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[
"Training"
]
| In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese [[martial arts]], there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and [[Exercise|conditioning]], as well as specific techniques. Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of [[throw (grappling)|throws]], beginners learn how to safely fall or roll. The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs; the techniques for defense consist of throws and [[Pinning hold|pins]]. After basic techniques are learned, students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents, and techniques with weapons. | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[
"Training",
"Fitness"
]
| Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled [[relaxation technique|relaxation]], correct movement of joints such as hips and shoulders, [[flexibility (anatomy)|flexibility]], and [[endurance]], with less emphasis on [[strength training]]. In aikido, pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements. This distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner. In aikido, specific muscles or muscle groups are not isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, or power. Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement and balance similar to [[yoga as exercise|yoga]] or [[pilates]]. For example, many dōjōs begin each class with , which may include [[stretching]] and [[Uke (martial arts)|ukemi]] (break falls). | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[
"Training",
"Roles of ''uke'' and ''tori''"
]
| Aikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre-arranged forms (''[[kata]]'') rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique (''[[uke (martial arts)|uke]]'') to initiate an attack against the person who applies the technique—the ''[[Tori (martial arts)|tori]]'', or (depending on aikido style), also referred to as (when applying a throwing technique), who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique. Both halves of the technique, that of and that of , are considered essential to aikido training. Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation. learns to blend with and control attacking energy, while learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous, off-balance positions in which places them. This "receiving" of the technique is called . continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities (e.g., an exposed side), while uses position and timing to keep off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training, will sometimes apply to regain balance and pin or throw . refers to the act of receiving a technique. Good involves attention to the technique, the partner, and the immediate environment—it is considered an active part of the process of learning aikido. The method of falling itself is also important, and is a way for the practitioner to receive an aikido technique safely and minimize risk of injury. | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[
"Training",
"Initial attacks"
]
| Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack, so students must learn to deliver various types of attacks to be able to practice aikido with a partner. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts, attacks with intent (such as a strong strike or an immobilizing grab) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique. Many of the of aikido resemble cuts from a [[sword]] or other grasped object, which indicate its origins in techniques intended for [[weapon|armed]] combat. Other techniques, which explicitly appear to be punches (''[[tsuki]]''), are practiced as thrusts with a [[knife]] or sword. [[Kick]] are generally reserved for upper-level variations; reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous, and that kicks (high kicks in particular) were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan. Some basic strikes include: (-) is a vertical [[knifehand strike]] to the head. In training, this is usually directed at the forehead or the [[Crown (anatomy)|crown]] for safety, but more dangerous versions of this attack target the bridge of the nose and the [[maxillary sinus]]. (-) is a diagonal knifehand strike to the side of the head or neck. (-) is a [[Punch (strike)|punch]] to the [[torso]]. Specific targets include the [[chest]], [[abdomen]], and [[solar plexus]], sometimes referred to as , or . (-) is a punch to the [[face]], sometimes referred to as . Beginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs, both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and the direction of the movement of force of a hold than it is for a strike. Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a [[Katana|weapon]], whereupon a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the attacker while they are grabbing the defender. The following are examples of some basic grabs: (-) , when one hand grabs one wrist. (-) , when both hands grab one wrist; sometimes referred to as (-) , when both hands grab both wrists; sometimes referred to as . (-) when one shoulder is grabbed. (-) , when both shoulders are grabbed. It is sometimes combined with an overhead strike as . (-) , when the lapel is grabbed; sometimes referred to as . | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[
"Training",
"Basic techniques"
]
| The following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins. Many of these techniques derive from Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, but some others were invented by Morihei Ueshiba. The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles; the following are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation. Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed, they are not universally taught in numeric order. (-) , a control technique using one hand on the elbow and one hand near the wrist which [[lever]] ''uke'' to the ground. This grip applies pressure into the [[ulnar nerve]] at the wrist. (-) is a [[Kote mawashi|pronating wristlock]] that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure. (There is an [[Wristlock#Adductive wristlock|adductive wristlock]] or Z-lock in the version.) (-) is a [[Wristlock#Rotational wristlock|rotational wristlock]] that directs upward-spiraling tension throughout the arm, elbow and shoulder. (-) is a shoulder control technique similar to , but with both hands gripping the forearm. The knuckles (from the palm side) are applied to the recipient's [[radial nerve]] against the [[periosteum]] of the forearm bone. (-) is a technique that is visually similar to , but with an inverted grip of the wrist, [[medial rotation]] of the arm and shoulder, and downward pressure on the elbow. Common in [[knife]] and other weapon take-aways. (-) '''''' is a throw during which 's hand is folded back past the shoulder, locking the shoulder joint. (-) is a [[Kote gaeshi|supinating]] wristlock-throw that stretches the [[extensor digitorum]]. (-) is a loosely used umbrella term for various types of mechanically unrelated techniques; generally do not use joint locks like other techniques. (-) , throws in which moves through the space occupied by . The classic form superficially resembles a "clothesline" technique. (-) , a throw in which, beginning with , moving forward, sweeps one hand low ("earth") and the other high ("heaven"), which unbalances so that he or she easily topples over. (-) , aikido's version of the [[throw (grappling)#Hip throws|hip throw]]; drops their hips lower than those of , then flips over the resultant [[Lever|fulcrum]]. (-) or , a throw that locks the arms against each other (the [[kanji]] for "10" is a cross-shape: 十). (-) is a throw in which sweeps 's arm back until it locks the shoulder joint, then uses forward pressure to throw them.'''' | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[
"Training",
"Implementations"
]
| Aikido makes use of body movement (''[[tai sabaki]]'') to blend the movement of with the movement of . For example, an "entering" (''[[irimi]]'') technique consists of movements inward towards , while a technique uses a pivoting motion. Additionally, an technique takes place in front of , whereas an technique takes place to their side; a technique is applied with motion to the front of , and a version is applied with motion towards the rear of , usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture (''[[seiza]]''). Techniques where both and are standing are called , techniques where both start off in are called , and techniques performed with standing and sitting are called (). From these few basic techniques, there are numerous of possible implementations. For example, can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike (perhaps with an type of movement to redirect the incoming force), or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance (perhaps an version). Specific aikido are typically referred to with the formula "attack-technique(-modifier)"; , for example, refers to any technique executed when is holding one wrist. This could be further specified as (referring to any forward-moving technique from that grab). ''[[Atemi]]'' () are strikes (or [[feint]]) employed during an aikido technique. Some view as attacks against "[[pressure point|vital points]]" meant to cause damage in and of themselves. For instance, [[Gozo Shioda]] described using in a brawl to quickly down a gang's leader. Others consider , especially to the face, to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques; a strike, even if it is blocked, can startle the target and break their concentration. Additionally, the target may also become unbalanced while attempting to avoid a strike (by jerking the head back, for example) which may allow for an easier throw. Many sayings about are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba, who considered them an essential element of technique. | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[
"Training",
"Weapons"
]
| [[Image:PRehse002-cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Disarming an attacker using a technique]] Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff (''[[jō]]'') (these techniques closely resemble the use of the bayonet, or [[Jūkendō]]), the wooden sword (''[[bokken]]''), and the knife (''[[tantō]]''). Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques, where either weapon-taking and/or weapon-retention may be taught. Some schools, such as the [[Iwama style]] of [[Morihiro Saito]], usually spend substantial time practicing with both and , under the names of ''[[aiki-ken]]'', and ''[[aiki-jō]]'', respectively. The founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques from traditional sword, spear and bayonet movements. Consequently, the practice of the weapons arts gives insight into the origin of techniques and movements, and reinforces the concepts of distance, timing, foot movement, presence and connectedness with one's training partner(s). | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[
"Training",
"Multiple attackers and ''randori''"
]
| One feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers, often called , or . Freestyle practice with multiple attackers called ''[[randori]]'' () is a key part of most curricula and is required for the higher-level ranks. exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment. Strategic choice of techniques, based on how they reposition the student relative to other attackers, is important in training. For instance, an technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind. In [[Shodokan Aikido]], differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker, but between two people, where both participants attack, defend, and counter at will. In this respect it resembles judo . | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
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| []
|
[
"Training",
"Injuries"
]
| In applying a technique during training, it is the responsibility of to prevent injury to by employing a speed and force of application that is appropriate with their partner's proficiency in . When injuries (especially to the joints) occur, they are often the result of a misjudging the ability of to receive the throw or pin. A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other. Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido, as well as joint strain and stubbed fingers and toes. Several deaths from head-and-neck injuries, caused by aggressive in a [[Senpai and kōhai|senpai/kōhai]] hazing context, have been reported. | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[
"Training",
"Mental training"
]
| Aikido training is mental as well as physical, emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations. This is necessary to enable the practitioner to perform the 'enter-and-blend' movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness. Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one "must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face" in order to execute techniques without hesitation. As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners. | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
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| []
|
[
"Uniforms and ranking"
]
| Aikido practitioners (commonly called outside Japan) generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (''[[kyū]]''), followed by a series of "degrees" (''[[dan (rank)|dan]]''), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish practitioners' grades, often simply white and [[Black belt (martial arts)|black belts]] to distinguish and grades, although some use various belt colors. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another. Some dōjōs have an age requirement before students can take the rank exam. The uniform worn for practicing aikido (''[[Keikogi|aikidōgi]]'') is similar to the training uniform (''[[keikogi]]'') used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick ("[[judo]]-style"), and thin ("[[karate]]-style") cotton tops are used. Aikido-specific tops are available with shorter sleeves which reach to just below the elbow. Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or [[indigo]] trousers called a ''[[hakama]]'' (used also in [[Naginatajutsu]], [[kendo]], and [[iaido]]). In many schools, its use is reserved for practitioners with ranks or for instructors, while others allow all practitioners to wear a regardless of rank. | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[
"Aikido styles"
]
| [[Aikido styles]] vary in their intention as due to its holistic nature. The most common differences noted in aikido, when observed externally, relate to the intensity and realism of training. [[Stanley Pranin]] has observed that some criticism may stem from weak attacks from , allowing for a conditioned response from , resulting in underdevelopment of the skills needed for the safe and effective practice of both partners. To counteract this, some styles allow students to become less compliant over time, but, in keeping with the core philosophies, this is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able to protect themselves and their training partners. [[Shodokan Aikido]] addresses the issue by practicing in a competitive format. Conversely other post-war styles emphasis spiritual development, enlightenment, peace studies, or the study of traditional medicine for health studies. Reasons for the difference and diversity of teachings, intention, and forms of aikido can be traced to the shift in training focus after the end of Ueshiba's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to the mid-1950s, as he increasingly emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido. As a result, strikes to vital points by , entering () and initiation of techniques by , the distinction between (front side) and (back side) techniques, and the use of weapons, were all de-emphasized or eliminated from practice. Conversely, some styles of aikido place less importance on the spiritual practices emphasized by Ueshiba. According to Minoru Shibata of ''Aikido Journal'': "O-Sensei's aikido was not a continuation and extension of the old and has a distinct discontinuity with past martial and philosophical concepts." In other words, aikido practitioners who focus on aikido's roots in traditional ''[[jujutsu]]'' or ''[[kenjutsu]]'' are said to be diverging from what Ueshiba taught, as some critics urge practitioners: "[Ueshiba's] transcendence to the spiritual and universal reality were the fundamentals of the paradigm that he demonstrated." | 751 | Aikido | [
"Aikido",
"Japanese martial arts",
"Dō",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| []
|
[]
| '''Art''' is a diverse range of (products of) [[human behavior|human activities]] involving creative [[imagination]] to express technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or [[concept]] [[idea]]. There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art, and ideas have changed over time. The three classical branches of [[visual art]] are [[painting]], [[sculpture]], and [[architecture]]. [[Theatre]], [[dance]], and other [[performing arts]], as well as [[literature]], [[music]], [[film]] and other media such as [[interactive media]], are included in a broader definition of [[the arts]]. Until the 17th century, ''art'' referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from [[craft]] or [[sciences]]. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the [[Fine art|fine arts]] are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the [[decorative arts|decorative]] or [[applied arts]]. The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and [[Aesthetic interpretation|interpretation]], are explored in a branch of philosophy known as [[aesthetics]]. The resulting [[artworks]] are studied in the professional fields of [[art criticism]] and the [[art history|history of art]]. | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
"Aesthetics",
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|
[
"Overview"
]
| In the perspective of the history of art, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early [[pre-historic art]] to [[contemporary art]]; however, some theorists feel that the typical concept of "artistic works" fits less well outside modern Western societies. One early sense of the definition of ''art'' is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft", as associated with words such as "artisan". English words derived from this meaning include ''artifact'', ''artificial'', ''artifice'', ''medical arts'', and ''military arts''. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its [[etymology]]. Over time, philosophers like [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Socrates]] and [[Kant]], among others, questioned the meaning of art. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the [[muses]], and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the ''[[Phaedrus (Plato)|Phaedrus]] ''(265a–c), and yet in the ''[[Republic (Plato)|''Republic'']]'' wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In ''[[Ion (dialogue)|Ion]]'', Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the ''Republic''. The dialogue ''Ion'' suggests that [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. With regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb]] poetry and music to be [[Mimesis|mimetic]] or imitative art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals. The more recent and specific sense of the word ''art'' as an abbreviation for ''creative art'' or ''fine art'' emerged in the early 17th century. Fine art refers to a skill used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or ''finer'' work of art. | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
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|
[
"Overview"
]
| Within this latter sense, the word ''art'' may refer to several things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or (iv) the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (''art'' as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce ''artworks'' (''art'' as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as [[Kant]], the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered [[commercial art]] instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered [[applied art]]. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see [[aesthetics]]); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong [[emotion]]. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent. | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
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|
[
"Overview"
]
| The nature of art has been described by philosopher [[Richard Wollheim]] as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture". Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating [[Formalism (art)|formal elements]] for their own sake, and as ''[[mimesis]]'' or [[Representation (arts)|representation]]. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of [[Aristotle]]. [[Leo Tolstoy]] identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. [[Benedetto Croce]] and [[R. G. Collingwood]] advanced the [[Idealism|idealist]] view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of [[Kant]], and was developed in the early 20th century by [[Roger Fry]] and [[Clive Bell]]. More recently, thinkers influenced by [[Martin Heidegger]] have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation. [[George Dickie (philosopher)|George Dickie]] has offered an [[institutional theory of art]] that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as "the [[art world]]" has conferred "the status of candidate for appreciation". Larry Shiner has described fine art as "not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old." Art may be characterized in terms of [[mimesis]] (its representation of reality), narrative (storytelling), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. During the [[Romanticism|Romantic period]], art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science". | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
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|
[
"History"
]
| A shell engraved by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' was determined to be between 430,000 and 540,000 years old. A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks and abrasion that indicate manipulation by neanderthals, possibly for using it as jewelry. A series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave. Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years. Sculptures, [[cave paintings]], rock paintings and [[petroglyphs]] from the [[Upper Paleolithic]] dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[History of Iran|Persia]], India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as [[Inca civilization|Inca]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], and [[Olmec]]. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions. In [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] and [[Medieval art]] of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about Biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of [[Catholic Europe]]. [[Renaissance art]] had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of [[graphical perspective]] to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space. | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
"Aesthetics",
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[
"History"
]
| In the east, [[Islamic art]]'s rejection of [[iconography]] led to emphasis on [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric patterns]], [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], and [[Islamic architecture|architecture]]. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning [[terracotta army]] of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, [[Tang dynasty]] paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but [[Ming dynasty]] paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. [[Woodblock printing]] became important in Japan after the 17th century. The western [[Age of Enlightenment]] in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as [[William Blake|Blake]]'s portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or [[Jacques-Louis David|David]]'s propagandistic paintings. This led to [[Romanticism|Romantic]] rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of [[Goethe]]. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as [[academic art]], [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]], [[impressionism]] and [[fauvism]] among others. The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of [[Impressionism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]], [[Dadaism]], [[Surrealism]], etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing [[globalization|global]] interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development. Later, [[African art|African sculptures]] were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by [[Matisse]]. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like [[Communism]] and [[Post-Modernism]] exerting a powerful influence. | 752 | Art | [
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[
"History"
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| [[Modernism]], the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. [[Theodor W. Adorno]] said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist." [[Relativism]] was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of [[contemporary art]] and [[List of postmodern critics|postmodern criticism]], where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with [[skepticism]] and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones. In ''[[The Origin of the Work of Art]]'', Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher and a seminal thinker, describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and truth. He argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a culture, but the means of creating it and providing a springboard from which "that which is" can be revealed. Works of art are not merely representations of the way things are, but actually produce a community's shared understanding. Each time a new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is inherently changed. Historically, art and artistic skills and ideas have often been spread through trade. An example of this is the [[Silk Road]], where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could mix. Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. The meeting of different cultures and worldviews also influenced artistic creation. An example of this is the multicultural port metropolis of [[Trieste]] at the beginning of the 20th century, where James Joyce met writers from Central Europe and the artistic development of [[New York City]] as a cultural melting pot. | 752 | Art | [
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[
"Forms, genres, media, and styles"
]
| The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as [[List of art mediums|media]], genre, [[Art movement|styles]], and form. '''''Art form''''' refers to the [[elements of art]] that are independent of its interpretation or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical [[Composition (visual arts)|composition]] of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e., [[figurae]]), such as [[Color theory|color]], [[Contour drawing|contour]], [[Fourth dimension in art|dimension]], [[List of art mediums|medium]], [[melody]], [[Negative space|space]], [[Texture (painting)|texture]], and [[Lightness|value]]. Form may also include [[Visual design elements and principles#Principles of design|visual design principles]], such as arrangement, [[Formal balance|balance]], [[Contrast (vision)|contrast]], [[Emphasis (typography)|emphasis]], [[harmony]], [[Hierarchical proportion|proportion]], [[Principles of grouping|proximity]], and rhythm. In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing respectively on form, content, and context. Extreme [[Formalism (art)|Formalism]] is the view that all aesthetic properties of art are formal (that is, part of the art form). Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art extend beyond materials, techniques, and form. Unfortunately, there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter and content – i.e., [[denotation]] and [[connotation]] – while others prefer terms like [[Meaning (semiotics)|meaning]] and significance. Extreme Intentionalism holds that [[authorial intent]] plays a decisive role in the meaning of a work of art, conveying the content or essential main idea, while all other interpretations can be discarded. It defines the subject as the persons or idea represented, and the content as the artist's experience of that subject. For example, the composition of [[Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne]] is partly borrowed from the [[Statue of Zeus at Olympia]]. As evidenced by the title, the subject is [[Napoleon]], and the content is [[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres|Ingres]]'s representation of Napoleon as "Emperor-God beyond time and space". Similarly to extreme formalism, philosophers typically reject extreme intentionalism, because art may have multiple ambiguous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable and thus irrelevant. Its restrictive interpretation is "socially unhealthy, philosophically unreal, and politically unwise". Finally, the developing theory of [[post-structuralism]] studies art's significance in a cultural context, such as the ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work. The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even climate and geography. [[Art criticism]] continues to grow and develop alongside art. | 752 | Art | [
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[
"Forms, genres, media, and styles",
"Skill and craft"
]
| Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a [[Media (arts)|medium]]. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a [[language]] to convey meaning with immediacy or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations. There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A common view is that the [[Wikt:epithet|epithet]] "art", particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for [[Leonardo da Vinci]], art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. [[Rembrandt]]'s work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of [[John Singer Sargent]] were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, [[Pablo Picasso]], was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled. A common contemporary criticism of some [[modern art]] occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, [[Marcel Duchamp]]'s "[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]" is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ("ready-made") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. [[Tracey Emin]]'s ''My Bed'', or [[Damien Hirst]]'s ''The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living'' follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating ''hands-on'' works of art. | 752 | Art | [
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[
"Purpose"
]
| Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is "vague", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss). | 752 | Art | [
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[
"Purpose",
"Non-motivated functions"
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| The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility. (1) '''[[fine arts|Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm]].''' Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry. – Aristotle (2) '''Experience of the mysterious.''' Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science. – Albert Einstein (3) '''Expression of the imagination.''' Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are malleable.Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else—something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken. – Immanuel Kant (4) '''Ritualistic and symbolic functions.''' In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'. – Silva Tomaskova | 752 | Art | [
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"Purpose",
"Motivated functions"
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| Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or simply as a form of communication. (1) '''Communication.''' Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication. – Steve Mithen (2) '''Art as entertainment'''. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games. (3) '''The Avant-Garde. Art for political change.''' One of the defining functions of early 20th-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—[[Dadaism]], [[Surrealism]], [[Russian constructivism]], and [[Abstract Expressionism]], among others—are collectively referred to as the ''avant-garde'' arts.By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life. – André Breton (Surrealism) (4) '''Art as a "free zone"''', removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the [[avant-garde]] movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to produce new universal values, [[contemporary art]] has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction ...), becoming a more open place for research and experimentation. (5) '''Art for social inquiry, subversion or anarchy.''' While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society. [[Graffiti#Uses|Graffiti art]] and other types of [[street art]] are graphics and images that are [[Spray painting|spray-painted]] or [[stencil]] on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism). | 752 | Art | [
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[
"Purpose",
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| (6) '''Art for social causes.''' Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of [[autism]], cancer, [[human trafficking]], and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation, human rights in [[Darfur]], murdered and missing Aboriginal women, elder abuse, and pollution. [[Trashion]], using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as [[Marina DeBris]] is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution. (7) '''Art for psychological and healing purposes.''' Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as [[art therapy]]. The [[Art therapy#The Diagnostic Drawing Series (DDS)|Diagnostic Drawing Series]], for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy. (8) '''Art for propaganda, or commercialism.''' Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object. (9) '''Art as a fitness indicator.''' It has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One [[evolutionary psychology]] explanation for this is that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the [[peacock]]'s tail. The purpose of the male peacock's extravagant tail has been argued to be to attract females (see also [[Fisherian runaway]] and [[handicap principle]]). According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionarily important because it attracted mates. The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game. | 752 | Art | [
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"Public access"
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| Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society. Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the [[ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas]] are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a [[social elite]], though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as [[Molding (process)|moulds]] made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality [[Ancient Roman pottery]] and Greek [[Tanagra figurine]] to a very wide market. [[Cylinder seal]] were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the [[Ancient Near East]]. Once [[coin]] were widely used, these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society. Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when [[printmaking]] began with small [[woodcut]], mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and affordable even by [[peasant]] who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations. [[Popular prints]] of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries. In 1661, the city of [[Basel]], in [[Switzerland]], opened the first public museum of art in the world, the [[Kunstmuseum Basel]]. Today, its collection is distinguished by an impressively wide historic span, from the early 15th century up to the immediate present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the most significant museums of its kind. These encompass: paintings and drawings by artists active in the Upper Rhine region between 1400 and 1600, and on the art of the 19th to 21st centuries. | 752 | Art | [
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[
"Public access"
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| [[Public art|Public buildings and monuments]], secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. [[Egyptian temple]] are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests. Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the [[Palace of Versailles]], where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and a sword) could be hired from shops outside. Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the [[Orleans Collection#Collection in Paris|Orleans Collection]] mostly housed in a wing of the [[Palais Royal]] in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century. In Italy the art tourism of the [[Grand Tour]] became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British [[Royal Collection]] remains distinct, but large donations such as the [[Old Royal Library]] were made from it to the [[British Museum]], established in 1753. The [[Uffizi]] in [[Florence]] opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices for a long time before. The building now occupied by the [[Prado]] in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in [[Vienna]], Munich and other capitals. The opening of the [[Musée du Louvre]] during the [[French Revolution]] (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established. Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses. ([[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in New York City, for example, was created by [[John Taylor Johnston]], a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status. | 752 | Art | [
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[
"Public access"
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| There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present something more than mere objects" said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, [[video art]], and [[conceptual art]]. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form ... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object." In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works, invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors." | 752 | Art | [
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[
"Controversies"
]
| Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. [[Iconoclasm]] is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. [[Aniconism]] is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of [[Islamic art]], where [[depictions of Muhammad]] remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by [[art critic]], though often much less so by a wider public. The [[iconography|iconographic]] content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the [[Swoon of the Virgin]] in scenes of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]]. [[The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)|The ''Last Judgment'']] by [[Michelangelo]] was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of [[decorum]] through nudity and the [[Apollo]]-like pose of Christ. The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of [[Romanticism]], and economic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. [[Théodore Géricault]]'s ''[[The Raft of the Medusa|Raft of the Medusa]]'' (c. 1820), was in part a political commentary on a recent event. [[Édouard Manet]]'s ''[[The Luncheon on the Grass|Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe]]'' (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. [[John Singer Sargent]]'s ''[[Portrait of Madame X|Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X)]]'' (1884), caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation. The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century. In the 20th century, [[Pablo Picasso]]'s ''[[Guernica (painting)|Guernica]]'' (1937) used arresting [[cubism|cubist]] techniques and stark [[Monochrome painting|monochromatic oils]], to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. [[Leon Golub]]'s ''Interrogation III'' (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. [[Andres Serrano]]'s ''[[Piss Christ]]'' (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]'s sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts. | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
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"Visual arts"
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|
[
"Theory"
]
| Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of [[Realism (arts)|realism or truth to nature]] and the [[Idealism|ideal]]; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist [[John Ruskin]], who championed what he saw as the naturalism of [[J. M. W. Turner|J. M. W. Turner]], saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature. The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. [[Richard Wollheim]] distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the [[Aesthetic realism|Realist]], whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the [[Objectivity (philosophy)|Objectivist]], whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the [[Relativist]] [[Aesthetic relativism|position]], whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans. | 752 | Art | [
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|
[
"Theory",
"Arrival of Modernism"
]
| The arrival of [[Modernism]] in the late 19th century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, and then again in the late 20th century with the advent of [[Postmodern art|postmodernism]]. [[Clement Greenberg]]'s 1960 article "Modernist Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself". Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting: After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as [[Michael Fried]], [[T. J. Clark (historian)|T. J. Clark]], [[Rosalind Krauss]], [[Linda Nochlin]] and [[Griselda Pollock]] among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century. [[Pop art]] like [[Andy Warhol]] became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly [[cultural critic|critiquing popular culture]], as well as the [[art world]]. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond ''high art'' to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography. Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind-everything. However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction. There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. In ''[[The Invention of Art: A Cultural History]]'', Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system of the arts, i.e. fine art. He finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity; for example, Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art, but [[techne]]. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions of art and [[craft]] are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music, but also cooking, medicine, [[horsemanship]], [[geometry]], carpentry, [[prophecy]], and farming, etc. | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
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"Visual arts"
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|
[
"Theory",
"New Criticism and the \"intentional fallacy\""
]
| Following Duchamp during the first half of the 20th century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the [[New Criticism]] school and debate concerning ''the intentional fallacy''. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist. In 1946, [[W. K. Wimsatt|William K. Wimsatt]] and [[Monroe Beardsley]] published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "[[Intentional Fallacy|The Intentional Fallacy]]", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an [[Authorial intentionality|author's intention]], or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting. In another essay, "[[Affective fallacy|The Affective Fallacy]]", which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the [[reader-response]] school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, [[Stanley Fish]], was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his 1970 essay "Literature in the Reader". As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic." These authors contend that: "Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work." Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: "Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They quote [[Richard Wollheim]] as stating that, "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself." | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
"Aesthetics",
"Visual arts"
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"Artistic freedom",
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|
[
"Theory",
"\"Linguistic turn\" and its debate"
]
| The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the [[linguistic turn]] controversy, or the "innocent eye debate" in the philosophy of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over the perceptual encounter with the work of art. Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the [[structuralism]] of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] and the ensuing movement of [[poststructuralism]]. In 1981, the artist [[Mark Tansey]] created a work of art titled "The Innocent Eye" as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century. Influential theorists include [[Judith Butler]], [[Luce Irigaray]], [[Julia Kristeva]], [[Michel Foucault]] and [[Jacques Derrida]]. The power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse was explored by [[Hayden White]]. The fact that language is ''not'' a transparent medium of thought had been stressed by a very different form of [[philosophy of language]] which originated in the works of [[Johann Georg Hamann]] and [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. [[Ernst Gombrich]] and [[Nelson Goodman]] in his book ''[[Languages of Art]]: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols'' came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s. He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist [[Roger Sperry]] who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as [[Nick Zangwill]] strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives. | 752 | Art | [
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|
[
"Classification disputes"
]
| Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included [[cubist]] and [[impressionist]] paintings, [[Duchamp]]'s ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'', the movies, superlative imitations of [[J. S. G. Boggs|banknotes]], [[conceptual art]], and [[video games]]. Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art." According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the ''[[Daily Mail]]'' criticized [[Damien Hirst|Hirst]]'s and [[Tracey Emin|Emin]]'s work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work. In 1998, [[Arthur Danto]], suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood." [[Anti-art]] is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art; it is term associated with [[Dada]] and attributed to [[Marcel Duchamp]] just before World War I, when he was making art from [[found art|found objects]]. One of these, ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'' (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art. Anti-art is a feature of work by [[Situationist International]], the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the [[Young British Artists]], though it is a form still rejected by the [[Stuckism|Stuckists]], who describe themselves as [[anti-anti-art]]. Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the [[decorative arts]], or advertising, it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example. | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
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"Visual arts"
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|
[
"Classification disputes",
"Value judgment"
]
| Somewhat in relation to the above, the word ''art'' is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception" (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered ''art'' is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, [[Francisco Goya]]'s painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'. The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the ''[[zeitgeist]]''. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse [[aesthetic]] or [[morality|moral]] feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the [[human condition]]; that is, what it is to be human. By extension, it has been argued by Emily L. Spratt that the development of artificial intelligence, especially in regard to its uses with images, necessitates a re-evaluation of aesthetic theory in art history today and a reconsideration of the limits of human creativity. | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
"Aesthetics",
"Visual arts"
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"Artistic freedom",
"Art movement"
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|
[
"Art and law"
]
| An essential legal issue are art [[forgeries]], [[plagiarism]], [[replica]] and works that are strongly based on other works of art. The trade in works of art or the export from a country may be subject to legal regulations. Internationally there are also extensive efforts to protect the works of art created. The [[UN]], [[UNESCO]] and [[Blue Shield International]] try to ensure effective protection at the national level and to intervene directly in the event of armed conflicts or disasters. This can particularly affect museums, archives, art collections and excavation sites. This should also secure the economic basis of a country, especially because works of art are often of tourist importance. The founding president of Blue Shield International, [[Karl von Habsburg]], explained an additional connection between the destruction of cultural property and the cause of flight during a mission in Lebanon in April 2019: “Cultural goods are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often no longer have any prospects and as a result flee from their homeland.” | 752 | Art | [
"Art",
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|
[]
| '''Agnostida''' is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[arthropod]] which first developed near the end of the [[Cambrian|Early Cambrian]] period and thrived during the Middle Cambrian. They are present in the [[Lower Cambrian]] fossil record along with [[trilobites]] from the [[Redlichiida]], [[Corynexochida]], and [[Ptychopariida]] orders. The last agnostids went [[extinct]] in the Late [[Ordovician]]. | 764 | Agnostida | [
"Agnostida",
"Trilobite orders",
"Cambrian trilobites",
"Ordovician trilobites",
"Fossil taxa described in 1864",
"Cambrian first appearances",
"Late Ordovician extinctions",
"Taxa named by John William Salter"
]
| []
|
[
"Systematics"
]
| The Agnostida are divided into two suborders — [[Agnostina]] and [[Eodiscina]] — which are then subdivided into a number of [[family (biology)|families]]. As a group, agnostids are isopygous, meaning their [[pygidium]] is similar in size and shape to their [[cephalon (arthropod anatomy)|cephalon]]. Most agnostid species were eyeless. The systematic position of the order Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains uncertain, and there has been continuing debate whether they are trilobites or a [[stem group]]. The challenge to the status has focused on Agnostina partly due to the [[juvenile (organism)|juveniles]] of one genus have been found with legs differing dramatically from those of adult trilobites, suggesting they are not members of the [[lamellipedia]] [[clade]], of which trilobites are a part. Instead, the limbs of agnostids closely resemble those of stem group crustaceans, although they lack the [[proximal endite]], which defines that group. They are likely the [[sister taxon]] to the crustacean stem lineage, and, as such, part of the clade, [[Crustaceomorpha]]. Other researchers have suggested, based on a [[cladistic]] analyses of [[dorsum (anatomy)|dorsal]] [[exoskeleton|exoskeletal]] features, that Eodiscina and Agnostida are closely united, and the Eodiscina descended from the trilobite order [[Ptychopariida]]. | 764 | Agnostida | [
"Agnostida",
"Trilobite orders",
"Cambrian trilobites",
"Ordovician trilobites",
"Fossil taxa described in 1864",
"Cambrian first appearances",
"Late Ordovician extinctions",
"Taxa named by John William Salter"
]
| []
|
[
"Ecology"
]
| Scientists have long debated whether the agnostids lived a [[pelagic]] or a [[benthic]] lifestyle. Their lack of eyes, a morphology not well-suited for swimming, and their fossils found in association with other benthic trilobites suggest a benthic (bottom-dwelling) mode of life. They are likely to have lived on areas of the ocean floor which received little or no light and fed on [[detritus]] which descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom. Their wide geographic dispersion in the [[fossil record]] is uncharacteristic of benthic animals, suggesting a pelagic existence. The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge between the head and pygidium allowing for a bivalved [[ostracod]]-type lifestyle. The orientation of the thoracic appendages appears ill-suited for benthic living. Recent work suggests that some agnostids were benthic predators, engaging in cannibalism and possibly pack-hunting behavior. They are sometimes preserved within the voids of other organisms, for instance within empty [[hyolith]] conchs, within [[sponge]], [[Selkirkia|worm tubes]] and under the carapaces of [[Sidneyia|bivalved arthropods]], presumably in order to hide from predators or strong storm currents; or maybe whilst scavenging for food. In the case of the tapering worm tubes ''[[Selkirkia]]'', trilobites are always found with their heads directed towards the opening of the tube, suggesting that they reversed in; the absence of any moulted carapaces suggests that moulting was not their primary reason for seeking shelter. | 764 | Agnostida | [
"Agnostida",
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"Cambrian trilobites",
"Ordovician trilobites",
"Fossil taxa described in 1864",
"Cambrian first appearances",
"Late Ordovician extinctions",
"Taxa named by John William Salter"
]
| []
|
[]
| '''Abortion''' is the ending of a [[pregnancy]] by removal or expulsion of an [[embryo]] or [[fetus]]. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a [[miscarriage]] or "spontaneous abortion" and occurs in approximately 30% to 40% of pregnancies. When deliberate steps are taken to end a pregnancy, it is called an [[#Induced|induced abortion]], or less frequently "induced miscarriage". The unmodified word ''abortion'' generally refers to an induced abortion. When properly done, abortion is [[#Safety|one of the safest procedures in medicine]], but unsafe abortion is a major cause of [[maternal death]], especially in the [[developing world]], while making safe abortion legal and accessible reduces maternal deaths. It is safer than childbirth, which has a 14 times higher risk of death in the United States. Modern methods use [[medical abortion|medication]] or [[surgical abortion|surgery]] for abortions. The drug [[mifepristone]] in combination with [[prostaglandin]] appears to be as safe and effective as surgery during the [[first trimester|first]] and [[second trimester]] of pregnancy. The most common surgical technique involves dilating the cervix and using a [[vacuum aspiration|suction device]]. [[Birth control]], such as [[combined oral contraceptive pill|the pill]] or [[intrauterine device]], can be used immediately following abortion. When performed legally and safely on a woman who desires it, induced abortions do not increase the risk of long-term [[mental health|mental]] or physical problems. In contrast, [[unsafe abortion]] (those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities) cause 47,000 [[maternal death|deaths]] and 5 million hospital admissions each year. The [[World Health Organization]] states that "access to legal, safe and comprehensive abortion care, including [[post-abortion care]], is essential for the attainment of the highest possible level of sexual and reproductive health". Around 56 million abortions are performed each year in the world, with about 45% done unsafely. Abortion rates changed little between 2003 and 2008, before which they decreased for at least two decades as access to [[family planning]] and birth control increased. , 37% of the world's women had access to legal abortions without limits as to reason. Countries that permit abortions have different limits on how late in pregnancy abortion is allowed. Abortion rates are similar between countries that ban abortion and countries that allow it. [[history of abortion|Historically]], abortions have been attempted using [[abortifacient|herbal medicines]], sharp tools, [[fundal massage|forceful massage]], or through other [[traditional medicine|traditional methods]]. [[Abortion law]] and cultural or religious views of abortions are different around the world. In some areas abortion is legal only in specific cases such as [[rape]], [[fetal defects]], [[Socioeconomic status|poverty]], risk to a woman's health, or [[incest]]. There is [[Abortion debate|debate]] over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of abortion. Those who [[Anti-abortion movements|oppose abortion]] often argue that an embryo or fetus is a person with a [[right to life]], and they may compare abortion to [[murder]]. Those who [[Abortion-rights movements|support the legality of abortion]] often hold that it is part of a [[reproductive rights|woman's right to make decisions about her own body]]. Others favor legal and accessible abortion as a public health measure. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Types",
"Induced"
]
| Approximately 205 million pregnancies occur each year worldwide. Over a third are [[unintended pregnancy|unintended]] and about a fifth end in induced abortion. Most abortions result from unintended pregnancies. In the United Kingdom, 1 to 2% of abortions are done due to genetic problems in the fetus. A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in several ways. The manner selected often depends upon the [[gestational age]] of the embryo or fetus, which increases in size as the pregnancy progresses. Specific procedures may also be selected due to legality, regional availability, and doctor or a woman's personal preference. Reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic or elective. An abortion is medically referred to as a therapeutic abortion when it is performed to save the life of the pregnant woman; to prevent harm to the woman's [[Health|physical]] or [[mental health]]; to terminate a pregnancy where indications are that the child will have a significantly increased chance of mortality or morbidity; or to [[selective reduction|selectively reduce]] the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with [[multiple pregnancy]]. An abortion is referred to as an elective or voluntary abortion when it is performed at the request of the woman for non-medical reasons. Confusion sometimes arises over the term "elective" because "[[elective surgery]]" generally refers to all scheduled surgery, whether medically necessary or not. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Types",
"Spontaneous"
]
| Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion, is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th [[gestational age|week of gestation]]. A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a [[live birth (human)|live-born]] infant is a "[[premature birth]]" or a "preterm birth". When a fetus dies [[Uterus|in utero]] after [[Fetal viability|viability]], or during [[childbirth|delivery]], it is usually termed "[[stillbirth|stillborn]]". [[Premature births]] and [[stillbirth]] are generally not considered to be miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap. Only 30% to 50% of conceptions progress past the [[first trimester]]. The vast majority of those that do not progress are lost before the woman is [[clinically silent|aware of the conception]], and many pregnancies are lost before medical practitioners can detect an embryo. Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. 80% of these spontaneous abortions happen in the first trimester. The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is [[chromosomal abnormalities]] of the embryo or fetus, accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses. Other causes include [[vascular disease]] (such as [[Systemic lupus erythematosus|lupus]]), [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], other [[Endocrine disease|hormonal problems]], infection, and abnormalities of the uterus. Advancing maternal age and a woman's history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental [[Physical trauma|trauma]]; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or [[feticide]]. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Methods",
"Medical"
]
| Medical abortions are those induced by [[abortifacient]] pharmaceuticals. Medical abortion became an alternative method of abortion with the availability of [[prostaglandin]] [[prostaglandin analogue|analogs]] in the 1970s and the [[antiprogestin|antiprogestogen]] [[mifepristone]] (also known as RU-486) in the 1980s. The most common early first-trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination with [[misoprostol]] (or sometimes another prostaglandin analog, [[gemeprost]]) up to 10 weeks (70 days) gestational age, [[methotrexate]] in combination with a prostaglandin analog up to 7 weeks gestation, or a prostaglandin analog alone. Mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimens work faster and are more effective at later gestational ages than methotrexate–misoprostol combination regimens, and combination regimens are more effective than misoprostol alone. This regimen is effective in the second trimester. Medical abortion regimens involving mifepristone followed by misoprostol in the cheek between 24 and 48 hours later are effective when performed before 70 days' gestation. In very early abortions, up to 7 weeks [[gestation]], medical abortion using a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen is considered to be more effective than surgical abortion ([[vacuum aspiration]]), especially when clinical practice does not include detailed inspection of aspirated tissue. Early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are 98% effective up to 9 weeks gestational age; from 9 to 10 weeks efficacy decreases modestly to 94%. If medical abortion fails, surgical abortion must be used to complete the procedure. Early medical abortions account for the majority of abortions before 9 weeks gestation in [[Abortion in Great Britain|Britain]], [[Abortion in France|France]], [[Abortion in Switzerland|Switzerland]], [[Abortion in the United States|United States]], and the [[Nordic countries]]. Medical abortion regimens using mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog are the most common methods used for second-trimester abortions in [[Abortion in Canada|Canada]], most of Europe, [[Abortion in China|China]] and [[Abortion in India|India]], in contrast to the United States where 96% of second-trimester abortions are performed surgically by [[dilation and evacuation]]. A 2020 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that providing women with medications to take home to complete the second stage of the procedure for an early medical abortion results in an effective abortion. Further research is required to determine if self-administered medical abortion is as safe as provider-administered medical abortion, where a health care professional is present to help manage the medical abortion. Safely permitting women to self-administer abortion medication has the potential to improve access to abortion. Other research gaps that were identified include how to best support women who choose to take the medication home for a self-administered abortion. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Methods",
"Surgical"
]
| Up to 15 weeks' gestation, [[suction-aspiration abortion|suction-aspiration]] or [[vacuum aspiration]] are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion. ''Manual vacuum aspiration'' (MVA) consists of removing the [[fetus]] or [[embryo]], [[placenta]], and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while ''electric vacuum aspiration'' (EVA) uses an electric pump. These techniques can both be used very early in pregnancy. MVA can be used up to 14 weeks but is more often used earlier in the U.S. EVA can be used later. MVA, also known as "mini-suction" and "[[menstrual extraction]]" or EVA can be used in very early pregnancy when cervical dilation may not be required. [[Dilation and curettage]] (D&C) refers to opening the cervix (dilation) and removing tissue (curettage) via suction or sharp instruments. D&C is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. The [[World Health Organization]] recommends ''sharp curettage'' only when suction aspiration is unavailable. [[Dilation and evacuation]] (D&E), used after 12 to 16 weeks, consists of opening the [[cervix]] and emptying the uterus using surgical instruments and suction. D&E is performed vaginally and does not require an incision. [[Intact dilation and extraction]](D&X) refers to a variant of D&E sometimes used after 18 to 20 weeks when removal of an intact fetus improves surgical safety or for other reasons. Abortion may also be performed surgically by hysterotomy or gravid hysterectomy. [[Hysterotomy abortion]] is a procedure similar to a [[caesarean section]] and is performed under [[general anesthesia]]. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and can be used during later stages of pregnancy. Gravid hysterectomy refers to removal of the whole uterus while still containing the pregnancy. Hysterotomy and hysterectomy are associated with much higher rates of maternal morbidity and mortality than D&E or induction abortion. First-trimester procedures can generally be performed using [[local anesthesia]], while second-trimester methods may require [[Sedation#Levels of sedation|deep sedation]] or [[general anesthesia]]. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Methods",
"Labor induction abortion"
]
| In places lacking the necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction, or where preferred by practitioners, an abortion can be induced by first [[Labor induction|inducing labor]] and then [[Late termination of pregnancy#Methods|inducing fetal demise]] if necessary. This is sometimes called "induced miscarriage". This procedure may be performed from 13 weeks gestation to the third trimester. Although it is very uncommon in the United States, more than 80% of induced abortions throughout the second trimester are labor-induced abortions in Sweden and other nearby countries. Only limited data are available comparing this method with dilation and extraction. Unlike D&E, labor-induced abortions after 18 weeks may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival, which may be legally characterized as live birth. For this reason, labor-induced abortion is legally risky in the United States. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Methods",
"Other methods"
]
| Historically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in [[folk medicine]]. Among these are: [[tansy]], [[Mentha pulegium|pennyroyal]], [[black cohosh]], and the now-extinct [[silphium]]. In 1978 one woman in Colorado died and another developed organ damage when they attempted to terminate their pregnancies by taking pennyroyal oil. Because the indiscriminant use of herbs as abortifacients can cause serious—even lethal—side effects, such as [[multiple organ dysfunction syndrome|multiple organ failure]], such use is not recommended by physicians. Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing [[miscarriage]]. In Southeast Asia, there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage. One of the [[bas relief]] decorating the temple of [[Angkor Wat]] in Cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the [[underworld]]. Reported methods of unsafe, [[self-induced abortion]] include misuse of [[misoprostol]] and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus. These and other methods to terminate pregnancy may be called "induced miscarriage". Such methods are rarely used in countries where surgical abortion is legal and available. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Safety"
]
| The health risks of abortion depend principally upon whether the procedure is performed safely or unsafely. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) defines [[unsafe abortion]] as those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities. Legal abortions performed in the [[developed country|developed world]] are among the safest procedures in medicine. In the United States as of 2012, abortion was estimated to be about 14 times safer for women than childbirth. CDC estimated in 2019 that US pregnancy-related mortality was 17.2 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, while the US abortion mortality rate is 0.7 maternal deaths per 100,000 procedures. In the UK, guidelines of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists state that "Women should be advised that abortion is generally safer than continuing a pregnancy to term." Worldwide, on average, abortion is safer than carrying a pregnancy to term. A 2007 study reported that "26% of all pregnancies worldwide are terminated by induced abortion," whereas "deaths from improperly performed [abortion] procedures constitute 13% of maternal mortality globally." In Indonesia in 2000 it was estimated that 2 million pregnancies ended in abortion, 4.5 million pregnancies were carried to term, and 14-16 percent of maternal deaths resulted from abortion. In the US from 2000 to 2009, abortion had a lower mortality rate than [[plastic surgery]], and a similar or lower mortality rate than running a marathon. Five years after seeking abortion services, women who gave birth after being denied an abortion reported worse health than women who had either first or second trimester abortions. The risk of abortion-related mortality increases with gestational age, but remains lower than that of childbirth. Outpatient abortion is as safe from 64 to 70 days' gestation as it before 63 days. There is little difference in terms of safety and efficacy between medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol and surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration) in early first trimester abortions up to 10 weeks gestation. Medical abortion using the prostaglandin analog misoprostol alone is less effective and more painful than medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol or surgical abortion. [[Vacuum aspiration]] in the first trimester is the safest method of surgical abortion, and can be performed in a [[primary care|primary care office]], [[abortion clinic]], or hospital. Complications, which are rare, can include [[uterine perforation]], [[endometritis|pelvic infection]], and retained products of conception requiring a second procedure to evacuate. Infections account for one-third of abortion-related deaths in the United States. The rate of complications of vacuum aspiration abortion in the first trimester is similar regardless of whether the procedure is performed in a hospital, surgical center, or office. Preventive antibiotics (such as [[doxycycline]] or [[metronidazole]]) are typically given before abortion procedures, as they are believed to substantially reduce the risk of postoperative uterine infection; however, antibiotics are not routinely given with abortion pills. The rate of failed procedures does not appear to vary significantly depending on whether the abortion is performed by a doctor or a [[mid-level practitioner]]. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Safety"
]
| Complications after second-trimester abortion are similar to those after first-trimester abortion, and depend somewhat on the method chosen. The risk of death from abortion approaches roughly half the risk of death from childbirth the farther along a woman is in pregnancy; from one in a million before 9 weeks gestation to nearly one in ten thousand at 21 weeks or more (as measured from the last menstrual period). It appears that having had a prior surgical uterine evacuation (whether because of induced abortion or treatment of miscarriage) correlates with a small increase in the risk of preterm birth in future pregnancies. The studies supporting this did not control for factors not related to abortion or miscarriage, and hence the causes of this correlation have not been determined, although multiple possibilities have been suggested. Some purported risks of abortion are promoted primarily by anti-abortion groups, but lack scientific support. For example, the question of a link between [[abortion-breast cancer hypothesis|induced abortion and breast cancer]] has been investigated extensively. Major medical and scientific bodies (including the WHO, [[National Cancer Institute]], [[American Cancer Society]], [[Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists|Royal College of OBGYN]] and [[American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists|American Congress of OBGYN]]) have concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer. In the past even illegality has not automatically meant that the abortions were unsafe. Referring to the U.S., historian [[Linda Gordon]] states: "In fact, illegal abortions in this country have an impressive safety record." According to [[Rickie Solinger]], Authors Jerome Bates and Edward Zawadzki describe the case of an illegal abortionist in the eastern U.S. in the early 20th century who was proud of having successfully completed 13,844 abortions without any fatality. In 1870s New York City the famous abortionist/midwife [[Madame Restell]] (Anna Trow Lohman) appears to have lost very few women among her more than 100,000 patients—a lower mortality rate than the childbirth mortality rate at the time. In 1936 the prominent professor of obstetrics and gynecology [[Frederick J. Taussig]] wrote that a cause of increasing mortality during the years of illegality in the U.S. was that | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Safety",
"Mental health"
]
| Current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions and [[abortion and mental health|mental health problems]] other than those expected for any unwanted pregnancy. A report by the [[American Psychological Association]] concluded that a woman's first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester, with such women no more likely to have mental-health problems than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term; the mental-health outcome of a woman's second or greater abortion is less certain. Some older reviews concluded that abortion was associated with an increased risk of psychological problems; however, they did not use an appropriate control group. Although some studies show negative mental-health outcomes in women who choose abortions after the first trimester because of fetal abnormalities, more rigorous research would be needed to show this conclusively. Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by anti-abortion advocates as a separate condition called "[[post-abortion syndrome]]", but this is not recognized by medical or psychological professionals in the United States. A long term-study among US women found that about 99% of women felt that they made the right decision five years after they had an abortion. Relief was the primary emotion with few women feeling sadness or guilt. Social stigma was a main factor predicting negative emotions and regret years later. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Safety",
"Unsafe abortion"
]
| Women seeking an abortion may use unsafe methods, especially when it is legally restricted. They may attempt [[self-induced abortion]] or seek the help of a person without proper medical training or facilities. This can lead to severe complications, such as incomplete abortion, [[sepsis]], hemorrhage, and damage to internal organs. Unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury and death among women worldwide. Although data are imprecise, it is estimated that approximately 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually, with 97% taking place in [[developing country|developing countries]]. Unsafe abortions are believed to result in millions of injuries. Estimates of deaths vary according to methodology, and have ranged from 37,000 to 70,000 in the past decade; deaths from unsafe abortion account for around 13% of all [[maternal deaths]]. The [[World Health Organization]] believes that mortality has fallen since the 1990s. To reduce the number of unsafe abortions, public health organizations have generally advocated emphasizing the legalization of abortion, training of medical personnel, and ensuring access to reproductive-health services. In response, opponents of abortion point out that abortion bans in no way affect prenatal care for women who choose to carry their fetus to term. The Dublin Declaration on Maternal Health, signed in 2012, notes, "the prohibition of abortion does not affect, in any way, the availability of optimal care to pregnant women." A major factor in whether abortions are performed safely or not is the legal standing of abortion. Countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates of unsafe abortion and similar overall abortion rates compared to those where abortion is legal and available. For example, the 1996 legalization of abortion in South Africa had an immediate positive impact on the frequency of abortion-related complications, with abortion-related deaths dropping by more than 90%. Similar reductions in maternal mortality have been observed after other countries have liberalized their abortion laws, such as [[Romania]] and [[Nepal]]. A 2011 study concluded that in the United States, some state-level anti-abortion laws are correlated with lower rates of abortion in that state. The analysis, however, did not take into account travel to other states without such laws to obtain an abortion. In addition, a lack of access to effective contraception contributes to unsafe abortion. It has been estimated that the incidence of unsafe abortion could be reduced by up to 75% (from 20 million to 5 million annually) if modern family planning and maternal health services were readily available globally. Rates of such abortions may be difficult to measure because they can be reported variously as miscarriage, "induced miscarriage", "menstrual regulation", "mini-abortion", and "regulation of a delayed/suspended menstruation". | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Safety",
"Unsafe abortion"
]
| Forty percent of the world's women are able to access therapeutic and elective abortions within gestational limits, while an additional 35 percent have access to legal abortion if they meet certain physical, mental, or socioeconomic criteria. While [[maternal death|maternal mortality]] seldom results from safe abortions, unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths and 5 million disabilities per year. Complications of unsafe abortion account for approximately an eighth of maternal mortalities worldwide, though this varies by region. Secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women. The rate of unsafe abortions has increased from 44% to 49% between 1995 and 2008. Health education, access to family planning, and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Incidence"
]
| There are two commonly used methods of measuring the incidence of abortion: (-) Abortion rate – number of abortions annually per 1000 women between 15 and 44 years of age (some sources use a range of 15–49) (-) Abortion percentage – number of abortions out of 100 known pregnancies (pregnancies include live births, abortions and miscarriages) In many places, where abortion is illegal or carries a heavy social stigma, medical reporting of abortion is not reliable. For this reason, estimates of the incidence of abortion must be made without determining certainty related to standard error. The number of abortions performed worldwide seems to have remained stable in recent years, with 41.6 million having been performed in 2003 and 43.8 million having been performed in 2008. The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per 1000 women per year, though it was 24 per 1000 women per year for developed countries and 29 per 1000 women per year for developing countries. The same 2012 study indicated that in 2008, the estimated abortion percentage of known pregnancies was at 21% worldwide, with 26% in developed countries and 20% in developing countries. On average, the incidence of abortion is similar in countries with restrictive abortion laws and those with more liberal access to abortion. However, restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases in the percentage of abortions performed unsafely. The unsafe abortion rate in developing countries is partly attributable to lack of access to modern contraceptives; according to the [[Guttmacher Institute]], providing access to contraceptives would result in about 14.5 million fewer unsafe abortions and 38,000 fewer deaths from unsafe abortion annually worldwide. The rate of legal, induced abortion varies extensively worldwide. According to the report of employees of Guttmacher Institute it ranged from 7 per 1000 women per year (Germany and Switzerland) to 30 per 1000 women per year (Estonia) in countries with complete statistics in 2008. The proportion of pregnancies that ended in induced abortion ranged from about 10% (Israel, the Netherlands and Switzerland) to 30% (Estonia) in the same group, though it might be as high as 36% in Hungary and Romania, whose statistics were deemed incomplete. An American study in 2002 concluded that about half of women having abortions were using a form of [[birth control|contraception]] at the time of becoming pregnant. Inconsistent use was reported by half of those using [[condom]] and three-quarters of those using the [[combined oral contraceptive pill|birth control pill]]; 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage. The Guttmacher Institute estimated that "most abortions in the United States are obtained by minority women" because minority women "have much higher rates of unintended pregnancy". The abortion rate may also be expressed as the average number of abortions a woman has during her reproductive years; this is referred to as ''total abortion rate'' (TAR). | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Incidence",
"Gestational age and method"
]
| Abortion rates also vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method practiced. In 2003, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) reported that 26% of reported legal induced abortions in the United States were known to have been obtained at less than 6 weeks' gestation, 18% at 7 weeks, 15% at 8 weeks, 18% at 9 through 10 weeks, 10% at 11 through 12 weeks, 6% at 13 through 15 weeks, 4% at 16 through 20 weeks and 1% at more than 21 weeks. 91% of these were classified as having been done by "[[curettage]]" ([[Suction-aspiration abortion|suction-aspiration]], [[dilation and curettage]], [[dilation and evacuation]]), 8% by "[[medical abortion|medical]]" means ([[mifepristone]]), >1% by "[[instillation abortion|intrauterine instillation]]" (saline or [[prostaglandin]]), and 1% by "other" (including [[hysterotomy abortion|hysterotomy]] and [[hysterectomy]]). According to the CDC, due to data collection difficulties the data must be viewed as tentative and some fetal deaths reported beyond 20 weeks may be natural deaths erroneously classified as abortions if the removal of the dead fetus is accomplished by the same procedure as an induced abortion. The Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 [[intact dilation and extraction]] procedures in the US during 2000; this accounts for <0.2% of the total number of abortions performed that year. Similarly, in England and Wales in 2006, 89% of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks, 9% between 13 and 19 weeks, and 2% at or over 20 weeks. 64% of those reported were by vacuum aspiration, 6% by D&E, and 30% were medical. There are more second trimester abortions in developing countries such as China, India and Vietnam than in developed countries. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Motivation",
"Personal"
]
| The reasons why women have abortions are diverse and vary across the world. Some of the reasons may include an inability to afford a child, [[domestic violence]], lack of support, feeling they are too young, and the wish to complete education or advance a career. Additional reasons include not being able or willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or [[incest]] | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Motivation",
"Societal"
]
| Some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures. These might include the preference for children of a specific sex or race, disapproval of single or early motherhood, stigmatization of people with disabilities, insufficient economic support for families, lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods, or efforts toward [[population control]] (such as China's [[one-child policy]]). These factors can sometimes result in compulsory abortion or [[sex-selective abortion]]. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Motivation",
"Maternal and fetal health"
]
| An additional factor is maternal health which was listed as the main reason by about a third of women in 3 of 27 countries and about 7% of women in a further 7 of these 27 countries. In the U.S., the Supreme Court decisions in ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' and ''[[Doe v. Bolton]]'': "ruled that the state's interest in the life of the fetus became compelling only at the point of viability, defined as the point at which the fetus can survive independently of its mother. Even after the point of viability, the state cannot favor the life of the fetus over the life or health of the pregnant woman. Under the right of privacy, physicians must be free to use their "medical judgment for the preservation of the life or health of the mother." On the same day that the Court decided Roe, it also decided Doe v. Bolton, in which the Court defined health very broadly: "The medical judgment may be exercised in the light of all factors—physical, emotional, psychological, familial, and the woman's age—relevant to the well-being of the patient. All these factors may relate to health. This allows the attending physician the room he needs to make his best medical judgment." Public opinion shifted in America following television personality [[Sherri Finkbine]]'s discovery during her fifth month of pregnancy that she had been exposed to [[thalidomide]]. Unable to obtain a legal abortion in the United States, she traveled to Sweden. From 1962 to 1965, an outbreak of [[Rubella|German measles]] left 15,000 babies with severe birth defects. In 1967, the [[American Medical Association]] publicly supported liberalization of abortion laws. A National Opinion Research Center poll in 1965 showed 73% supported abortion when the mother's life was at risk, 57% when birth defects were present and 59% for pregnancies resulting from rape or incest. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Motivation",
"Maternal and fetal health",
"Cancer"
]
| The rate of cancer during pregnancy is 0.02–1%, and in many cases, cancer of the mother leads to consideration of abortion to protect the life of the mother, or in response to the potential damage that may occur to the fetus during treatment. This is particularly true for [[cervical cancer]], the most common type of which occurs in 1 of every 2,000–13,000 pregnancies, for which initiation of treatment "cannot co-exist with preservation of fetal life (unless [[neoadjuvant chemotherapy]] is chosen)". Very early stage cervical cancers (I and IIa) may be treated by [[radical hysterectomy]] and pelvic [[lymph node]] dissection, [[radiation therapy]], or both, while later stages are treated by radiotherapy. Chemotherapy may be used simultaneously. Treatment of breast cancer during pregnancy also involves fetal considerations, because [[lumpectomy]] is discouraged in favor of modified [[radical mastectomy]] unless late-term pregnancy allows follow-up radiation therapy to be administered after the birth. Exposure to a single chemotherapy drug is estimated to cause a 7.5–17% risk of [[teratogenic]] effects on the fetus, with higher risks for multiple drug treatments. Treatment with more than 40 [[gray (unit)|Gy]] of radiation usually causes spontaneous abortion. Exposure to much lower doses during the first trimester, especially 8 to 15 weeks of development, can cause [[intellectual disability]] or [[microcephaly]], and exposure at this or subsequent stages can cause reduced intrauterine growth and birth weight. Exposures above 0.005–0.025 Gy cause a dose-dependent reduction in [[IQ]]. It is possible to greatly reduce exposure to radiation with abdominal shielding, depending on how far the area to be irradiated is from the fetus. The process of birth itself may also put the mother at risk. "Vaginal delivery may result in dissemination of neoplastic cells into lymphovascular channels, haemorrhage, cervical laceration and implantation of malignant cells in the episiotomy site, while abdominal delivery may delay the initiation of non-surgical treatment." | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"History and religion"
]
| Since [[history of abortion|ancient times]] abortions have been done using a number of methods, including [[abortifacient|herbal medicines]], sharp tools, with [[physical trauma|force]], or through other [[traditional medicine|traditional methods]]. Induced abortion has a long history and can be traced back to civilizations as varied as China under [[Shennong]] (c. 2700 BCE), [[Ancient Egypt]] with its [[Ebers Papyrus]] (c. 1550 BCE), and the Roman Empire in the time of [[Juvenal]] (c. 200 CE). One of the [[History of abortion#5th century to 18th century|earliest]] known artistic representations of abortion is in a [[bas relief]] at Angkor Wat (c. 1150). Found in a series of [[frieze]] that represent judgment after death in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] culture, it depicts the technique of abdominal abortion. Some medical scholars and abortion opponents have suggested that the [[Hippocratic Oath]] forbade [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] physicians from performing abortions; other scholars disagree with this interpretation, and state that the medical texts of [[Hippocratic Corpus]] contain descriptions of abortive techniques right alongside the Oath. The physician [[Scribonius Largus]] wrote in 43 CE that the Hippocratic Oath prohibits abortion, as did [[Soranus of Ephesus|Soranus]], although apparently not all doctors adhered to it strictly at the time. According to Soranus' 1st or 2nd century CE work ''Gynaecology'', one party of medical practitioners banished all abortives as required by the Hippocratic Oath; the other party—to which he belonged—was willing to prescribe abortions, but only for the sake of the mother's health. [[Aristotle]], in his treatise on government ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' (350 BCE), condemns infanticide as a means of population control. He preferred abortion in such cases, with the restriction "<nowiki>[that it]</nowiki> must be practised on it before it has developed sensation and life; for the line between lawful and unlawful abortion will be marked by the fact of having sensation and being alive". [[Christianity and abortion|In Christianity]], [[Pope Sixtus V]] (1585–90) was the first Pope before 1869 to declare that abortion is homicide regardless of the stage of pregnancy; and his pronouncement of 1588 was reversed three years later by his successor. Through most of its history the Catholic Church was divided on whether it believed that early abortion was murder, and it did not begin vigorously opposing abortion until the 19th century. Several historians have written that prior to the 19th century most Catholic authors did not regard termination of pregnancy before "quickening" or "ensoulment" as an abortion. From 1750, excommunication became the punishment for abortions. Statements made in 1992 in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], the codified summary of the Church's teachings, opposed abortion. A 2014 Guttmacher survey of US abortion patients found that many reported a religious affiliation—24% were Catholic while 30% were Protestant. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"History and religion"
]
| A 1995 survey reported that Catholic women are as likely as the general population to terminate a pregnancy, [[Protestants]] are less likely to do so, and [[Evangelical Christians]] are the least likely to do so. [[Islam and abortion|Islamic tradition]] has traditionally permitted abortion until a point in time when Muslims believe the soul enters the fetus, considered by various theologians to be at conception, 40 days after conception, 120 days after conception, or [[quickening]].<ref name="BBC and Islam / Abortion"></ref> However, abortion is largely heavily restricted or forbidden in areas of high Islamic faith such as the [[Middle East and North Africa]]. In Europe and North America, abortion techniques advanced starting in the 17th century. However, conservatism by most physicians with regards to sexual matters prevented the wide expansion of safe abortion techniques. Other medical practitioners in addition to some physicians advertised their services, and they were not widely regulated until the 19th century, when the practice (sometimes called ''restellism'') was banned in both the United States and the United Kingdom. Church groups as well as physicians were highly influential in [[anti-abortion movement]]. In the US, according to some sources, abortion was more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930 when incremental improvements in abortion procedures relative to childbirth made abortion safer. However, other sources maintain that in the 19th century early abortions under the hygienic conditions in which midwives usually worked were relatively safe. In addition, some commentators have written that, despite improved medical procedures, the period from the 1930s until legalization also saw more zealous enforcement of anti-abortion laws, and concomitantly an increasing control of abortion providers by organized crime. Soviet Russia (1919), Iceland (1935), and Sweden (1938) were among the first countries to legalize certain or all forms of abortion. In 1935, Nazi Germany, a law was passed permitting abortions for those deemed "hereditarily ill", while women considered of German stock were specifically prohibited from having abortions. Beginning in the second half of the twentieth century, abortion was legalized in a greater number of countries. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Society and culture",
"Abortion debate"
]
| Induced abortion has long been the source of considerable debate. [[Medical ethics|Ethical]], [[Morality|moral]], [[Philosophical aspects of the abortion debate|philosophical]], [[Therapeutic abortion|biological]], [[Ethics in religion|religious]] and [[Abortion law|legal]] issues surrounding abortion are related to [[value system]]. Opinions of abortion may be about [[fetal rights]], governmental authority, and [[women's rights]]. In both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion access focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion. The [[World Medical Association]] Declaration on Therapeutic Abortion notes, "circumstances bringing the interests of a mother into conflict with the interests of her unborn child create a dilemma and raise the question as to whether or not the pregnancy should be deliberately terminated." Abortion debates, especially pertaining to [[abortion law]], are often spearheaded by groups advocating one of these two positions. Groups who favor greater legal restrictions on abortion, including complete prohibition, most often describe themselves as "pro-life" while groups who are against such legal restrictions describe themselves as "pro-choice". Generally, the former position argues that a human fetus is a [[Personhood|human person]] with a [[right to life|right to live]], making abortion morally the same as [[murder]]. The latter position argues that a woman has certain [[reproductive rights]], especially the right to decide whether or not to carry a pregnancy to term. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Society and culture",
"Modern abortion law"
]
| Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural factors continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The [[right to life]], the right to liberty, the right to [[security of person]], and the right to [[reproductive health]] are major issues of human rights that sometimes constitute the basis for the existence or absence of abortion laws. In jurisdictions where abortion is legal, certain requirements must often be met before a woman may obtain a safe, legal abortion (an abortion performed without the woman's consent is considered [[feticide]]). These requirements usually depend on the age of the fetus, often using a [[Pregnancy#Terminology|trimester]]-based system to regulate the window of legality, or as in the U.S., on a doctor's evaluation of the fetus' [[Fetal viability|viability]]. Some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on [[prenatal development|fetal development]], or require that [[minors and abortion|parents be contacted]] if their minor daughter requests an abortion. Other jurisdictions may require that a woman obtain the [[Paternal rights and abortion|consent of the fetus' father]] before aborting the fetus, that abortion providers inform women of health risks of the procedure—sometimes including "risks" not supported by the medical literature—and that multiple medical authorities certify that the abortion is either medically or socially necessary. Many restrictions are waived in emergency situations. China, which has ended their [[one-child policy]], and now has a two child policy, has at times incorporated mandatory abortions as part of their population control strategy. Other jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely. Many, but not all, of these allow legal abortions in a variety of circumstances. These circumstances vary based on jurisdiction, but may include whether the pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, the fetus' development is impaired, the woman's physical or mental well-being is endangered, or socioeconomic considerations make childbirth a hardship. In countries where abortion is banned entirely, such as [[Abortion in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]], medical authorities have recorded rises in maternal death directly and indirectly due to pregnancy as well as deaths due to doctors' fears of prosecution if they treat other gynecological emergencies. Some countries, such as Bangladesh, that nominally ban abortion, may also support clinics that perform abortions under the guise of menstrual hygiene. This is also a terminology in traditional medicine. In places where abortion is illegal or carries heavy social stigma, pregnant women may engage in [[medical tourism]] and travel to countries where they can terminate their pregnancies. Women without the means to travel can resort to providers of illegal abortions or attempt to perform an abortion by themselves. The organization [[Women on Waves]] has been providing education about medical abortions since 1999. The NGO created a mobile medical clinic inside a shipping container, which then travels on rented ships to countries with restrictive abortion laws. Because the ships are registered in the Netherlands, Dutch law prevails when the ship is in international waters. While in port, the organization provides free workshops and education; while in international waters, medical personnel are legally able to prescribe medical abortion drugs and counseling. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Society and culture",
"Sex-selective abortion"
]
| [[Medical ultrasonography|Sonography]] and [[amniocentesis]] allow parents to determine sex before childbirth. The development of this technology has led to [[sex-selective abortion and female infanticide|sex-selective abortion]], or the termination of a fetus based on its sex. The selective termination of a female fetus is most common. Sex-selective abortion is partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some countries. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of Asia, and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in Taiwan, South Korea, India, and China. This deviation from the standard birth rates of males and females occurs despite the fact that the country in question may have officially banned sex-selective abortion or even sex-screening. In China, a historical preference for a male child has been exacerbated by the [[one-child policy]], which was enacted in 1979. Many countries have taken legislative steps to reduce the incidence of sex-selective abortion. At the [[International Conference on Population and Development]] in 1994 over 180 states agreed to eliminate "all forms of discrimination against the girl child and the root causes of son preference", conditions also condemned by a [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|PACE]] resolution in 2011. The [[World Health Organization]] and [[UNICEF]], along with other United Nations agencies, have found that measures to reduce access to abortion are much less effective at reducing sex-selective abortions than measures to reduce gender inequality. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Society and culture",
"Anti-abortion violence"
]
| In a number of cases, abortion providers and these facilities have been subjected to various forms of violence, including murder, attempted murder, kidnapping, stalking, assault, arson, and bombing. Anti-abortion violence is classified by both governmental and scholarly sources as terrorism. In the U.S. and Canada, over 8,000 incidents of violence, trespassing, and death threats have been recorded by providers since 1977, including over 200 bombings/arsons and hundreds of assaults. The majority of abortion opponents have not been involved in violent acts. In the United States, four physicians who performed abortions have been murdered: [[David Gunn (doctor)|David Gunn]] (1993), [[John Britton (doctor)|John Britton]] (1994), [[Barnett Slepian]] (1998), and [[George Tiller]] (2009). Also murdered, in the U.S. and Australia, have been other personnel at abortion clinics, including receptionists and security guards such as James Barrett, Shannon Lowney, Lee Ann Nichols, and Robert Sanderson. Woundings (e.g., [[Garson Romalis]]) and attempted murders have also taken place in the United States and Canada. Hundreds of bombings, arsons, acid attacks, invasions, and incidents of vandalism against abortion providers have occurred. Notable perpetrators of anti-abortion violence include [[Eric Robert Rudolph]], [[Scott Roeder]], [[Shelley Shannon]], and [[Paul Jennings Hill]], the first person to be executed in the United States for murdering an abortion provider. [[Legal protection of access to abortion]] has been brought into some countries where abortion is legal. These laws typically seek to protect abortion clinics from obstruction, vandalism, picketing, and other actions, or to protect women and employees of such facilities from threats and harassment. Far more common than physical violence is psychological pressure. In 2003, Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations throughout Texas to prevent the construction of a [[Planned Parenthood]] facility in Austin. The organizations [[doxing|released the personal information]] online, of those involved with construction, sending them up to 1200 phone calls a day and contacting their churches. Some protestors record women entering clinics on camera. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[
"Other animals"
]
| Spontaneous abortion occurs in various animals. For example, in sheep it may be caused by stress or physical exertion, such as crowding through doors or being chased by dogs. In cows, abortion may be caused by contagious disease, such as [[brucellosis]] or ''[[Campylobacter]]'', but can often be controlled by vaccination. Eating [[pine needle]] can also induce abortions in cows. Several plants, including [[Gutierrezia sarothrae|broomweed]], [[Veratrum californicum|skunk cabbage]], [[Conium maculatum|poison hemlock]], and [[Nicotiana glauca|tree tobacco]], are known to cause fetal deformities and abortion in cattle and in sheep and goats. In horses, a fetus may be aborted or resorbed if it has [[lethal white syndrome]] (congenital intestinal aganglionosis). Foal embryos that are homozygous for the [[dominant white]] gene (WW) are theorized to also be aborted or resorbed before birth. In many species of sharks and rays, stress-induced abortions occur frequently on capture. Viral infection can cause abortion in dogs. Cats can experience spontaneous abortion for many reasons, including hormonal imbalance. A combined abortion and spaying is performed on pregnant cats, especially in [[trap–neuter–return]] programs, to prevent unwanted kittens from being born. Female rodents may terminate a pregnancy when exposed to the smell of a male not responsible for the pregnancy, known as the [[Bruce effect]]. Abortion may also be induced in animals, in the context of [[animal husbandry]]. For example, abortion may be induced in mares that have been mated improperly, or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant, or that are pregnant with twin foals. Feticide can occur in horses and zebras due to male harassment of pregnant mares or forced copulation, although the frequency in the wild has been questioned. Male [[gray langur]] monkeys may attack females following male takeover, causing miscarriage. | 765 | Abortion | [
"Abortion",
"Human reproduction",
"Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate",
"RTTEM"
]
| []
|
[]
| In [[law]], an '''abstract''' is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long [[legal document]] or of several related legal papers. | 766 | Abstract (law) | [
"Legal research"
]
| [
"Property abstract"
]
|
[
"Abstract of title"
]
| The Abstract of Title, used in [[real estate]] transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all [[deed]], [[will (law)|wills]], [[mortgage law|mortgages]], and other documents that affect [[ownership]] of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners. | 766 | Abstract (law) | [
"Legal research"
]
| [
"Property abstract"
]
|
[
"Clear title"
]
| A clear title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property. It reveals no breaksin the chain of legal ownership. After the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear, it is sometimes guaranteed, or insured. In a few states, a different system of insuring title of real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities. After this is accomplished, no abstract of title is necessary. | 766 | Abstract (law) | [
"Legal research"
]
| [
"Property abstract"
]
|
[
"Patent law"
]
| In the context of [[patent]] law and specifically in [[prior art]] searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to [[novelty (patent)|novelty]] or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|inventive step]] (or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|non-obviousness]] in United States patent law) of an invention. Under [[United States patent law]], the abstract may be called "Abstract of the Disclosure". | 766 | Abstract (law) | [
"Legal research"
]
| [
"Property abstract"
]
|
[
"Administrative process"
]
| Certain government bureaucracies, such as a ''department of motor vehicles'' will issue an '''abstract''' of a completed transaction or an updated record intended to serve as a proof of compliance with some administrative requirement. This is often done in advance of the update of reporting databases and/or the issuance of official documents. | 766 | Abstract (law) | [
"Legal research"
]
| [
"Property abstract"
]
|
[]
| The '''American Revolutionary War''' (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the '''Revolutionary War''' or the '''American War of Independence,''' was initiated by delegates from [[Thirteen Colonies|thirteen American colonies]] of [[British America]] in [[Continental Congress|Congress]] against [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] over their objection to [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament's]] taxation policies and [[No taxation without representation|lack of colonial representation]]. From their founding in the 1600s, the colonies were largely left to govern themselves. The cost of victory in the 1754 to 1763 [[French and Indian War]] and the 1756 to 1763 [[Seven Years' War]] left the British government deeply in debt; the [[The Thirteen Colonies|colonies]], where the war was fought, equipped and populated the British forces there at the cost of millions of their own funds. The [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]] and [[Townshend Acts]] provoked colonial opposition and unrest, leading to the 1770 [[Boston Massacre]] and 1773 [[Boston Tea Party]]. When Parliament imposed the [[Intolerable Acts]] in spring 1774 upon [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]], twelve colonies sent delegates to the [[First Continental Congress]] (September 5 – October 26, 1774) to draft a [[Petition to the King]] and organize a boycott of British goods. Fighting broke out on 19 April 1775: the British army stationed at Boston was harassed by the Massachusetts militia at [[Battles of Lexington and Concord|Lexington and Concord]] after destroying colonial Assembly powder stores. In June, the [[Second Continental Congress]] appointed [[George Washington]] to create a [[Continental Army]] and oversee the [[Siege of Boston|capture of Boston]] (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776). The [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriots]] sent the [[Olive Branch Petition]] (signed July 8, 1775) to the King and Parliament, both of whom rejected it. In response, they invaded [[Invasion of Quebec (1775)|British Quebec]] but were repulsed. In July 1776, Congress unanimously passed the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]. Hopes of a quick settlement were supported by [[Rockingham Whigs|American sympathizers within Parliament]] who opposed [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]]'s "coercion policy" in the colonies. However, after the British were [[Siege of Boston|driven out]] of Boston the new British commander-in-chief, General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|Sir William Howe]], launched a [[New York and New Jersey campaign|counter-offensive]] and captured New York City. After [[George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River|crossing the Delaware]] Washington engaged and routed Hessian forces at the [[Battle of Trenton]] and the British at the [[Battle of Princeton]]. After British General [[John Burgoyne|Burgoyne]] surrendered at the [[Battles of Saratoga]] in October 1777, Howe's 1777–1778 [[Philadelphia campaign]] captured that city. Washington retreated to [[Valley Forge]] during the winter of 1777–1778 where Prussian allied General [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben|von Steuben]] drilled the largely untrained [[Continental Army]] into an organized fighting unit. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[]
| French Foreign Minister [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes|Vergennes]] saw the war as a way to create an America economically and militarily dependent on France, not Britain. Although talks on a formal alliance began in late 1776, they proceeded slowly until the Patriot victory at Saratoga in October 1777. Fears Congress might come to an early settlement with Britain resulted in France and the United States signing two treaties in February 1778. The first was a [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States)|commercial treaty]], the second a [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance]]; in return for a French guarantee of American independence, Congress agreed to join the war against Britain and defend the [[French West Indies]]. Although Spain refused to join the Franco-American alliance, in the 1779 [[Treaty of Aranjuez (1779)|Treaty of Aranjuez]] they agreed to support France in its [[Anglo-French War (1778–1783)|global war with Britain]], hoping to regain losses incurred in 1713. In other fronts in North America, Governor of Spanish Louisiana [[Bernardo de Gálvez, 1st Viscount of Galveston|Bernardo Gálvez]] routed British forces from [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Louisiana]]. The Spanish, along with [[Privateer#United States|American privateers]] supplied the 1779 American conquest of [[Illinois campaign|Western Quebec]] ([[Northwest Territory#British control|later the US Northwest Territory]]). Gálvez then expelled British forces from Mobile during the [[Battle of Fort Charlotte]] and the [[siege of Pensacola]], cutting off British military aid to their American Indian allies in the interior southeast. Howe's replacement, General [[Henry Clinton (British Army officer, born 1730)|Sir Henry Clinton]], then mounted a 1778 "[[Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War#British campaign in the South|Southern strategy]]" from Charleston. After [[Capture of Savannah|capturing Savannah]], defeats at the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]] and the [[Battle of Cowpens]] forced [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Cornwallis]] to retreat to [[Siege of Yorktown (1781)|Yorktown]], where his army was besieged by an allied French and American force. An attempt to resupply the garrison was repulsed by the French navy at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]], and Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781. Although their war with France and Spain continued for another two years, the British fight against the Americans ended with the Battle of Yorktown. The [[North Ministry]] was replaced by [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Lord Rockingham]], who accepted office on the basis [[George III]] agreed to American independence. Preliminary articles were signed in November 1782, and in April 1783 Congress accepted British terms; these included independence, evacuation of British troops, cession of territory up to the [[Mississippi River]] and navigation to the sea, as well as fishing rights in Newfoundland. On September 3, 1783, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed between Great Britain and the United States, then ratified the following spring. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Prelude to revolution"
]
| The [[French and Indian War]] and the wider conflict known as the [[Seven Years' War]] ended with the [[Peace of Paris (1763)|1763 Peace of Paris]], which expelled France from [[New France|North America]]. At the same time, the British rescinded provisions of colonial charters claiming to extend from the [[Atlantic]] to the [[Pacific]]; the [[Mississippi River]] became the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in the Americas, with free navigation on it "to the open sea". More American territory changed hands in 1763 than any settlement before or after, destabilizing existing alliances and trade networks, and leading to conflict between settlers and American Indians. The [[Proclamation Line of 1763]] was intended to refocus colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia or south into Florida while separating American Indians and colonials by restricting settlement in the west. Both sides agreed with the principle but disagreed on where to set the border; keeping the peace required garrisons of regular troops along the frontier, and led to disputes with the [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial legislatures]] over who should bear the expense. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Prelude to revolution",
"Taxation and legislation"
]
| Although directly administered by the Crown, acting through a local Governor, the colonies were largely governed by native-born property owners. While external affairs were managed by [[London]], colonial [[Militia (United States)|militia]] were funded locally but with the ending of the French threat in 1763, the legislatures expected less taxation, not more. At the same time, the huge costs of the Seven Years' War meant [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] expected the colonies to fund their own defense. The outcome was a series of disputes as to how these expenses should be paid. The 1763 to 1765 [[Grenville ministry]] began by instructing the Royal Navy to stop the trade of smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. The most important was the 1733 [[Molasses Act]]; routinely ignored prior to 1763, it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by the [[Sugar Act]] and [[Stamp Act]], which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier. In July 1765, the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigs]] formed the [[First Rockingham ministry]], which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the [[Declaratory Act]]. However, this did little to end the discontent; in 1768, a riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop ''[[HMS Liberty (1768)|Liberty]]'' on suspicion of smuggling. Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the [[Boston massacre|Boston Massacre]]. The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the [[Townshend Acts]] by the Tory-based [[North Ministry]], which came to power in January 1770 and remained in office until 1781. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax the colonies; the amount was minor, but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans objected to. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Prelude to revolution",
"Taxation and legislation"
]
| Tensions escalated following the destruction of a customs vessel in the June 1772 [[Gaspee Affair]], then came to a head in 1773. A [[Crisis of 1772|banking crisis]] led to the near-collapse of the [[East India Company]], which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the [[Tea Act]], giving it a trading monopoly in the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the Act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as yet another attempt to impose the principle of taxation by Parliament. Then, in December 1773, [[Sons of Liberty|The Sons of Liberty]] protested the Tea Act by disguising themselves as Mohawk Indians and dumping 342 crates of tea into the Boston Harbor. This event would be known as the [[Boston Tea Party]]. In response, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, also called the [[Intolerable Acts]] by the colonists. While aimed specifically at Massachusetts, many in America and within the Whig opposition considered them a threat to liberty in general; it led to increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, as well as in Parliament and the London press. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Prelude to revolution",
"Break with the British Crown"
]
| Over the course of the 18th century, the [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies#Assembly|elected lower houses]] in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their Royal Governors. Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these Assemblies now established ad hoc provincial legislatures, variously called Congresses, Conventions, and Conferences, effectively replacing Royal control. With the exception of [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]], twelve colonies sent representatives to the [[First Continental Congress]] to agree on a unified response to the crisis. Many of the delegates feared that an all-out boycott would result in war and sent a [[Petition to the King]] calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. However, after some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts [[Suffolk Resolves]] and on October 20 passed the [[Continental Association]]; based on a draft prepared by the [[First Virginia Convention]] in August, this instituted [[economic sanctions]] against Britain. While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by [[James Duane]] and future Loyalist [[Joseph Galloway]] insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade. Expecting concessions by the North administration, Congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775. However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony. In July, the [[Restraining Acts 1775|Restraining Acts]] limited colonial trade with the [[British West Indies]] and Britain and barred New England ships from the [[History of Newfoundland and Labrador#Fishing|Newfoundland cod fisheries]]. The increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each Assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense. On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]] which began the war. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Prelude to revolution",
"Political reactions"
]
| After the Patriot victory at Concord, moderates in Congress led by [[John Dickinson]] drafted the [[Olive Branch Petition]], offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute. However, since it was immediately followed by the [[Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms]], Colonial Secretary [[William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth|Dartmouth]] viewed the offer as insincere; he refused to present the petition to the king, which was therefore rejected in early September. Although constitutionally correct, since George could not oppose his own government, it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute, while the hostility of his language annoyed even [[Loyalists fighting in the American Revolution|Loyalist]] members of Congress. Combined with the [[Proclamation of Rebellion]], issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill, it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement. Backed by the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigs]], Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would simply drive the Americans towards independence. However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both North and George III were convinced war was inevitable. After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the [[Parliament of Ireland|Irish Parliament]] approved the recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time. Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply [[Hessian (soldier)|additional troops]]. Within a year it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time. However, the use of German mercenaries and Catholics was opposed by many in Parliament and the Protestant-dominated colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, it allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. Support for independence was boosted by [[Thomas Paine]]'s pamphlet ''[[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]]'', which was widely reprinted. To draft the [[Declaration of Independence]], Congress appointed the [[Committee of Five]], consisting of [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[John Adams]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Roger Sherman]] and [[Robert Livingston (chancellor)|Robert Livingston]]. Identifying the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies as "one people", it simultaneously dissolved political links with Britain, while including a long list of alleged violations of "English rights" committed by George III. On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4, which Washington read to his troops in New York City on July 9. At this point, the Revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and became a civil war. The states as represented in Congress were engaged in a struggle with Britain, but each in turn was split between Patriots and Loyalists. Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists and those who were indifferent. Others calculate the spilt as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Prelude to revolution",
"Political reactions"
]
| At the onset of the war, the [[Second Continental Congress|Congress]] realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The [[Committee of Secret Correspondence]] was formed for "the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world". From 1775 to 1776, it shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns. Paine served as secretary, while [[Silas Deane]] was instrumental in securing French aid in Paris. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
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[
"War breaks out"
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| As the American Revolutionary War unfolded in North America, there were two principal campaign theaters within the thirteen states, and a smaller but strategically important one [[Western theater of the American Revolutionary War|west of the Appalachian Mountains]] to the Mississippi River and north to the Great Lakes. The full-on military campaigning began in the [[Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War|states north of Maryland]], and fighting was most frequent and severest there between 1775 and 1778. Patriots achieved several strategic victories [[Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War#Early operations, 1775–1778|in the South]], the British lost their first army at Saratoga, and the French entered the war as an American ally. In the [[Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga|expanded Northern theater]] and wintering at [[Valley Forge]], General Washington observed British operations coming out of New York at the 1778 [[Battle of Monmouth]]. He then closed off British initiatives by a series of raids that contained the British army in New York City. The same year, Spanish-supplied Virginia Colonel [[George Rogers Clark]] joined by [[French colonization of the Americas|Francophone settlers]] and their Indian allies conquered [[Province of Quebec|Western Quebec]], the US [[Northwest Territory]]. Starting in 1779, the British initiated a [[George Washington in the American Revolution#British southern strategy|southern strategy]] to begin at [[History of Savannah, Georgia#British colony|Savannah]], gather Loyalist support, and reoccupy Patriot-controlled territory north to [[Chesapeake Colonies|Chesapeake Bay]]. Initially the British were successful, and the Americans lost an entire army at the [[siege of Charleston]], which caused a severe setback for Patriots in the region. But then British maneuvering north led to a combined American and French force cornering a second British army at [[Siege of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]], and their surrender effectively ended the Revolutionary War. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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"War breaks out",
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| On April 14, 1775, Sir [[Thomas Gage]], who was [[Commander-in-Chief, North America]] from 1763 to 1775 and appointed Governor of [[Province of Massachusetts|Massachusetts]] in 1774, received orders from Britain to take action against the Patriots. Acting on intelligence, Gage planned to destroy stores of militia ordnance at [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]] by way of [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]] and to capture [[John Hancock]] and [[Samuel Adams]], considered the two principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to commence before midnight on April 19 and surprise the militia while completing their objectives and retreating to Boston before multitudes of patriot militias could respond. However, [[Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War|Patriot intelligence]], which [[Paul Revere]] had helped organize, learned of Gage's intentions, and Revere alerted Captain [[John Parker (captain)|John Parker]], commander of the Concord militia. The first action of the war was a [[Shot heard round the world|brief skirmish at Lexington]], followed by a full-scale battle during the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]]. After suffering some 300 casualties, British troops withdrew to Boston, followed by local militia who [[Siege of Boston|laid siege to the city]]. The next month 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]], [[John Burgoyne]], and [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]]. On June 17, they seized the [[Charlestown Peninsula]] at the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]], a frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties. Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little, Gage appealed to London to send a large army to suppress the revolt, but instead they replaced him and Howe took command. On June 14, 1775, the Continental Congress officially assumed command of patriot forces in Boston, giving birth to the Continental Army, which now needed a Commander-in-Chief. To lead Patriot forces surrounding Boston, Congressional leader [[John Adams]] of [[Massachusetts in the American Revolution|Massachusetts]] nominated [[Virginia in the American Revolution|Virginia delegate]] [[George Washington in the American Revolution|George Washington]] for commander-in-chief of the [[Continental Army]] in June 1775. At this time the delegates were so impressed with Washington that his appointment was considered a done deal. On June 16, [[John Hancock]] officially announced that Washington was henceforth "General and Commander in Chief of the army of the United Colonies." Washington had previously commanded Virginia militia regiments in British combat commands during the [[French and Indian War]]. He proceeded to Boston to assume field command of the ongoing siege on July 3. Howe did not engage in a standoff with Washington, and Washington made no plan to assault the city; instead, the Americans [[Fortification of Dorchester Heights|fortified Dorchester Heights]]. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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"War breaks out",
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| In early March 1776, Colonel [[Henry Knox]] arrived with [[Noble train of artillery|heavy artillery]] captured from a [[Capture of Fort Ticonderoga|raid on Fort Ticonderoga]]. Under the cover of darkness Washington placed his artillery atop Dorchester Heights March 5, threatening Boston and the British ships in the harbor. Howe feared another battle like Bunker Hill, so he evacuated Boston. The British were permitted to withdraw without further casualties on March 17 (known as [[Evacuation Day (Massachusetts)|Evacuation Day]]), and they sailed to [[Nova Scotia in the American Revolution|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]. Washington then moved his army south to [[History of New York City#American Revolution|New York]]. Beginning in August 1775, [[Privateer#United States|American privateers]] began raiding villages in Nova Scotia, first at [[Raid on St. John (1775)|Saint John]], then [[Raid on Charlottetown (1775)|Charlottetown]] and [[Raid on Yarmouth, Nova Scotia (1775)|Yarmouth]]. In 1776, [[John Paul Jones]] and [[Jonathan Eddy]] raided [[Raid on Canso (1776)|Canso]] and assaulted [[Battle of Fort Cumberland|Fort Cumberland]] respectively. British officials in [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Quebec]] began negotiating with the [[Iroquois#American Revolution|Iroquois]] for their support, while the Americans urged them to maintain neutrality. Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec in April 1775. The second American expedition into the former French territory was defeated at the [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|Battle of Quebec]] on December 31, and after a loose siege the Americans withdrew on May 6, 1776. A failed American counter-attack at [[Battle of Trois-Rivières|Trois-Rivières]] on June 8 ended their operations in Quebec. However, British pursuit was blocked by American ships on Lake Champlain until they were cleared on October 11 at the [[Battle of Valcour Island]]. The American troops were forced to withdraw to [[Fort Ticonderoga]], ending the campaign. In November 1776, a Massachusetts-sponsored uprising in Nova Scotia during the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland (1776)|Battle of Fort Cumberland]] was dispersed. The cumulative failures cost the Patriots support in local public opinion, and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the [[New England colonies]] alienated the Canadians. The Patriots made no further attempts to invade north. In [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]], Royal Governor [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]] attempted to [[Gunpowder Incident|disarm the Assembly's militia]] as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out. He [[Dunmore's Proclamation|issued a proclamation]] on November 7, 1775, promising freedom for [[Slavery in the colonial United States|slaves]] who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown. Dunmore's troops were repulsed at the [[Battle of Great Bridge]], and Dunmore fled to British ships anchored off the nearby port at Norfolk. The [[Third Virginia Convention]] refused to disband its militia or accept martial law. In the last Royal Virginia Assembly session, speaker [[Peyton Randolph]] did not respond to Lord Dunmore concerning Parliament's [[Conciliatory Resolution]]. Negotiations failed in part because Randolph was also president of the [[Virginia Conventions#First through fourth Revolutionary conventions|first Virginia Conventions of Burgesses]], and he deferred to the [[First Continental Congress]], where he was also President. Dunmore ordered the ship's crews to [[Burning of Norfolk|burn Norfolk]] on January 1, 1776. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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[
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| The [[siege of Savage's Old Fields]] began on November 19 in [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]] between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the [[Snow Campaign]]. Loyalists were recruited in [[Province of North Carolina|North Carolina]] to reassert colonial rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the [[Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge]] and Loyalist sentiment was subdued. A troop of British [[British Army during the American Revolutionary War|regulars]] set out to reconquer [[South Carolina in the American Revolution|South Carolina]] and launched an attack on Charleston during the [[Battle of Sullivan's Island]] on June 28, 1776, but it failed and left the South in Patriot control until 1780. Shortages in Patriot gunpowder led Congress to authorize an expedition against [[The Bahamas#18th century|the Bahamas]] in the British West Indies to secure additional ordnance there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed and engaged the British at the [[Raid of Nassau]], but the local militia offered no resistance. The expedition confiscated what supplies they could and sailed for home on March 17. A month later after a brief skirmish at the [[Battle of Block Island]] with the Royal Navy frigate , the squadron returned to the base of American naval operations during the Revolution at [[New London, Connecticut#American Revolution|New London]], [[History of Connecticut#The American Revolution (1775–1789)|Connecticut]]. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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| After regrouping at [[History of Halifax (former city)#The American Revolution|Halifax, Nova Scotia]], William Howe was determined to take the fight to the Americans. He sailed for New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on [[Staten Island#18th century and the American Revolution|Staten Island]] near the entrance to [[New York Harbor#Colonial era|New York Harbor]] on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30; Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops. On August 12, 1776, Patriot [[Thomas Knowlton]] was given orders to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. [[Knowlton's Rangers]], which included [[Nathan Hale]], became the Army's first intelligence unit. When Washington was driven off Long Island he soon realized that he would need more than military might and amateur spies to defeat the British. He was committed to professionalizing military intelligence, and with the aid of [[Benjamin Tallmadge]], they launched the six-man [[Culper Ring|Culper spy ring]]. The efforts of Washington and the Culper Spy Ring substantially increased effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field. Over the course of the war Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on intelligence operations. Washington split his army into positions on [[Manhattan#American Revolution and the early United States|Manhattan Island]] and across the [[East River#Tributaries|East River]] in western [[Long Island#18th and 19th centuries|Long Island]]. On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island, Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to [[Brooklyn Heights#Early settlement|Brooklyn Heights]], but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces. Through the night of August 28, General [[Henry Knox]] bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed [[Bateau|freight boats]] without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General [[Thomas Mifflin]]'s regiments as a rearguard. General Howe officially met with a delegation from Congress at the September [[Staten Island Peace Conference]], but it failed to conclude peace as the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence. On September 15, Howe seized control of New York City when the British [[Landing at Kip's Bay|landed at Kip's Bay]] and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans at the [[Battle of Harlem Heights]] the following day. On October 18 Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the [[Battle of Pell's Point]], and the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28 at the [[Battle of White Plains]], and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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[
"War breaks out",
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| Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured [[Battle of Fort Washington|Fort Washington]] on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with the loss of 3,000 prisoners. The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back four days later. General [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]] wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to capture [[History of Rhode Island#Revolutionary era, 1775–1790|Newport, Rhode Island]] to secure the Loyalist port. General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]] pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, leaving Washington unmolested. The outlook was bleak for the American cause: the reduced army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, morale declined, and Congress abandoned [[History of Philadelphia#Revolution|Philadelphia]] and moved to [[Baltimore#Colonial period|Baltimore]]. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in [[History of New York (state)#New York in the American Revolution|New York state]]. In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak, and King George III awarded the [[Order of the Bath]] to Howe. Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and American troops fled in the face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. In the meantime, the British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring. Two weeks after Congress withdrew to safer [[Maryland in the American Revolution#American Revolution|Maryland]], Washington [[Washington's crossing of the Delaware River|crossed]] the ice-choked Delaware River about 30 miles upriver from [[History of Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] on the night of December 25–26, 1776. His approach over frozen trails surprised [[Hessian (soldier)|Hessian]] Colonel [[Johann Rall]]. The Continentals overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at [[Battle of Trenton|Trenton, New Jersey]], and took 900 prisoners. The celebrated victory rescued the American army's flagging morale, gave new hope to the Patriot cause, and dispelled much of the fear of professional Hessian "mercenaries". Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was repulsed at the [[Battle of the Assunpink Creek]]; in the night of January 2, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis and defeated his rearguard in the [[Battle of Princeton]] the following day. The two victories helped to convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies. Washington entered winter quarters from January to May 1778 at [[Morristown, New Jersey#Eighteenth century|Morristown, New Jersey]], and he received the Congressional direction to inoculate all Continental troops against [[smallpox]]. Although a [[Forage War]] between the armies continued until March, Howe did not attempt to attack the Americans over the winter of 1776–1777. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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| The 1776 campaign demonstrated regaining New England would be a prolonged affair, which led to a change in British strategy. This involved isolating the north from the rest of the country by taking control of the [[Hudson River]], allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial. In December 1776, Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|Lord Germain]], proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada. Germain received this on February 23, 1777, followed a few days later by a memorandum from Burgoyne, then in London on leave. Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from [[Montreal]] down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under [[Barry St. Leger]] moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at [[History of Albany, New York (1664–1784)#1744−American Revolution|Albany]], leaving Howe to decide whether to join them. Reasonable in principle, this did not account for the logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack [[Philadelphia campaign|Philadelphia]] instead. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, with a mixed force of British regulars, German auxiliaries and Canadian militia, and [[Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777)|captured Fort Ticonderoga]] on July 5. As General [[Horatio Gates]] retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped the area of food. This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; on one of these, more than 700 British troops were captured at the [[Battle of Bennington]] on August 16. St Leger moved east and besieged [[Siege of Fort Stanwix|Fort Stanwix]]; despite defeating an American relief force at the [[Battle of Oriskany]] on August 6, he was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22. Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching [[Saratoga, New York|Saratoga]] on September 13. He constructed defenses around the town and asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around the town. Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the [[Battles of Saratoga#First Saratoga|Battle of Freeman Farms]] on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a [[reconnaissance in force]] on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the [[Battles of Saratoga#Second Saratoga|Battle of Bemis Heights]], forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced the camp to a "squalid hell" of mud and starving cattle, supplies were dangerously low and many of the wounded in agony. Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by [[Friedrich Adolf Riedesel|General Riedesel]], surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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| After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in [[Chesapeake Bay]] on August 24. He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent, defeating Washington at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] on September 11, then allowing him to withdraw in good order. After dispersing an American detachment at [[Battle of Paoli|Paoli]] on September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at [[Germantown, Philadelphia|Germantown]]. Here they were [[Battle of Germantown|attacked]] by Washington on October 4, but repulsed. To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea, the Patriots erected [[Fort Mifflin]] and nearby [[Fort Mercer]] on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed [[Cheval de frise|obstacles]] in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of [[Continental Navy]] ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the [[Pennsylvania State Navy]], commanded by [[John Hazelwood]]. An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 [[Battle of Red Bank]] failed; a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls. His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the [[Battle of White Marsh]] from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter. On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at [[Valley Forge]]; while Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with Gates' victory at Saratoga, foreign observers such as Frederick the Great were equally impressed with Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and determination. Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes. However, Baron [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben]] took the opportunity to introduce [[Prussian Army]] drill and infantry tactics to the entire Continental Army; he did this by training "model companies" in each regiment, who then instructed their home units. Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended the war. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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| Like his predecessors, French foreign minister [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes|Vergennes]] considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation and viewed the war as an opportunity to weaken Britain. He initially avoided open conflict, but allowed American ships to take on cargoes in French ports, a technical violation of neutrality. Although public opinion favored the American cause, [[Controller-General of Finances|Finance Minister]] [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|Turgot]] argued they did not need French help to gain independence and war was too expensive. Instead, Vergennes persuaded [[Louis XVI]] to secretly fund a [[Roderigue Hortalez and Company|government front company]] to purchase munitions for the Patriots, carried in neutral Dutch ships and imported through [[Sint Eustatius]] in the Caribbean. Many Americans opposed a French alliance, fearing to "exchange one tyranny for another", but this changed after a series of military setbacks in early 1776. As France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with Britain, Congress had three choices; making peace on British terms, continuing the struggle on their own, or proclaiming independence, guaranteed by France. Although the Declaration of Independence in July 1776 had wide public support, Adams was among those reluctant to pay the price of an alliance with France, and over 20% of Congressmen voted against it. Congress agreed to the treaty with reluctance and as the war moved in their favor increasingly lost interest in it. [[Silas Deane]] was sent to Paris to begin negotiations with Vergennes, whose key objectives were replacing Britain as the United States' primary commercial and military partner, while securing the [[French West Indies]] from American expansion. These islands were extremely valuable; in 1772, the value of sugar and coffee produced by [[Saint-Domingue]] on its own exceeded that of all American exports combined. Talks progressed slowly until October 1777, when British defeat at Saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced Vergennes only a permanent alliance could prevent the "disaster" of Anglo-American rapprochement. Assurances of formal French support allowed Congress to reject the Carlisle Peace Commission and insist on nothing short of complete independence. On February 6, 1778, France and the United States signed the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States)|Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] regulating trade between the two countries, followed by a defensive military alliance against Britain, the [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance]]. In return for French guarantees of American independence, Congress undertook to defend their interests in the West Indies, while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace; conflict over these provisions would lead to the 1798 to 1800 [[Quasi-War]]. [[Charles III of Spain]] was invited to join on the same terms but refused, largely due to concerns over the impact of the Revolution on Spanish colonies in the Americas. Spain had complained on multiple occasions about encroachment by American settlers into [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Louisiana]], a problem that could only get worse once the United States replaced Britain. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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| Although Spain ultimately made important contributions to American success, in the [[Treaty of Aranjuez (1779)]], Charles agreed only to support [[Anglo-French War (1778–1783)|France's war with Britain]] outside America, in return for help in recovering [[Gibraltar]], [[Menorca]] and [[Spanish Florida]]. The terms were confidential since several conflicted with American aims; for example, the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a non-negotiable for colonies like Massachusetts. One less well-known impact of this agreement was the abiding American distrust of 'foreign entanglements'; the US would not sign another treaty until the [[NATO]] agreement in 1949. This was because the US had agreed not to make peace without France, while Aranjuez committed France to keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar, effectively making it a condition of US independence without the knowledge of Congress. To encourage French participation in the struggle for independence, the US representative in Paris, [[Silas Deane]] promised promotion and command positions to any French officer who joined the Continental Army. Although many proved incompetent, one outstanding exception was [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette]], whom Congress appointed a major General. In addition to his military ability, Lafayette showed considerable political skill in building support for Washington among his officers and within Congress, liaising with French army and naval commanders, and promoting the Patriot cause in France. When the war started, Britain tried to borrow the Dutch-based [[Scots Brigade]] for service in America, but pro-Patriot sentiment led the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]] to refuse. Although the Republic was no longer a major power, prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War|declared war]] in December 1780, a conflict that proved disastrous to the Dutch economy. The Dutch were also excluded from the [[First League of Armed Neutrality]], formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France. The British government failed to take into account the strength of the American merchant marine and support from European countries, which allowed the colonies to import munitions and continue trading with relative impunity. While well aware of this, the North administration delayed placing the Royal Navy on a war footing for cost reasons; this prevented the institution of an effective blockade and restricted them to ineffectual diplomatic protests. Traditional British policy was to employ European land-based allies to divert the opposition, a role filled by Prussia in the Seven Years' War; in 1778, they were diplomatically isolated and faced war on multiple fronts. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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]
|
[
"War breaks out",
"Foreign intervention"
]
| Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France, but he believed the [[Annus Mirabilis of 1759|British victories over France]] in the Seven Years' War as a reason to believe in ultimate victory over France. Britain could not find a powerful ally among the Great Powers to engage France on the European continent. Britain subsequently changed its focus into the Caribbean theater, and diverted major military resources away from America. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"War breaks out",
"Stalemate in the North"
]
| At the end of 1777, Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778; with French entry into the war, he was ordered to consolidate his forces in New York. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit; the [[Battle of Monmouth]] on June 28 was inconclusive but boosted Patriot morale. Washington had rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments, the Continentals repulsed British bayonet charges, the British rear guard lost perhaps 50 per-cent more casualties, and the Americans held the field at the end of the day. That midnight, the newly installed Clinton continued his retreat to New York. A French naval force under Admiral [[Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing]] was sent to assist Washington; deciding New York was too formidable a target, in August they launched a combined attack on Newport, with General [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] commanding land forces. The resulting [[Battle of Rhode Island]] was indecisive; badly damaged by a storm, the French withdrew to avoid putting their ships at risk. Further activity was limited to British raids on [[Battle of Chestnut Neck|Chestnut Neck]] and [[The Affair at Little Egg Harbor|Little Egg Harbor]] in October. In July 1779, the Americans captured British positions at [[Battle of Stony Point|Stony Point]] and [[Battle of Paulus Hook|Paulus Hook]]. Clinton unsuccessfully tried to tempt Washington into a decisive engagement by sending General [[William Tryon]] to [[Tryon's raid|raid Connecticut]]. In July, a large American naval operation, the [[Penobscot Expedition]], attempted to retake [[District of Maine|Maine]], then part of Massachusetts, but was defeated. Persistent [[Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga#Frontier Raids|Iroquois raids]] along the border with Quebec led to the punitive [[Sullivan Expedition]] in April 1779, destroying many settlements but failing to stop them. During the winter of 1779–1780, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor, public support fell away in the long war, the [[Continental dollar]] was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and mutinies occurred in the [[Pennsylvania Line Mutiny|Pennsylvania Line]] and [[Pompton Mutiny|New Jersey Line]] regiments over the conditions in early 1780. In June 1780, Clinton sent 6,000 men under [[Wilhelm von Knyphausen]] to retake New Jersey, but they were halted by local militia at the [[Battle of Connecticut Farms]]; although the Americans withdrew, Knyphausen felt he was not strong enough to engage Washington's main force and retreated. A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat at the [[Battle of Springfield (1780)|Battle of Springfield]], effectively ending their ambitions in New Jersey. In July, Washington appointed [[Benedict Arnold]] commander of [[West Point]]; his attempt to betray the fort to the British failed due to incompetent planning, and the plot was revealed when his British contact [[John André]] was captured and later executed. Arnold escaped to New York and switched sides, an action justified in a pamphlet addressed "[[To the Inhabitants of America]]"; the Patriots condemned his betrayal, while he found himself almost as unpopular with the British. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
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| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"War breaks out",
"Stalemate in the North"
]
| The war to the west of the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachians]] was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the [[Cuyahoga River]] was halted by adverse weather. Later in the year, a [[Illinois campaign|second campaign]] was undertaken to seize the [[Illinois Country]] from the British. Virginia militia, ''[[Canadien]]'' settlers, and Indian allies commanded by Colonel [[George Rogers Clark]] captured [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]] on July 4 then secured [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]], though Vincennes was recaptured by Quebec Governor [[Henry Hamilton (colonial administrator)|Henry Hamilton]]. In early 1779, the Virginians counterattacked in the [[siege of Fort Vincennes]] and took Hamilton prisoner. Clark secured western [[Quebec Act|British Quebec]] as the American [[Northwest Territory]] in the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] concluding the war. On May 25, 1780, British Colonel Henry Bird [[Bird's invasion of Kentucky|invaded Kentucky]] as part of a wider operation to clear American resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. Their Pensacola advance on New Orleans was overcome by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on Mobile. Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on [[Battle of St. Louis|St. Louis]] by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor [[Fernando de Leyba|de Leyba]], and on the [[Illinois County, Virginia|Virginia county courthouse]] at [[Cahokia, Illinois#History|Cahokia]] by Lieutenant Colonel Clark. The British initiative under Bird from Detroit was ended at the rumored approach of Clark. The scale of violence in the [[Licking River (Kentucky)#History|Licking River Valley]], such as during the [[Battle of Blue Licks]], was extreme "even for frontier standards". It led to men of English and German settlements to join Clark's militia when the British and their auxiliaries withdrew to the Great Lakes. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the [[Mad River (Ohio)|Mad River]] in August which met with some success in the [[Battle of Piqua]] but did not end Indian raids. French soldier [[Augustin de La Balme]] led a Canadian militia in an attempt to capture Detroit, but they dispersed when [[Miami tribe|Miami Indians]] led by [[Little Turtle]] attacked the encamped settlers on November 5. The war in the west had become a stalemate with the British garrison sitting in Detroit and the Virginians expanding westward settlements north of the Ohio River in the face of British-allied Indian resistance. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
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"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"War breaks out",
"War in the South"
]
| The "Southern Strategy" was developed by Lord Germain, based on input from London-based Loyalists like Joseph Galloway. They argued it made no sense to fight the Patriots in the north where they were strongest, while the New England economy was reliant on trade with Britain, regardless of who governed it. On the other hand, duties on tobacco made the South far more profitable for Britain, while local support meant securing it required small numbers of regular troops. Victory would leave a truncated United States facing British possessions in the south, Canada to the north, and Ohio on their western border; with the Atlantic seaboard controlled by the Royal Navy, Congress would be forced to agree to terms. However, assumptions about the level of Loyalist support proved wildly optimistic. Germain accordingly ordered [[Augustine Prévost]], the British commander in [[East Florida]], to advance into [[Georgia in the American Revolution#Return of the British Army|Georgia]] in December 1778. [[Archibald Campbell (British Army officer, born 1739)|Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell]], an experienced officer taken prisoner earlier in the war before being exchanged for Ethan Allen, [[Capture of Savannah|captured Savannah]] on December 29, 1778. He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1,100, many of whom allegedly joined only after Campbell threatened to confiscate their property. Poor motivation and training made them unreliable troops, as demonstrated in their defeat by Patriot militia at the [[Battle of Kettle Creek]] on February 14, 1779, although this was offset by British victory at [[Battle of Brier Creek|Brier Creek]] on March 3. In June, Prévost launched an abortive assault on Charleston, before retreating to Savannah, an operation notorious for widespread looting by British troops that enraged both Loyalists and Patriots. In October, a joint French and American operation under Admiral [[Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing|d'Estaing]] and General [[Benjamin Lincoln]] failed to [[Siege of Savannah|recapture Savannah]]. Prévost was replaced by [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]], who assumed responsibility for Germain's strategy; he soon realized estimates of Loyalist support were considerably over-stated, and he needed far larger numbers of regular forces. Reinforced by Clinton, his troops [[Siege of Charleston|captured Charleston]] in May 1780, inflicting the most serious Patriot defeat of the war; over 5,000 prisoners were taken and the Continental Army in the south effectively destroyed. On May 29, Loyalist regular [[Banastre Tarleton]] defeated an American force of 400 at the [[Battle of Waxhaws]]; over 120 were killed, many allegedly after surrendering. Responsibility is disputed, Loyalists claiming Tarleton was shot at while negotiating terms of surrender, but it was later used as a recruiting tool by the Patriots. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
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"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
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| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"War breaks out",
"War in the South"
]
| Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis to oversee the south; despite their success, the two men left barely on speaking terms, with dire consequences for the future conduct of the war. The Southern strategy depended on local support, but this was undermined by a series of coercive measures. Previously, captured Patriots were sent home after swearing not to take up arms against the king; they were now required to fight their former comrades, while the confiscation of Patriot-owned plantations led formerly neutral "[[grandee]]" to side with them. Skirmishes at [[Battle of Williamson's Plantation|Williamson's Plantation]], Cedar Springs, [[Battle of Rocky Mount|Rocky Mount]], and [[Battle of Hanging Rock|Hanging Rock]] signaled widespread resistance to the new oaths throughout South Carolina. In July, Congress appointed General [[Horatio Gates]] commander in the south; he was defeated at the [[Battle of Camden]] on August 16, leaving Cornwallis free to enter North Carolina. Despite battlefield success, the British could not control the countryside and Patriot attacks continued; before moving north, Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major [[Patrick Ferguson]] to cover his left flank, leaving their forces too far apart to provide mutual support. In early October, Ferguson was defeated at the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]], dispersing organized Loyalist resistance in the region. Despite this, Cornwallis continued into North Carolina hoping for Loyalist support, while Washington replaced Gates with General [[Nathanael Greene]] in December 1780. Greene divided his army, leading his main force southeast pursued by Cornwallis; a detachment was sent southwest under [[Daniel Morgan]], who defeated Tarleton's [[British Legion (American Revolution)|British Legion]] at [[Battle of Cowpens|Cowpens]] on January 17, 1781, nearly eliminating it as a fighting force. The Patriots now held the initiative in the south, with the exception of a [[Raid of Richmond|raid on Richmond]] led by Benedict Arnold in January 1781. Greene led Cornwallis on a series of countermarches around North Carolina; by early March, the British were exhausted and short of supplies and Greene felt strong enough to fight the [[Battle of Guilford Court House]] on March 15. Although victorious, Cornwallis suffered heavy casualties and retreated to [[Wilmington, North Carolina#Revolutionary era|Wilmington, North Carolina]] seeking supplies and reinforcements. The Patriots now controlled most of the Carolinas and Georgia outside the coastal areas; after a minor reversal at the [[Battle of Hobkirk's Hill]], they recaptured [[Siege of Fort Watson|Fort Watson]] and [[Siege of Fort Motte|Fort Motte]] on April 15. On June 6, Brigadier General [[Andrew Pickens (congressman)|Andrew Pickens]] captured [[Siege of Augusta|Augusta]], leaving the British in Georgia confined to Charleston and Savannah. The assumption Loyalists would do most of the fighting left the British short of troops and battlefield victories came at the cost of losses they could not replace. Despite halting Greene's advance at the [[Battle of Eutaw Springs]] on September 8, Cornwallis withdrew to Charleston with little to show for his campaign. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
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"Conflicts in 1780",
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"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"War breaks out",
"Western campaign"
]
| When Spain joined France's war against Britain in 1779, [[Treaty of Aranjuez (1779)|their treaty]] specifically excluded Spanish military action in North America. However, from the beginning of the war, [[Bernardo de Gálvez, 1st Viscount of Galveston|Bernardo de Gálvez]], the [[List of colonial governors of Louisiana|Governor of Spanish Louisiana]], allowed the Americans to import supplies and munitions into [[History of New Orleans#Spanish interregnum|New Orleans]], then ship them to [[History of Pittsburgh#Gateway to the West (1763–1799)|Pittsburgh]]. This provided an alternative transportation route for the Continental Army, bypassing the British blockade of the Atlantic Coast. The trade was organized by [[Oliver Pollock]], a successful merchant in Havana and New Orleans who was appointed US "commercial agent". It also helped support the American [[Western theater of the American Revolutionary War|campaign in the west]]; in the 1778 [[Illinois campaign]], militia under General [[George Rogers Clark]] cleared the British from what was then part of [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Quebec]], creating [[Illinois County, Virginia]]. Despite official neutrality, Gálvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts. First, he cleared British garrisons in [[History of Baton Rouge, Louisiana#1763–1779: British period|Baton Rouge]], [[History of Louisiana#Spanish interregnum (1763–1803)|Louisiana]], [[Fort Bute]], and [[History of Natchez, Mississippi#Colonial history (1716–1783)|Natchez]], [[History of Mississippi#European colonial period|Mississippi]], and captured five forts. In doing so, Gálvez opened navigation on the Mississippi River north to the American settlement in Pittsburg. In 1781, Galvez and Pollock [[Gulf Coast campaign|campaigned east along the Gulf Coast]] to secure West Florida, including British-held [[Battle of Fort Charlotte|Mobile]] and [[Siege of Pensacola|Pensacola]]. The Spanish operations crippled the British supply of armaments to British Indian allies, which effectively suspended a military alliance to attack settlers between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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"Wars of independence"
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| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
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|
[
"War breaks out",
"British defeat in America"
]
| Clinton spent most of 1781 based in New York City; he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy, partly due to his difficult relationship with Admiral [[Marriot Arbuthnot]]. In Charleston, Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for a campaign in Virginia, which he hoped would isolate Greene's army in the Carolinas and cause the collapse of Patriot resistance in the South. This was approved by Lord Germain in London, but neither of them informed Clinton. Washington and [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Rochambeau]] now discussed their options; the former wanted to attack New York, the latter Virginia, where Cornwallis' forces were less well-established and thus easier to defeat. Washington eventually gave way and Lafayette took a combined Franco-American force into Virginia, but Clinton misinterpreted his movements as preparations for an attack on New York. Concerned by this threat, he instructed Cornwallis to establish a fortified sea base where the Royal Navy could evacuate his troops to help defend New York. When Lafayette entered Virginia, Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and withdrew to [[Yorktown, Virginia|Yorktown]], where he constructed strong defenses and awaited evacuation. An agreement by the Spanish navy to defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral [[François Joseph Paul de Grasse|de Grasse]] to relocate to the Atlantic seaboard, a move Arbuthnot did not anticipate. This provided Lafayette naval support, while the failure of previous combined operations at Newport and Savannah meant their co-ordination was planned more carefully. Despite repeated urging from his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to engage Lafayette before he could establish siege lines. Even worse, expecting to be withdrawn within a few days he abandoned the outer defenses, which were promptly occupied by the besiegers and hastened British defeat. On August 31, a British fleet under [[Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves|Thomas Graves]] left New York for Yorktown. After landing troops and munitions for the besiegers on August 30, de Grasse had remained in Chesapeake Bay and intercepted him on September 5; although the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]] was indecisive in terms of losses, Graves was forced to retreat, leaving Cornwallis isolated. An attempted breakout over the York River at [[Gloucester County, Virginia#Gloucester County formation and divisions|Gloucester Point]] failed due to bad weather. Under heavy bombardment with dwindling supplies, Cornwallis felt his situation was hopeless and on October 16 sent emissaries to Washington to negotiate surrender; after twelve hours of negotiations, these were finalized the next day. Although Britain's global conflict with France and Spain continued for another two years, Yorktown was the final engagement of the American war. Responsibility for defeat was the subject of fierce public debate between Cornwallis, Clinton and Germain. Despite criticism from his junior officers, Cornwallis retained the confidence of his peers and later held a series of senior government positions; Clinton ultimately took most of the blame and spent the rest of his life in obscurity. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
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"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
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| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Strategy and commanders"
]
| To win their insurrection, the Americans needed to outlast the British will to continue the fight. To restore the empire, the British had to defeat the Continental Army in the early months, and compel the Congress to dissolve itself. Historian Terry M. Mays identifies three separate types of warfare, the first being a colonial conflict in which objections to Imperial trade regulation were as significant as taxation policy. The second was a civil war with all thirteen states split between Patriots, Loyalists and those who preferred to remain neutral. Particularly in the south, many battles were fought between Patriots and Loyalists with no British involvement, leading to divisions that continued after independence was achieved. The third element was a global war between France, Spain, the Dutch Republic and Britain, with America as one of a number of different theaters. After entering the war in 1778, France provided the Americans money, weapons, soldiers, and naval assistance, while French troops fought under US command in North America. While Spain did not formally join the war in America, they provided access to the Mississippi River and by capturing British possessions on the Gulf of Mexico denied bases to the Royal Navy, as well as retaking [[Menorca]] and besieging [[Gibraltar]] in Europe. Although the Dutch Republic was no longer a major power, prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits by shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War|declared war]] in December 1780 and the conflict proved disastrous to their economy. The Dutch were also excluded from the [[First League of Armed Neutrality]], formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France. While of limited effect, these interventions forced the British to divert men and resources away from North America. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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"Conflicts in 1780",
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"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Strategy and commanders",
"American strategy"
]
| Congress had multiple advantages if the rebellion turned into a protracted war. Their prosperous state populations depended on local production for food and supplies rather than on imports from their mother country that lay six to twelve weeks away by sail. They were spread across most of the North American Atlantic seaboard, stretching 1,000 miles. Most farms were remote from the seaports, and controlling four or five major ports did not give British armies control over the inland areas. Each state had established internal distribution systems. Each former colony had a long-established system of local militia, combat-tested in support of British regulars thirteen years before to secure an expanded British Empire. Together they took away French claims in North America west to the Mississippi River in the [[French and Indian War]]. The state legislatures independently funded and controlled their local militias. In the American Revolution, they trained and provided Continental Line regiments to the regular army, each with their own state officer corps. Motivation was also a major asset: each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers, and the Patriots had more popular support than the Loyalists. British hoped that the Loyalists would do much of the fighting, but they fought less than expected. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
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"Conflicts in 1780",
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"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
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"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
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| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Strategy and commanders",
"Continental Army"
]
| When the war began, Congress lacked a professional army or navy, and each colony only maintained local militias. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time and lacked the training and discipline of more experienced soldiers. Local county militias were reluctant to travel far from home and they were unavailable for extended operations. To compensate for this, Congress established a regular force known as the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, the origin of the modern [[United States Army]], and appointed Washington as commander-in-chief. However, it suffered significantly from the lack of an effective training program and from largely inexperienced officers and sergeants, offset by a few senior officers. Each state legislature appointed officers for both county and state militias and their regimental Continental Line officers; although Washington was required to accept Congressional appointments, he was still permitted to choose and command his own generals, such as [[Nathanael Greene]], his chief of artillery, [[Henry Knox]], and [[Alexander Hamilton]], the chief of staff. One of Washington's most successful recruits to general officer was Baron [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben]], a veteran of the Prussian general staff who wrote the [[Revolutionary War Drill Manual]]. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war; when properly employed, the combination allowed them to overwhelm smaller British forces, as at Concord, Boston, Bennington, and Saratoga. Both sides used partisan warfare, but the state militias effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area. Washington designed the overall military strategy of the war in cooperation with Congress, established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs, personally recruited his senior officer corps, and kept the states focused on a common goal. For the first three years until after [[Valley Forge]], the Continental Army was largely supplemented by local state militias. Initially, Washington employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops in [[Fabian strategy|Fabian strategies]] rather than risk frontal assaults against Britain's professional soldiers and officers. Over the course of the entire war, Washington lost more battles than he won, but he never surrendered his troops and maintained a fighting force in the face of British field armies and never gave up fighting for the American cause. By prevailing European standards, the armies in America were relatively small, limited by lack of supplies and logistics; the British in particular were constrained by the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic and dependence on local supplies. Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men, while the combined Franco-American army at Yorktown was only about 19,000. At the beginning of 1776, Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men, with two-thirds in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militia for the Revolutionary cause over eight years during wartime, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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"Conflicts in 1780",
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"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
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"Wars of independence"
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| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Strategy and commanders",
"Continental Army"
]
| As a whole, American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuvers, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at [[Siege of Boston|Boston]] (1776), [[Battles of Saratoga|Saratoga]] (1777), and [[Siege of Yorktown|Yorktown]] (1781) were won from trapping the British far from base with a greater number of troops. Nevertheless, after 1778, Washington's army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force, mostly by [[Baron von Steuben]]'s training. Immediately after the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to match the British troops in action at the [[Battle of Monmouth]], including a black Rhode Island regiment fending off a British bayonet attack then counter-charging for the first time in Washington's army. Here Washington came to realize that saving entire towns was not necessary, but preserving his army and keeping the revolutionary spirit alive was more important in the long run. Washington informed [[Henry Laurens]] "that the possession of our towns, while we have an army in the field, will avail them little." Although Congress was responsible for the war effort and provided supplies to the troops, Washington took it upon himself to pressure the Congress and state legislatures to provide the essentials of war; there was never nearly enough. Congress evolved in its committee oversight and established the Board of War, which included members of the military. Because the Board of War was also a committee ensnared with its own internal procedures, Congress also created the post of Secretary of War, and appointed Major General [[Benjamin Lincoln]] in February 1781 to the position. Washington worked closely with Lincoln to coordinate civilian and military authorities and took charge of training and supplying the army. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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"Conflicts in 1782",
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"Wars of independence"
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| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
[
"Strategy and commanders",
"Continental Navy"
]
| During the first summer of the war, Washington began outfitting schooners and other small seagoing vessels to prey on ships supplying the British in Boston. Congress established the [[Continental Navy]] on October 13, 1775, and appointed [[Esek Hopkins]] as its first commander; for most of the war, it consisted of a handful of small frigates and sloops, supported by numerous privateers. On November 10, 1775, Congress authorized the creation of the [[Continental Marines]], forefather of the [[United States Marine Corps]]. [[John Paul Jones]] became the first American naval hero by capturing [[HMS Drake (1777)|HMS ''Drake'']] on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters. The last was by the frigate [[USS Alliance (1778)|USS ''Alliance'']] commanded by Captain [[John Barry (naval officer)|John Barry]]. On March 10, 1783, the ''Alliance'' outgunned HMS ''Sybil'' in a 45-minute duel while escorting Spanish gold from Havana to Congress. After Yorktown, all US Navy ships were sold or given away; it was the first time in America's history that it had no fighting forces on the high seas. Congress primarily commissioned privateers to reduce costs and to take advantage of the large proportion of colonial sailors found in the British Empire. Overall, they included 1,700 ships that successfully captured 2,283 enemy ships to damage the British effort and to enrich themselves with the proceeds from the sale of cargo and the ship itself. About 55,000 sailors served aboard American privateers during the war. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
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"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
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|
[
"Strategy and commanders",
"France"
]
| To begin with, the Americans had no major international allies, as most nation-states watched and waited to see developments unfold in British North America. Over time, the Continental Army acquitted itself well in the face of British regulars and their German auxiliaries known to all European great powers. Battles such as the [[Battle of Bennington]], the [[Battles of Saratoga]], and even defeats such as the [[Battle of Germantown]], proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations including France and Spain, and the [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War#Background|Dutch Republic]]; the latter moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies to overtly supporting them. The decisive American victory at [[Battles of Saratoga|Saratoga]] convinced [[France in the American Revolutionary War|France]] to offer the Americans the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States)|Treaty of Amity and Commerce]]. The two nations also agreed to a defensive [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance]] to protect their trade and also guaranteed American independence from Britain. To engage the United States as a French ally militarily, the treaty was conditioned on Britain initiating a war on France to stop it from trading with the US. Spain and the Dutch Republic were invited to join by both France and the United States in the treaty, but neither made a formal reply. On June 13, 1778, France declared war on Great Britain, and it invoked the French military alliance with the US, which ensured additional US privateer support for French possessions in the Caribbean. Washington worked closely with the soldiers and navy that France would send to America, primarily through [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette|Lafayette]] on his staff. French assistance made critical contributions required to defeat General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]] at Yorktown in 1781. | 771 | American Revolutionary War | [
"American Revolutionary War",
"Conflicts in 1775",
"Conflicts in 1776",
"Conflicts in 1777",
"Conflicts in 1778",
"Conflicts in 1779",
"Conflicts in 1780",
"Conflicts in 1781",
"Conflicts in 1782",
"Conflicts in 1783",
"Global conflicts",
"Rebellions against the British Empire",
"Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States",
"Wars of independence"
]
| [
"Timeline of the American Revolution",
"1776 in the United States"
]
|
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