania, merely makes it an important economic development project. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Infrastructure",
"Education"
]
| In the country, education is secular, free, [[Compulsory education|compulsory]] and based on three levels of education segmented in primary, secondary and tertiary education. The academic year is apportioned into two semesters beginning in September or October, and ending in June or July. [[Albanian language|Albanian]] serves as the [[primary language]] of instruction in all [[state school|academic institution]] across the country. The study of a first [[foreign language]] is mandatory and taught most often at elementary and bilingual schools. The languages taught in schools are English, Italian, French and German. The country has a [[school life expectancy]] of 16 years and a [[literacy rate]] of 98.7%, with 99.2% for males and 98.3% for females. Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels, elementary and secondary school, from grade one to five and six to nine, respectively. Pupils are required to attend school from the age of six until they turn 16. Upon successful completion of primary education, all pupils are entitled to attend high schools with specialising in any particular field including arts, [[sport]], [[language]], sciences or technology. The country's tertiary education, an optional stage of formal learning following secondary education, has undergone a thorough reformation and restructuring in compliance with the principles of the [[Bologna Process]]. There is a significant number of private and public [[institutions of higher education]] well dispersed in the major cities of Albania. Studies in tertiary education are organized at three successive levels which include the [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor]], [[Master's degree|master]] and [[Doctorate Degree|doctorate]]. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
[
"Infrastructure",
"Health"
]
| The [[constitution of Albania]] guarantees equal, free and [[universal health care]] for all its citizens. The health care system of the country is currently organised in three levels, among others [[Primary healthcare|primary]], [[Secondary care|secondary]] and [[tertiary healthcare]], and is in a process of modernisation and development. The [[life expectancy]] at birth in Albania is at 77.8 years and ranks [[List of countries by life expectancy|37th]] in the world outperforming several [[developed countries]]. The average [[Life expectancy#Healthy life expectancy|healthy life expectancy]] is at 68.8 years and ranks as well 37th in the world. The country's [[infant mortality rate]] is estimated at 12 per 1,000 live births in 2015. In 2000, the country had the 55th best healthcare performance in the world, as defined by the [[World Health Organization]]. [[Cardiovascular disease]] remain the principal cause of death in the country accounting 52% of total deaths. [[Accident]], injuries, [[Malignant disease|malignant]] and [[respiratory disease]] are other primary causes of death. [[Neuropsychiatric disorders|Neuropsychiatric disease]] has also increased due to recent demographic, social and economic changes in the country. In 2009, the country had a fruit and vegetable supply of 886 grams per capita per day, the fifth highest supply in Europe. In comparison to other developed and developing countries, Albania has a relatively low rate of [[obesity]] probably thanks to the health benefits of the [[Mediterranean diet]]. According to [[List of countries by Body Mass Index (BMI)#WHO Data on Prevalence of Obesity (BMI above 30) (2014)|World Health Organization data from 2016]], 21.7% of adults in the country are clinically [[overweight]], with a [[Body mass index]] (BMI) score of 25 or more. | 738 | Albania | [
"Albania",
"Albanian-speaking countries and territories",
"Southern European countries",
"Southeastern European countries",
"Balkan countries",
"Member states of NATO",
"Member states of the Council of Europe",
"Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation",
"Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Republics",
"States and territories established in 1912",
"Countries in Europe"
]
| [
"Outline of Albania",
"Bibliography of Albania",
"Index of Albania-related articles"
]
|
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