headers
listlengths 0
4
| text
stringlengths 54
5.14k
| id
stringclasses 129
values | title
stringclasses 129
values | categories
listlengths 0
83
| seealso
listlengths 0
35
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[
"Geography",
"Ecology",
"Flora"
]
| In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring is marked by the early flowering of the prairie crocus [[anemone]]; this member of the buttercup family has been recorded flowering as early as March, though April is the usual month for the general population. Other prairie flora known to flower early are the [[Thermopsis rhombifolia|golden bean]] and [[Rosa acicularis|wild rose]]. Members of the [[Helianthus|sunflower]] family blossom on the prairie in the summer months between July and September. The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by short prairie grass, which dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the prairie coneflower, [[fleabane]], and [[Sagebrush|sage]]. Both yellow and white [[Melilotus|sweet clover]] can be found throughout the southern and central areas of the province. The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely [[deciduous]], typically [[aspen]], [[Populus|poplar]], and [[willow]]. Many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. On the north side of the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres. [[aspen|Aspen poplar]], [[Populus balsamifera|balsam poplar]] (or in some parts [[Populus deltoides|cottonwood]]), and [[Betula papyrifera|paper birch]] are the primary large deciduous species. [[Pinophyta|Conifers]] include [[jack pine]], Rocky Mountain pine, [[Pinus contorta|lodgepole pine]], both white and black [[spruce]], and the deciduous conifer [[Larix laricina|tamarack]]. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Ecology",
"Fauna"
]
| The four climatic regions ([[alpine climate|alpine]], [[Taiga|boreal forest]], [[Aspen parkland|parkland]], and [[prairie]]) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie was the land of the [[American bison|bison]], commonly known as buffalo, its grasses providing pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then buffalo have made a comeback, living on farms and in parks all over Alberta. [[Herbivore|Herbivorous]] animals are found throughout the province. [[Moose]], [[mule deer]], [[elk]], and [[white-tailed deer]] are found in the wooded regions, and [[pronghorn]] can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. [[Bighorn sheep]] and [[mountain goat]] live in the Rocky Mountains. Rabbits, [[porcupine]], [[skunk]], squirrels and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is home to only one variety of venomous snake, the [[Crotalus viridis|prairie rattlesnake]]. Alberta is home to many large [[carnivore]] such as [[grizzly bears]] and [[American black bear|black bears]], which are found in the mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the [[canidae|canine]] and [[Felidae|feline]] families include [[coyote]], [[Gray wolf|wolves]], fox, [[lynx]], [[bobcat]] and [[Cougar|mountain lion]] (cougar). Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting ground of many migratory birds. Vast numbers of ducks, [[goose|geese]], [[swan]] and [[pelican]] arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. [[Eagle]], [[hawk]], owls and [[crow]] are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other [[Temperate climate|temperate]] regions, is home to [[mosquito]], [[fly|flies]], [[wasp]], and bees. Rivers and lakes are populated with [[Esox|pike]], [[walleye]], [[Freshwater whitefish|whitefish]], [[rainbow trout|rainbow]], [[Brook trout|speckled]], [[brown trout]], and [[sturgeon]]. [[Bull trout]], native to the province, is Alberta's provincial fish. Turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. Frogs and [[salamander]] are a few of the [[amphibian]] that make their homes in Alberta. Alberta is the only province in Canada—as well as one of the few places in the world—that is free of [[brown rat|Norwegian rat]]. Since the early 1950s, the [[Executive Council of Alberta|Government of Alberta]] has operated a rat-control program, which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported, usually of rats arriving in the province aboard trucks or by rail. In 2006, Alberta Agriculture reported zero findings of wild rats; the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats that have been seized from their owners. It is illegal for individual Albertans to own or keep Norwegian rats of any description; the animals can only be kept in the province by zoos, universities and colleges, and recognized research institutions. In 2009, several rats were found and captured, in small pockets in southern Alberta, putting Alberta's rat-free status in jeopardy. A colony of rats were subsequently found in a landfill near Medicine Hat in 2012 and again in 2014. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Paleontology"
]
| Alberta has one of the greatest diversities and abundances of [[Late Cretaceous]] dinosaur fossils in the world. [[Taxon|Taxa]] are represented by complete fossil skeletons, isolated material, microvertebrate remains, and even [[Bone bed|mass graves]]. At least 38 dinosaur [[Type (biology)|type specimens]] were collected in the province. The [[Foremost Formation]], [[Oldman Formation]] and [[Dinosaur Park Formation]] collectively comprise the Judith River Group and are the most thoroughly studied dinosaur-bearing strata in Alberta. Dinosaur-bearing strata are distributed widely throughout Alberta. The Dinosaur Provincial Park area contains outcrops of the Dinosaur Park Formation and Oldman Formation. In the central and southern regions of Alberta are intermittent [[Scollard Formation]] outcrops. In the [[Drumheller]] Valley and [[Edmonton]] regions there are exposed [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation|Horseshoe Canyon]] [[facies]]. Other [[Geological formation|formations]] have been recorded as well, like the [[Milk River Formation|Milk River]] and Foremost Formations. However, these latter two have a lower diversity of documented dinosaurs, primarily due to their lower total fossil quantity and neglect from collectors who are hindered by the isolation and scarcity of exposed outcrops. Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered from microvertebrate fossil sites. Additional geologic formations that have produced only few fossils are the [[Belly River Group]] and [[St. Mary River Formation]] of the southwest and the northwestern [[Wapiti Formation]]. The Wapiti Formation contains two ''[[Pachyrhinosaurus]]'' bone beds that break its general trend of low productivity, however. The [[Bearpaw Formation]] represents strata deposited during a [[marine transgression]]. Dinosaurs are known from this formation, but represent specimens washed out to sea or reworked from older [[sediment]]. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"History"
]
| [[Paleo-Indians]] arrived in Alberta at least 10,000 years ago, toward the end of the [[last glacial period|last ice age]]. They are thought to have migrated from [[Siberia]] to [[Alaska]] on a [[Beringia|land bridge]] across the [[Bering Strait]] and then possibly moved down the east side of the Rocky Mountains through Alberta to [[Settlement of the Americas|settle the Americas]]. Others may have [[Coastal Migration#Coastal migration hypothesis in the New World|migrated down the coast]] of British Columbia and then moved inland. Over time they differentiated into various [[First Nations]] peoples, including the [[Plains Indians|Plains Indian]] tribes of southern Alberta such as those of the [[Blackfoot Confederacy]] and the [[Plains Cree people|Plains Cree]], who generally lived by hunting buffalo, and the more northerly tribes such as the [[Woodland Cree]] and [[Chipewyan]] who hunted, trapped, and fished for a living. After the [[British America|British arrival in Canada]], approximately half of the province of Alberta, south of the [[Athabasca River]] drainage, became part of [[Rupert's Land]] which consisted of all land drained by rivers flowing into [[Hudson Bay]]. This area was granted by [[Charles II of England]] to the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) in 1670, and rival fur trading companies were not allowed to trade in it. The Athabasca River and the rivers north of it were not in HBC territory because they drained into the Arctic Ocean instead of Hudson Bay, and they were prime habitat for fur-bearing animals. The first European explorer of the Athabasca region was [[Peter Pond]], who learned of the [[Methye Portage]], which allowed travel from southern rivers into the rivers north of Rupert's Land. Fur traders formed the [[North West Company]] (NWC) of [[Montreal]] to compete with the HBC in 1779. The NWC occupied the northern part of Alberta territory. Peter Pond built Fort Athabasca on [[Lac la Biche (Alberta)|Lac la Biche]] in 1778. Roderick Mackenzie built [[Fort Chipewyan]] on Lake Athabasca ten years later in 1788. His cousin, Sir [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]], followed the [[North Saskatchewan River]] to its northernmost point near Edmonton, then setting northward on foot, trekked to the Athabasca River, which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name—the [[Mackenzie River]]—which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to Lake Athabasca, he followed the [[Peace River]] upstream, eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean, and so he became the first European to cross the North American continent north of Mexico. The extreme southernmost portion of Alberta was part of the French (and Spanish) territory of [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]], [[Louisiana Purchase|sold to the United States]] in 1803; in 1818, the portion of Louisiana north of the [[49th parallel north|Forty-Ninth Parallel]] was ceded to Great Britain. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"History"
]
| Fur trade expanded in the north, but bloody battles occurred between the rival HBC and NWC, and in 1821 the British government forced them to merge to stop the hostilities. The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta until 1870, when the newly formed [[Politics of Canada|Canadian Government]] purchased Rupert's Land. Northern Alberta was included in the [[North-Western Territory]] until 1870, when it and Rupert's land became Canada's [[North-West Territories]]. First Nations negotiated treaties with the Crown in which the Crown gained title to the land that would later become Alberta, and the Crown committed to ongoing support of the First Nations and guaranteed their hunting and fishing rights. The most significant treaties for Alberta are [[Treaty 6]] (1876), [[Treaty 7]] (1877) and [[Treaty 8]] (1899). The [[District of Alberta]] was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905 the District of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status, with the election of [[Alexander Cameron Rutherford]] as the first premier. Less than a decade later, the [[First World War]] presented special challenges to the new province as an extraordinary number of volunteers left relatively few workers to maintain services and production. Over 50% of Alberta's doctors volunteered for service overseas. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"History",
"21st century"
]
| On June 21, 2013, during the [[2013 Alberta floods]] Alberta experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the [[Bow River|Bow]], [[Elbow River|Elbow]], [[Highwood River|Highwood]] and [[Oldman River|Oldman]] rivers and tributaries. A dozen municipalities in Southern Alberta declared local states of emergency on June 21 as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders. In 2016, a [[2016 Fort McMurray Wildfire|wildfire]] resulted in the largest fire evacuation of residents in Alberta's history, as more than 80,000 people were ordered to evacuate. Since 2020, Alberta has been affected by the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta|COVID-19 pandemic]]. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Demographics"
]
| The [[Canada 2016 Census|2016 census]] reported Alberta had a population of 4,067,175 living in 1,527,678 of its 1,654,129 total dwellings, an 11.6% change from its 2011 population of 3,645,257. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016. [[Statistics Canada]] estimated the province to have a population of 4,436,258 in Q1 of 2021. Since 2000, Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate of growth, mainly because of its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province had high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as British Columbia), relatively high immigration, and a high rate of [[Interprovincial migration in Canada|interprovincial migration]] compared to other provinces. In 2016, Alberta continued to have the youngest population among the provinces with a median age of 36.7 years, compared with the national median of 41.2 years. Also in 2016, Alberta had the smallest proportion of seniors (12.3%) among the provinces and one of the highest population shares of children (19.2%), further contributing to Alberta's young and growing population. About 81% of the population lives in urban areas and only about 19% in rural areas. The [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]] is the most urbanized area in the province and is one of the most densely populated areas of Canada. Many of Alberta's cities and towns have experienced very high rates of growth in recent history. Alberta's population rose from 73,022 in 1901 to 3,290,350 according to the [[Canada 2006 Census|2006 census]]. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Census information"
]
| According to the [[2016 Canadian Census|2016 census]], Alberta has 779,155 residents (19.2%) between the ages of 0-14, 2,787,805 residents (68.5%) between the ages of 15–64, and 500,215 residents (12.3%) aged 65 and over. English is the most common mother tongue, with 2,991,485 native speakers. This is followed by [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], with 99,035 speakers, German, with 80,050 speakers, French, with 72,150 native speakers, and Hindi, with 68,695 speakers. 253,460 residents identify as [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]], including 136,585 as [[First Nations]], 114,370 as [[Métis]], and 2,500 as [[Inuit]]. There are also 933,165 residents who identify as a visible minority, including 230,930 South Asian people, 166,195 Filipinos, and 158,200 Chinese respondents. 1,769,500 residents hold a postsecondary certificate, diploma or degree, 895,885 residents have obtained a secondary (high) school diploma or equivalency certificate, and 540,665 residents do not have any certificate, diploma or degree. The 2006 census found that English, with 2,576,670 native speakers, was the most common mother tongue of Albertans, representing 79.99% of the population. The next most common mother tongues were Chinese with 97,275 native speakers (3.02%), followed by German with 84,505 native speakers (2.62%) and French with 61,225 (1.90%). Other mother tongues include: [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], with 36,320 native speakers (1.13%); [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], with 29,740 (0.92%); [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], with 29,455 (0.91%); Spanish, with 29,125 (0.90%); [[Polish language|Polish]], with 21,990 (0.68%); [[Arabic]], with 20,495 (0.64%); [[Dutch language|Dutch]], with 19,980 (0.62%); and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], with 19,350 (0.60%). The most common aboriginal language is [[Cree language|Cree]] 17,215 (0.53%). Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers (0.41%); [[Urdu]] with 11,275 (0.35%); and [[Korean language|Korean]] with 10,845 (0.33%); then [[Hindi]] 8,985 (0.28%); [[Persian language|Farsi]] 7,700 (0.24%); [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] 7,205 (0.22%); and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] 6,770 (0.21%). Alberta has considerable ethnic diversity. In line with the rest of Canada, many are descended from immigrants of Western European nations, notably [[English Canadians|England]], [[Scottish Canadians|Scotland]], [[Irish Canadians|Ireland]], [[Welsh Canadians|Wales]] and [[French Canadians|France]], but large numbers later came from other regions of Europe, notably [[German Canadians|Germany]], [[Ukrainian Canadians|Ukraine]] and [[Scandinavia]]. According to Statistics Canada, Alberta is home to the second-highest proportion (two percent) of [[Geographical distribution of French speakers|Francophones]] in western Canada (after [[Manitoba]]). Despite this, relatively few Albertans claim French as their mother tongue. Many of [[Franco-Albertans|Alberta's French-speaking residents]] live in the central and northwestern regions of the province, after migration from other areas of Canada or descending from Métis. As reported in the 2001 census, the Chinese represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population, and South Asians represented more than two percent. Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic [[Chinatown]], and Calgary has Canada's third-largest Chinese community. The Chinese presence began with workers employed in the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. [[First Nations in Alberta|Aboriginal Albertans]] make up approximately three percent of the population. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Census information"
]
| In the 2006 [[Census in Canada|Canadian census]], the most commonly reported ethnic origins among Albertans were: 885,825 English (27.2%); 679,705 German (20.9%); 667,405 Canadian (20.5%); 661,265 Scottish (20.3%); 539,160 Irish (16.6%); 388,210 French (11.9%); 332,180 Ukrainian (10.2%); 172,910 [[Dutch Canadians|Dutch]] (5.3%); 170,935 [[Polish Canadians|Polish]] (5.2%); 169,355 [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|North American Indian]] (5.2%); 144,585 [[Norwegians|Norwegian]] (4.4%); and 137,600 [[Chinese Canadians|Chinese]] (4.2%). (Each person could choose as many ethnicities as were applicable.) Amongst those of British heritage, the Scots have had a particularly strong influence on place-names, with the names of many cities and towns including Calgary, [[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]], [[Canmore, Alberta|Canmore]], and Banff having [[List of Scottish place names in Canada|Scottish]] origins. Alberta is the third most diverse province in terms of [[Visible minority|visible minorities]] after British Columbia and [[Ontario]] with 13.9% of the population consisting of visible minorities in 2006. Over one third of the populations of Calgary and Edmonton belong to a visible minority group. Aboriginal Identity Peoples made up 5.8% of the population in 2006, about half of whom consist of First Nations and the other half are [[Métis in Canada|Métis]]. There are also small number of [[Inuit]] people in Alberta. The number of Aboriginal Identity Peoples have been increasing at a rate greater than the population of Alberta. As of the [[Canada 2011 Census|2011 National Household Survey]], the largest religious group was Roman Catholic, representing 24.3% of the population. Alberta had the second-highest percentage of [[Irreligion|non-religious]] residents among the provinces (after British Columbia) at 31.6% of the population. Of the remainder, 7.5% of the population identified themselves as belonging to the [[United Church of Canada]], while 3.9% were [[Anglican Church of Canada|Anglican]]. [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] made up 3.3% of the population while [[Baptists]] comprised 1.9%. The remainder belonged to a wide variety of different religious affiliations, none of which constituted more than 2% of the population. Members of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] are mostly concentrated in the extreme south of the province. Alberta has a population of [[Hutterite]], a communal [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] sect similar to the [[Mennonite]], and has a significant population of [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. Alberta is home to several [[Byzantine Rite]] Churches as part of the legacy of Eastern European immigration, including the [[Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Edmonton]], and the [[Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada]]'s [[Ukrainian Orthodox Eparchy of Western Canada|Western Diocese]] which is based in Edmonton. Muslims made up 3.2% of the population, Sikhs 1.5%, Buddhists 1.2%, and Hindus 1.0%. Many of these are immigrants, but others have roots that go back to the first settlers of the prairies. Canada's oldest mosque, the [[Al-Rashid Mosque]], is located in Edmonton, whereas Calgary is home to Canada's largest mosque, the [[Baitun Nur Mosque]]. Alberta is also home to a growing Jewish population of about 15,400 people who constituted 0.3% of Alberta's population. Most of Alberta's Jews live in the metropolitan areas of Calgary (8,200) and Edmonton (5,500). | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Municipalities"
]
| (-) Largest metro areas and municipalities by population as of 2016 | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Economy"
]
| Alberta's economy was one of the strongest in the world, supported by the burgeoning petroleum industry and to a lesser extent, agriculture and technology. In 2013, Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that of the United States, Norway, or Switzerland, and was the highest of any province in Canada at This was 56% higher than the national average of and more than twice that of some of the Atlantic provinces. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in [[History of Canada|Canadian history]]. According to the 2006 census, the median annual family income after taxes was $70,986 in Alberta (compared to $60,270 in Canada as a whole). In 2014, Alberta had the second-largest economy in Canada after Ontario, with a GDP exceeding . The GDP of the province calculated at basic prices rose by 4.6% in 2017 to $327.4 billion, which was the largest increase recorded in Canada, and it ended two consecutive years of decreases. Alberta's [[debt-to-GDP ratio]] is projected to peak at 12.1% in [[fiscal year]] 2021–2022, falling to 11.3% the following year. The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. The region covers a distance of roughly 400 kilometres north to south. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta's population). It is also one of the fastest-growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by [[Toronto-Dominion Bank|TD Bank Financial Group]] found the corridor to be the only Canadian urban centre to amass a U.S. level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian style [[quality of life]], offering [[universal health care]] benefits. The study found that GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average U.S. metropolitan areas and 40% above other [[List of cities in Canada|Canadian cities]] at that time. The [[Fraser Institute]] states that Alberta also has very high levels of [[economic freedom]] and rates Alberta as the freest economy in Canada, and second-freest economy amongst U.S. states and Canadian provinces. In 2014, Merchandise exports totalled US$121.4 billion. Energy revenues totalled $111.7 billion and Energy resource exports totalled $90.8 billion. Farm Cash receipts from agricultural products totalled $12.9 billion. Shipments of forest products totalled $5.4 billion while exports were $2.7 billion. Manufacturing sales totalled $79.4 billion, and Alberta's ICT industries generated over $13 billion in revenue. In total, Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in 2007 dollars, or $414.3 billion in 2015 dollars. In 2015, Alberta's GDP grew despite low oil prices; however, it was unstable with growth rates as high 4.4% and as low as 0.2%. Should the GDP remain at an average of 2.2% for the last two-quarters of 2015, Alberta's GDP should exceed $430 billion by the end of 2015. However, RBC Economics research predicts Alberta's real GDP growth to only average 0.6% for the last two-quarters of 2015. This estimate predicts a real GDP growth of only 1.4% for 2015. A positive is the predicted 10.8% growth in Nominal GDP, and possibly above 11% in 2016. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Agriculture and forestry"
]
| Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy. The province has over three million head of cattle, and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the top producers of plains [[American bison|buffalo (bison)]] for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and mutton are also raised. Wheat and [[canola]] are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production; other [[cereal|grains]] are also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common [[grain elevator]] is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreasing; farmers typically truck the grain to central points. Alberta is the leading [[beekeeping]] province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering [[Beehive (beekeeping)|hive]] indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the [[Peace River (Alberta)|Peace River]] valley where the season is short but the working days are long for [[Western honey bee|honeybee]] to produce honey from [[clover]] and [[fireweed]]. [[Hybrid (biology)|Hybrid]] canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need. Forestry plays a vital role in Alberta's economy, providing over 15,000 jobs and contributing billions of dollars annually. Uses for harvested timber include [[pulpwood]], [[hardwood]], [[engineered wood]] and [[bioproducts]] such as chemicals and [[biofuels]]. Recently, the United States has been Canada and Alberta's largest importer of [[hardwood]] and [[pulpwood]], although [[Canada-United States softwood lumber dispute|continued trades issues]] with the U.S. have likely been a contributing factor towards Alberta's increased focus on Asian markets. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Industry"
]
| Alberta is the largest producer of [[petroleum|conventional crude oil]], [[synthetic crude]], natural gas and gas products in Canada. Alberta is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas and the fourth-largest producer. Two of the largest producers of [[petrochemicals]] in North America are located in central and north-central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, [[polyethylene]] and [[Polyvinyl chloride|vinyl]] manufacturers produce products that are shipped all over the world. Edmonton's [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] provide the raw materials for a large [[petrochemical industry]] to the east of Edmonton. The [[Athabasca oil sands]] surrounding [[Fort McMurray]] have estimated [[unconventional oil]] reserves approximately equal to the [[Petroleum|conventional oil]] reserves of the rest of the world, estimated to be 1.6 trillion barrels (254 km). Many companies employ both conventional [[surface mining|strip mining]] and non-conventional [[in situ]] methods to extract the [[Asphalt|bitumen]] from the [[oil sands]]. As of late 2006 there were over $100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta. Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the oil sands is the price of oil. The [[oil price increases since 2003]] have made it profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss. By mid-2014, however, rising costs and stabilizing oil prices were threatening the economic viability of some projects. An example of this was the shelving of the Joslyn north project in the Athabasca region in May 2014. With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably patents related to interactive [[liquid-crystal display]] systems. With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with civil and private funds. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Tourism"
]
| Alberta has been a tourist destination from the early days of the twentieth century, with attractions including outdoor locales for skiing, hiking and camping, shopping locales such as [[West Edmonton Mall]], [[Calgary Stampede]], outdoor festivals, professional athletic events, international sporting competitions such as the [[Commonwealth Games]] and Olympic Games, as well as more eclectic attractions. According to Alberta Economic Development, Calgary and Edmonton both host over four million visitors annually. [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], [[Jasper, Alberta|Jasper]] and the [[Canadian Rockies|Rocky Mountains]] are visited by about three million people per year. Alberta tourism relies heavily on [[Southern Ontario]] tourists, as well as tourists from other parts of Canada, the United States, and many other countries. There are also natural attractions like [[Elk Island National Park]], [[Wood Buffalo National Park]], and the [[Columbia Icefield]]. [[Alberta's Rockies]] include well-known tourist destinations [[Banff National Park]] and [[Jasper National Park]]. The two mountain parks are connected by the scenic [[Icefields Parkway]]. Banff is located west of Calgary on [[Alberta Highway 1|Highway 1]], and Jasper is located west of Edmonton on [[Yellowhead Highway]]. Five of Canada's fourteen [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] are located within the province: [[Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site|Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks]], [[Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park]], Wood Buffalo National Park, [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]] and [[Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump]]. A number of these areas hold ski resorts, most notably [[Sunshine Village]], [[Lake Louise Ski Resort|Lake Louise]], [[Marmot Basin]], [[Mount Norquay ski resort|Norquay]] and [[Nakiska]]. About 1.2 million people visit the Calgary Stampede, a celebration of Canada's own Wild West and the cattle ranching industry. About 700,000 people enjoy Edmonton's [[K-Days]] (formerly Klondike Days and Capital EX). Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the [[Yukon]] [[Gold mining|gold field]], and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous [[Chilkoot Pass]]. Another tourist destination that draws more than 650,000 visitors each year is the Drumheller Valley, located northeast of Calgary. [[Drumheller]], "Dinosaur Capital of The World", offers the [[Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology]]. Drumheller also had a rich mining history being one of Western Canada's largest coal producers during the war years. Another attraction in east-central Alberta is [[Alberta Prairie Railway Excursions]], a popular tourist attraction operated out of [[Stettler, Alberta|Stettler]], that offers train excursions into the prairie and caters to tens of thousands of visitors every year. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Government and politics"
]
| The Government of Alberta is organized as a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] democracy with a unicameral legislature. Its [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature—the [[Legislative Assembly of Alberta|Legislative Assembly]]—consists of 87 members elected [[First-past-the-post voting|first past the post]] (FPTP) from single-member constituencies. Locally municipal governments and school boards are elected and operate separately. Their boundaries do not necessarily coincide. As [[Queen of Canada]], [[Elizabeth II]] is the head of state for the Government of Alberta. Her duties in Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor [[Salma Lakhani]]. The Queen and lieutenant governor are figureheads whose actions are highly restricted by custom and [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]. The lieutenant governor handles numerous honorific duties in the name of the Queen. The government is headed by the [[Premier of Alberta|premier]]. The premier is normally a member of the Legislative Assembly, and draws all the members of the Cabinet from among the members of the Legislative Assembly. The City of Edmonton is the seat of the provincial government—the capital of Alberta. The premier is [[Jason Kenney]], sworn in on April 30, 2019. Alberta's elections have tended to yield much more conservative outcomes than those of other Canadian provinces. Since the 1960s, Alberta has had three main political parties, the Progressive Conservatives ("Conservatives" or "Tories"), the [[Alberta Liberal Party|Liberals]], and the social democratic New Democrats. The [[Wildrose Party]], a more conservative party formed in early 2008, gained much support in the [[2012 Alberta General Election|2012 election]] and became the [[Opposition (parliamentary)|official opposition]], a role it held until 2017 when it was dissolved and succeeded by the new [[United Conservative Party]] created by the merger of Wildrose and the Progressive Conservatives. The strongly conservative [[Social Credit Party of Alberta|Social Credit Party]] was a power in Alberta for many decades, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in 1971. For 44 years the Progressive Conservatives governed Alberta. They lost the [[2015 Alberta general election|2015 election]] to the NDP (which formed their own government for the first time in provincial history, breaking almost 80 consecutive years of right-wing rule), suggesting at the time a possible shift to the left in the province, also indicated by the election of progressive mayors in both of Alberta's major cities. Since becoming a province in 1905, Alberta has seen only five changes of government—only six parties have governed Alberta: the Liberals, from 1905 to 1921; the [[United Farmers of Alberta]], from 1921 to 1935; the Social Credit Party, from 1935 to 1971; the Progressive Conservative Party, from 1971 to 2015; from 2015 to 2019, the Alberta New Democratic Party; and from 2019, the United Conservative Party, with the [[2019 Alberta general election|most recent transfer of power]] being the first time in provincial history that an incumbent government was not returned to a second term. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Administrative divisions"
]
| The province is divided into 10 types of [[Incorporation (municipal government)|local governments]] – urban municipalities (including [[city|cities]], [[town]], [[village]] and [[summer village]]), specialized municipalities, rural municipalities (including [[List of municipal districts in Alberta|municipal district]] (often named as [[List of municipal districts in Alberta|counties]]), improvement districts, and special areas), Métis settlements, and Indian reserves. All types of municipalities are governed by local residents and were incorporated under various provincial acts, with the exception of improvement districts (governed by either the provincial or federal government), and Indian reserves (governed by local [[first nation|First Nations]] people under federal jurisdiction). | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Law enforcement"
]
| Policing in the province of Alberta upon its creation was the responsibility of the [[North-West Mounted Police|Royal Northwest Mounted Police]]. In 1917, due to pressures of [[World War I]], the [[Alberta Provincial Police]] was created. This organization policed the province until it was disbanded as a [[Great Depression]]-era cost-cutting measure in 1932. It was at that time the now renamed [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] resumed policing of the province, specifically RCMP "K" Division. With the advent of the [[Alberta Sheriffs Branch]], the distribution of duties of law enforcement in Alberta has been evolving as certain aspects, such as traffic enforcement, mobile surveillance and the close protection of the Premier of Alberta have been transferred to the Sheriffs. In 2006, Alberta formed the [[Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams]] (ALERT) to combat organized crime and the serious offences that accompany it. ALERT is made up of members of the RCMP, Sheriffs Branch and various major municipal police forces in Alberta. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Military"
]
| Military bases in Alberta include [[CFB Cold Lake|Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Cold Lake]], [[CFB Edmonton]], [[CFB Suffield]] and [[CFB Wainwright]]. Air force units stationed at CFB Cold Lake have access to the [[CFB Cold Lake|Cold Lake Air Weapons Range]]. CFB Edmonton is the headquarters for the 3rd Canadian Division. CFB Suffield hosts British troops and is the largest training facility in Canada. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Taxation"
]
| According to Alberta's 2009 budget, government revenue in that year came mainly from royalties on non-renewable natural resources (30.4%), personal income taxes (22.3%), corporate and other taxes (19.6%), and grants from the [[Government of Canada|federal government]] primarily for infrastructure projects (9.8%). In 2014, Alberta received $6.1 billion in bitumen royalties. With the drop in the price of oil in 2015 it was down to $1.4 billion. In 2016, Alberta received "about $837 million in royalty payments from oil sands Royalty Projects". According to the 2018–21 fiscal plan, the two top sources of revenue in 2016 were personal income tax at $10, 763 million and federal transfers of $7,976 million with total resource revenue at $3,097 million. Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial [[sales tax]]. Alberta residents are still subject to the federal sales tax, the [[Goods and Services Tax (Canada)|Goods and Services Tax]] of 5%. From 2001 to 2016, Alberta was the only Canadian province to have a [[flat tax]] of 10% of taxable income, which was introduced by then-Premier, [[Ralph Klein]], as part of the Alberta Tax Advantage, which also included a zero-percent tax on income below a "generous personal exemption". In 2016, under then-Premier [[Rachel Notley]], while most Albertans continued to pay the 10-per-cent income tax rate, new tax brackets 12-per-cent, 14-per-cent, and 15-per-cent for those with higher incomes ($128,145 annually or more) were introduced. Alberta's personal income tax system maintained a [[Progressive tax|progressive character]] by continuing to grant residents personal tax exemptions of $18,451, in addition to a variety of tax deductions for persons with disabilities, students, and the aged. Alberta's municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments who usually work in co-operation with the provincial government. By 2018, most Albertans continued to pay the 10-per-cent income tax rate. According to a March 2015 [[Statistics Canada]] report, the median household income in Alberta in 2014 was about $100,000, which is 23 per cent higher than the Canadian national average. Based on Statistic Canada reports, low income Albertans, who earn less than $25,000 and those in the high-income bracket earning $150,000 or more, are the lowest-taxed people in Canada. Those in the middle income brackets representing those that earn about $25,000 to $75,000 pay more in provincial taxes than residents in British Columbia and Ontario. In terms of income tax, Alberta is the "best province" for those with a low income because there is no provincial income tax for those who earn $18,915 or less. Even with the 2016 progressive tax brackets up to 15%, Albertans who have the highest incomes, those with a $150,000 annual income or more—about 178,000 people in 2015, pay the least in taxes in Canada. — About 1.9 million Albertans earned between $25,000 and $150,000 in 2015. Alberta also privatized alcohol distribution. By 2010, privatization had increased outlets from 304 stores to 1,726; 1,300 jobs to 4,000 jobs; and 3,325 products to 16,495 products. Tax revenue also increased from $400 million to $700 million. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Taxation"
]
| In 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in education property taxes from municipalities. Albertan municipalities raise a significant portion of their income through levying property taxes. The value of assessed property in Alberta was approximately $727 billion in 2011. Most real property is assessed according to its market value. The exceptions to market value assessment are farmland, railways, machinery & equipment and linear property, all of which is assessed by regulated rates. Depending on the property type, property owners may appeal a property assessment to their municipal 'Local Assessment Review Board', 'Composite Assessment Review Board,' or the Alberta Municipal Government Board. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Culture"
]
| Summer brings many festivals to the province of Alberta, especially in Edmonton. The [[Edmonton International Fringe Festival|Edmonton Fringe Festival]] is the world's second-largest after the [[Edinburgh Festival]]. Both Calgary and Edmonton host a number of annual festivals and events, including folk music festivals. The city's "heritage days" festival sees the participation of over 70 ethnic groups. Edmonton's [[Churchill Square (Edmonton)|Churchill Square]] is home to a large number of the festivals, including the large Taste of Edmonton & [[The Works Art & Design Festival]] throughout the summer months. The City of Calgary is also famous for its Stampede, dubbed "The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth". The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features various races and competitions, such as [[calf roping]] and [[bull riding]]. In line with the western tradition of rodeo are the cultural artisans that reside and create unique Alberta western heritage crafts. The [[Banff Centre]] hosts a range of festivals and other events including the international [[Banff Mountain Film Festival|Mountain Film Festival]]. These cultural events in Alberta highlight the province's cultural diversity. Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as Edmonton's Arts Barns and the [[Francis Winspear Centre for Music]]. Both Calgary and Edmonton are home to [[Canadian Football League]] and [[National Hockey League]] teams (the [[Calgary Stampeders|Stampeders]]/[[Calgary Flames|Flames]] and [[Edmonton Football Team]]/[[Edmonton Oilers|Oilers]] respectively). Soccer, [[rugby union]] and [[lacrosse]] are also played professionally in Alberta. In 2019 the then Minister of Culture and Tourism [[Ricardo Miranda]] announced the Alberta Artist in Residence program in conjunction with the province's first Month of the Artist to celebrate the arts and the value they bring to the province, both socially and economically, The Artist is selected each year via a public and competitive process is expected to do community outreach and attend events to promote the arts throughout the province. The award comes with $60,000 funding which includes travel and materials costs. On January 31, 2019 [[Lauren Crazybull]] named Alberta's 1st Artist in Residence. Alberta is the first province to launch an Artist in Residence program in Canada. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Education"
]
| As with any Canadian province, the Alberta Legislature has (almost) exclusive authority to make laws respecting education. Since 1905 the Legislature has used this capacity to continue the model of locally elected public and separate school boards which originated prior to 1905, as well as to create and regulate universities, colleges, technical institutions and other educational forms and institutions (public charter schools, private schools, home schooling). | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Education",
"Elementary and secondary"
]
| There are forty-two public school jurisdictions in Alberta, and seventeen operating separate school jurisdictions. Sixteen of the operating separate school jurisdictions have a Catholic electorate, and one ([[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]]) has a [[Protestant]] electorate. In addition, one Protestant separate school district, Glen Avon, survives as a ward of the St. Paul Education Region. The City of Lloydminster straddles the Alberta/Saskatchewan border, and both the public and separate school systems in that city are counted in the above numbers: both of them operate according to Saskatchewan law. For many years the provincial government has funded the greater part of the cost of providing K–12 education. Prior to 1994 public and separate school boards in Alberta had the legislative authority to levy a local tax on property as a supplementary support for local education. In 1994 the government of the province eliminated this right for public school boards, but not for separate school boards. Since 1994 there has continued to be a tax on property in support of K–12 education; the difference is that the mill rate is now set by the provincial government, the money is collected by the local municipal authority and remitted to the provincial government. The relevant legislation requires that all the money raised by this property tax must go to the support of K–12 education provided by school boards. The provincial government pools the property tax funds from across the province and distributes them, according to a formula, to public and separate school jurisdictions and Francophone authorities. [[State school|Public]] and separate school boards, charter schools, and private schools all follow the Program of Studies and the curriculum approved by the provincial department of education (Alberta Education). [[Homeschooling|Homeschool]] tutors may choose to follow the Program of Studies or develop their own Program of Studies. Public and separate schools, charter schools, and approved private schools all employ teachers who are certificated by Alberta Education, they administer Provincial Achievement Tests and Diploma Examinations set by Alberta Education, and they may grant high school graduation certificates endorsed by Alberta Education. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Education",
"Post-secondary"
]
| The [[University of Alberta]], located in Edmonton and established in 1908, is Alberta's oldest and largest university. The [[University of Calgary]], once affiliated with the University of Alberta, gained its autonomy in 1966 and is now the second-largest university in Alberta. [[Athabasca University]], which focuses on distance learning, and the [[University of Lethbridge]] are located in Athabasca and Lethbridge respectively. In early September 2009, [[Mount Royal University]] became Calgary's second public university, and in late September 2009, a similar move made [[MacEwan University]] Edmonton's second public university. There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding, along with two technical institutes, [[Northern Alberta Institute of Technology]] and [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology]]. Two of the colleges, Red Deer College and Grande Prairie Regional College, were approved by the Alberta government to become degree granting universities There are also many private post-secondary institutions, mostly [[List of colleges in Alberta#Private Colleges|Christian Universities]], bringing the total number of universities to 12. Students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions. There was some controversy in 2005 over the rising cost of post-secondary education for students (as opposed to taxpayers). In 2005, Premier [[Ralph Klein]] made a promise that he would freeze tuition and look into ways of reducing schooling costs. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Health care"
]
| Alberta provides a [[publicly funded health care|publicly funded, fully integrated health system]], through [[Alberta Health Services]] (AHS)—a quasi-independent agency that delivers health care on behalf of the [[Government of Alberta]]'s [[Ministry of Health (Alberta)|Ministry of Health]]. The Alberta government provides health services for all its residents as set out by the provisions of the ''[[Canada Health Act]]'' of 1984. Alberta became Canada's second province (after [[Saskatchewan]]) to adopt a [[Tommy Douglas]]-style program in 1950, a precursor to the modern [[Medicare (Canada)|medicare]] system. Alberta's health care budget was $22.5 billion during the 2018–2019 fiscal year (approximately 45% of all government spending), making it the best-funded health-care system per-capita in Canada. Every hour the province spends more than $2.5 million, (or $60 million per day), to maintain and improve health care in the province. Notable health, education, research, and resources facilities in Alberta, all of which are located within Calgary or Edmonton. Health centres in Calgary include: (-) [[Alberta Children's Hospital]] (-) [[Foothills Medical Centre]] (-) Grace Women's Health Centre (-) [[Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta]] (-) [[Peter Lougheed Centre]] (-) [[Rockyview General Hospital]] (-) [[South Health Campus]] (-) [[Tom Baker Cancer Centre]] (-) University of Calgary Medical Centre (UCMC) Health centres in Edmonton include: (-) Alberta Diabetes Institute (-) [[Cross Cancer Institute]] (-) Edmonton Clinic (-) [[Grey Nuns Community Hospital]] (-) Lois Hole Hospital for Women (-) [[Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute]] (-) [[Misericordia Community Hospital]] (-) Rexall Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research (-) [[Royal Alexandra Hospital (Edmonton)|Royal Alexandra Hospital]] (-) [[Stollery Children's Hospital]] (-) [[University of Alberta Hospital]] The [[University of Alberta in Edmonton|Edmonton Clinic]] complex, completed in 2012, provides a similar research, education, and care environment as the [[Mayo Clinic]] in the United States. All public health care services funded by the Government of Alberta are delivered operationally by Alberta Health Services. AHS is the province's single health authority, established on July 1, 2008, which replaced nine regional health authorities. AHS also funds all ground ambulance services in the province, as well as the province-wide [[Shock Trauma Air Rescue Society]] (STARS) air ambulance service. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Transportation",
"Air"
]
| Alberta is well-connected by air, with [[international airport]] in both Calgary and Edmonton. [[Calgary International Airport]] and [[Edmonton International Airport]] are the fourth- and [[List of the busiest airports in Canada|fifth-busiest in Canada]], respectively. Calgary's airport is a hub for [[WestJet|WestJet Airlines]] and a regional hub for [[Air Canada]], primarily serving the prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) for connecting flights to British Columbia, eastern Canada, 15 major U.S. centres, nine European airports, one Asian airport and four destinations in Mexico and the [[Caribbean]]. Edmonton's airport acts as a hub for the Canadian north and has connections to all major Canadian airports as well as airports in the United States, Europe, Mexico, and the Caribbean . | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Transportation",
"Public transit"
]
| Calgary, Edmonton, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial [[Public transport|public transit]] systems. In addition to buses, Calgary and Edmonton operate [[Light rail|light rail transit]] (LRT) systems. [[Edmonton Light Rail Transit|Edmonton LRT]], which is underground in the downtown core and on the surface outside the CBD, was the first of the modern generation of light rail systems to be built in North America, while the Calgary [[C-Train]] has one of the highest number of daily riders of any LRT system in North America. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Transportation",
"Rail"
]
| There are more than of operating mainline railway in Alberta. The vast majority of this trackage is owned by the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and [[Canadian National Railway]] companies, which operate railway [[Cargo|freight]] across the province. Additional railfreight service in the province is provided by two shortline railways: the [[Battle River Railway]] and [[Forty Mile Rail]]. Passenger trains include [[Via Rail]]'s Canadian (Toronto–Vancouver) or Jasper–Prince Rupert trains, which use the CN mainline and pass through Jasper National Park and parallel the Yellowhead Highway during at least part of their routes. The [[Rocky Mountaineer]] operates two sections: one from Vancouver to Banff and Calgary over CP tracks, and a section that travels over CN tracks to Jasper. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Transportation",
"Road"
]
| Alberta has over of highways and roads, of which nearly are paved. The main north–south corridor is [[Alberta Highway 2|Highway 2]], which begins south of [[Cardston]] at the [[Carway, Alberta|Carway]] border crossing and is part of the [[CANAMEX Corridor]]. [[Alberta Highway 4|Highway 4]], which effectively extends [[Interstate 15]] into Alberta and is the busiest U.S. gateway to the province, begins at the [[Coutts, Alberta|Coutts]] border crossing and ends at Lethbridge. [[Alberta Highway 3|Highway 3]] joins Lethbridge to [[Fort Macleod]] and links Highway 2 to Highway 4. Highway 2 travels north through Fort Macleod, Calgary, Red Deer, and Edmonton. North of Edmonton, the highway continues to [[Athabasca, Alberta|Athabasca]], then northwesterly along the south shore of [[Lesser Slave Lake]] into [[High Prairie]], north to [[Peace River, Alberta|Peace River]], west to [[Fairview, Alberta|Fairview]] and finally south to [[Grande Prairie]], where it ends at an interchange with [[Alberta Highway 43|Highway 43]]. The section of Highway 2 between Calgary and Edmonton has been named the Queen Elizabeth II Highway to commemorate the visit of the monarch in 2005. Highway 2 is supplemented by two more highways that run parallel to it: [[Alberta Highway 22|Highway 22]], west of Highway 2, known as ''Cowboy Trail'', and [[Alberta Highway 21|Highway 21]], east of Highway 2. Highway 43 travels northwest into Grande Prairie and the [[Peace River Country]]; [[Alberta Highway 63|Highway 63]] travels northeast to Fort McMurray, the location of the Athabasca oil sands. Alberta has two main east–west corridors. The southern corridor, part of the [[Trans-Canada Highway]] system, enters the province near Medicine Hat, runs westward through Calgary, and leaves Alberta through Banff National Park. The northern corridor, also part of the Trans-Canada network and known as the [[Yellowhead Highway]] ([[Alberta Highway 16|Highway 16]]), runs west from Lloydminster in eastern Alberta, through Edmonton and [[Jasper National Park]] into British Columbia. One of the most scenic drives is along the [[Icefields Parkway]], which runs for between Jasper and Lake Louise, with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length. A third corridor stretches across southern Alberta; [[Alberta Highway 3|Highway 3]] runs between Crowsnest Pass and Medicine Hat through Lethbridge and forms the eastern portion of the [[Crowsnest Highway]]. Another major corridor through central Alberta is [[Alberta Highway 11|Highway 11]] (also known as the [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]] Highway), which runs east from the [[Saskatchewan River Crossing, Alberta|Saskatchewan River Crossing]] in Banff National Park through [[Rocky Mountain House]] and [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]], connecting with [[Alberta Highway 12|Highway 12]] west of [[Stettler, Alberta|Stettler]]. The highway connects many of the smaller towns in central Alberta with Calgary and Edmonton, as it crosses Highway 2 just west of Red Deer. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Transportation",
"Road"
]
| Urban stretches of Alberta's major highways and freeways are often called ''trails''. For example, Highway 2, the main north–south highway in the province, is called [[Deerfoot Trail]] as it passes through Calgary but becomes [[Calgary Trail]] (for southbound traffic) and [[Gateway Boulevard]] (for northbound traffic) as it enters Edmonton and then turns into St. Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton for the City of [[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]]. Calgary, in particular, has a tradition of calling its largest urban [[limited-access road|expressway]] ''trails'' and naming many of them after prominent [[First Nations]] individuals and tribes, such as [[Crowchild Trail]], Deerfoot Trail, and [[Stoney Trail]]. | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"Friendship partners"
]
| Alberta has relationships with many provinces, states, and other entities worldwide. (-) [[Gangwon Province, South Korea|Gangwon-do]], South Korea (1974) (-) [[Hokkaido]], Japan (1980) (-) [[Heilongjiang]], China (1981) (-) [[Montana]], United States (1985) (-) [[Tyumen]], Russia (1992) (-) [[Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug|Khanty–Mansi]], Russia (1995) (-) [[Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug|Yamalo-Nenets]], Russia (1997) (-) [[Jalisco]], Mexico (1999) (-) [[Alaska]], United States (2002) (-) [[Saxony]], Germany (2002) (-) [[Ivano-Frankivsk]], Ukraine (2004) (-) [[Lviv]], Ukraine (2005) (-) [[California]], United States (1997) (-) [[Guangdong]], China (2017) | 717 | Alberta | [
"Alberta",
"1905 establishments in Canada",
"Provinces of Canada",
"States and territories established in 1905",
"Canadian Prairies"
]
| [
"Outline of Alberta",
"Index of Alberta-related articles",
"Symbols of Alberta"
]
|
[
"A"
]
| (-) [[John Adair (anthropologist)|John Adair]] (-) [[B. R. Ambedkar]] (-) [[Giulio Angioni]] (-) [[Jon Charles Altman|Jon Altman]] (-) [[Arjun Appadurai]] (-) [[Talal Asad]] (-) [[Timothy Asch]] (-) [[Scott Atran]] (-) [[Marc Augé]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"B"
]
| (-) [[Nigel Barley (anthropologist)|Nigel Barley]] (-) [[Fredrik Barth]] (-) [[Vasily Bartold]] (-) [[Keith H. Basso]] (-) [[Daisy Bates (Australia)|Daisy Bates]] (-) [[Gregory Bateson]] (-) [[Mary Catherine Bateson]] (-) [[Ruth Behar]] (-) [[Ruth Benedict]] (-) [[Dorothy A. Bennett]] (-) [[Carl H. Berendt]] (-) [[Lee R. Berger|Lee Berger]] (-) [[Brent Berlin]] (-) [[Catherine Helen Webb Berndt]] (-) [[Catherine L. Besteman]] (-) [[Theodore C. Bestor]] (-) [[Lewis Binford]] (-) [[Evelyn Blackwood]] (-) [[Wilhelm Bleek]] (-) [[Maurice Bloch]] (-) [[Anton Blok]] (-) [[Franz Boas]] (-) [[Tom Boellstorff]] (-) [[Paul Bohannan]] (-) [[Dmitri Bondarenko]] (-) [[Pere Bosch-Gimpera]] (-) [[Pierre Bourdieu]] (-) [[Philippe Bourgois]] (-) [[Paul Broca]] (-) [[Kari Bruwelheide]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"C"
]
| (-) [[Julio Caro Baroja]] (-) [[Edmund Snow Carpenter|Edmund Carpenter]] (-) [[Napoleon Chagnon]] (-) [[Pierre Clastres]] (-) [[Mabel Cook Cole]] (-) [[Malcolm Carr Collier]] (-) [[Harold C. Conklin]] (-) [[Carleton S. Coon]] (-) [[Frank Hamilton Cushing]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"D"
]
| (-) [[Regna Darnell]] (-) [[Raymond Dart]] (-) [[Emma Lou Davis]] (-) [[Wade Davis (anthropologist)|Wade Davis]] (-) [[Ernesto de Martino]] (-) [[Ella Cara Deloria]] (-) [[Raymond J. DeMallie]] (-) [[Philippe Descola]] (-) [[Stanley Diamond]] (-) [[Mary Douglas]] (-) [[Cora Du Bois]] (-) [[Eugene Dubois]] (-) [[Ann Dunham]] (-) [[Katherine Dunham]] (-) [[Elizabeth Cullen Dunn]] (-) [[Émile Durkheim]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"E"
]
| (-) [[Mary Lindsay Elmendolf]] (-) [[Verrier Elwin]] (-) [[Friedrich Engels]] (-) [[Arturo Escobar (anthropologist)|Arturo Escobar]] (-) [[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"F"
]
| (-) [[James Ferguson (anthropologist)|James Ferguson]] (-) [[Raymond Firth]] (-) [[Raymond D. Fogelson]] (-) [[Meyer Fortes]] (-) [[Gregory Forth]] (-) [[Dian Fossey]] (-) [[Kate Fox]] (-) [[Robin Fox]] (-) [[James Frazer]] (-) [[Lina Fruzzetti]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"G"
]
| (-) [[Clifford Geertz]] (-) [[Alfred Gell]] (-) [[Ernest Gellner]] (-) [[Herb Di Gioia]] (-) [[Max Gluckman]] (-) [[Maurice Godelier]] (-) [[Jane Goodall]] (-) [[Marjorie Harness Goodwin]] (-) [[Igor Gorevich]] (-) [[Harold A. Gould]] (-) [[David Graeber]] (-) [[Hilma Granqvist]] (-) [[J. Patrick Gray]] (-) [[Marcel Griaule]] (-) [[Jacob Grimm]] (-) [[Wilhelm Grimm]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"H"
]
| (-) [[Abdellah Hammoudi]] (-) [[Michael Harkin]] (-) [[Michael Harner]] (-) [[John P. Harrington]] (-) [[Marvin Harris]] (-) [[K. David Harrison]] (-) [[Kirsten Hastrup]] (-) [[Jacquetta Hawkes]] (-) [[Stephen C. Headley]] (-) [[Te Rangi Hīroa]] (Sir Peter Buck) (-) [[Arthur Maurice Hocart]] (-) [[Ian Hodder]] (-) [[Hoebel|E. Adamson Hoebel]] (-) [[Earnest Hooton]] (-) [[Robin W.G. Horton]] (-) [[Ales Hrdlicka|Aleš Hrdlička]] (-) [[Eva Verbitsky Hunt]] (-) [[Dell Hymes]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"J"
]
| (-) [[Ira Jacknis]] (-) [[John M. Janzen]] (-) [[Thomas Des Jean]] (-) [[F. Landa Jocano]] (-) [[Alfred E. Johnson]] (-) [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]] (-) [[Michal Josephy]] (-) [[Jeffrey S. Juris]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"K"
]
| (-) [[Sergei Kan]] (-) [[Jomo Kenyatta]] (-) [[David Kertzer]] (-) [[Alice Beck Kehoe]] (-) [[Anatoly Khazanov]] (-) [[Richard G. Klein]] (-) [[Eduardo Kohn]] (-) [[Dorinne K. Kondo]] (-) [[Andrey Korotayev]] (-) [[Conrad Kottak]] (-) [[Charles H. Kraft]] (-) [[Grover Krantz]] (-) [[Alfred L. Kroeber]] (-) [[Theodora Kroeber]] (-) [[Lars Krutak]] (-) [[Adam Kuper]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"L"
]
| (-) [[William Labov]] (-) [[George Lakoff]] (-) [[Harold E. Lambert]] (-) [[Edmund Leach]] (-) [[Eleanor Leacock]] (-) [[Murray Leaf]] (-) [[Louis Leakey]] (-) [[Mary Leakey]] (-) [[Richard Leakey]] (-) [[Richard Borshay Lee]] (-) [[Charles Miller Leslie]] (-) [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] (-) [[Ellen Lewin]] (-) [[C. Scott Littleton]] (-) [[Albert Buell Lewis]] (-) [[Oscar Lewis]] (-) [[Phillip Harold Lewis]] (-) [[Iris López]] (-) [[Robert Lowie]] (-) [[Nancy Lurie]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"M"
]
| (-) [[Alan Macfarlane]] (-) [[Saba Mahmood]] (-) [[Bronisław Malinowski]] (-) [[George E. Marcus|George Marcus]] (-) [[Jonathan M. Marks]] (-) [[Karl Marx]] (-) [[John Alden Mason]] (-) [[Michael Atwood Mason]] (-) [[Marcel Mauss]] (-) [[Phillip McArthur]] (-) [[Irma McClaurin]] (-) [[Charles Harrison McNutt]] (-) [[Margaret Mead]] (-) [[Mervyn Meggitt]] (-) [[Josef Mengele]] (-) [[Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay]] (-) [[Emily Martin (anthropologist)|Emily Martin]] (-) [[Horace Mitchell Miner]] (-) [[Sidney Mintz]] (-) [[Ashley Montagu]] (-) [[James Mooney]] (-) [[Henrietta L. Moore]] (-) [[John H. Moore]] (-) [[Lewis H. Morgan]] (-) [[Desmond Morris]] (-) [[George Murdock]] (-) [[Yolanda Murphy]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"N"
]
| (-) [[Laura Nader]] (-) [[Moni Nag]] (-) [[Jeremy Narby]] (-) [[Raoul Naroll]] (-) [[Josiah Nott]] (-) [[Erland Nordenskiöld]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"O"
]
| (-) [[Gananath Obeyesekere]] (-) [[Kaori O'Connor]] (-) [[Aihwa Ong]] (-) [[Marvin Opler]] (-) [[Morris Opler]] (-) [[Sherry Ortner]] (-) [[Keith F. Otterbein]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"P"
]
| (-) [[Elsie Clews Parsons]] (-) [[Bronislav Pilsudski]] (-) [[Thomas J. Pluckhahn]] (-) [[Hortense Powdermaker]] (-) [[A.H.J. Prins]] (-) [[Harald E.L. Prins]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"R"
]
| (-) [[Paul Rabinow]] (-) [[Wilhelm Radloff]] (-) [[Lucinda Ramberg]] (-) [[Roy Rappaport]] (-) [[Hans Ras]] (-) [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] (-) [[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]] (-) [[Kathy Reichs]] (-) [[Audrey Richards]] (-) [[W. H. R. Rivers]] (-) [[Paul Rivet]] (-) [[Joel Robbins]] (-) [[Renato Rosaldo]] (-) [[Gayle Rubin]] (-) [[Robert A. Rubinstein]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"S"
]
| (-) [[Marshall Sahlins]] (-) [[Noel B. Salazar]] (-) [[Roger Sandall]] (-) [[Edward Sapir]] (-) [[Patricia Sawin]] (-) [[Nancy Scheper-Hughes]] (-) [[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]] (-) [[Tobias Schneebaum]] (-) [[James C. Scott]] (-) [[Thayer Scudder]] (-) [[Elman Service]] (-) [[Afanasy Shchapov]] (-) [[Gerald F. Schroedl]] (-) [[Florence Connolly Shipek]] (-) [[Sydel Silverman]] (-) [[Cathy Small]] (-) [[Christen A. Smith]] (-) [[Jacques Soustelle]] (-) [[Melford Spiro]] (-) [[James Spradley]] (-) [[Julian Steward]] (-) [[Herbert Spencer]] (-) [[Marilyn Strathern]] (-) [[William Sturtevant]] (-) [[Niara Sudarkasa]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"T"
]
| (-) [[Michael Taussig]] (-) [[Edward Burnett Tylor]] (-) [[Colin Turnbull]] (-) [[Victor Turner]] (-) [[Bruce Trigger]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"V"
]
| (-) [[Karl Verner]] (-) [[L. P. Vidyarthi]] (-) [[Eduardo Viveiros de Castro]] (-) [[Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"W"
]
| (-) [[Anthony F. C. Wallace]] (-) [[Lee Henderson Watkins]] (-) [[Camilla Wedgwood]] (-) [[Hank Wesselman]] (-) [[Kath Weston]] (-) [[Douglas R. White]] (-) [[Isobel Mary White]] (-) [[Leslie White]] (-) [[Tim White (anthropologist)|Tim White]] (-) [[Benjamin Whorf]] (-) [[Unni Wikan]] (-) [[Clark Wissler]] (-) [[Eric Wolf]] (-) [[Alvin Wolfe]] (-) [[Sol Worth]] | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[
"Fictional anthropologists"
]
| (-) [[Mary Albright]] ([[Jane Curtin]]) in the sitcom ''[[3rd Rock from the Sun]]'' (-) [[Temperance "Bones" Brennan]] ([[Emily Deschanel]]) in the television series ''[[Bones (TV series)|Bones]]'' (-) [[Temperance Brennan]] in the novel series ''Temperance Brennan'' by [[Kathy Reichs]] (-) [[Chakotay]] ([[Robert Beltran]]) in the television series ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' (-) [[Michael Burnham]] ([[Sonequa Martin-Green]]) in the television series ''[[Star Trek: Discovery]]'' (-) [[Daniel Jackson (Stargate)|Daniel Jackson]] ([[Michael Shanks]], [[James Spader]]) in the television series and film ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' (-) [[Charlotte Lewis (Lost)|Charlotte Lewis]] ([[Rebecca Mader]]) in the television series ''[[Lost (2004 TV series)|Lost]]'' | 728 | List of anthropologists | [
"Lists of social scientists",
"Anthropologists"
]
| [
"List of Black Anthropologists",
"List of female anthropologists"
]
|
[]
| '''Actinopterygii''' ([[New Latin]] ('having rays') + Greek ( 'wing, fins')), members of which are known as '''ray-finned fishes''', is a [[clade]] (traditionally [[Class (biology)|class]] or subclass) of the [[Osteichthyes|bony fishes]]. The ray-finned [[fish]] are so-called because their fins are webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines (rays), as opposed to the fleshy, lobed fins that characterize the class [[Sarcopterygii]] (lobe-finned fish). These actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the link or connection between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles). By species count, actinopterygians dominate the [[vertebrate]], and they comprise nearly 99% of the over 30,000 species of fish. They are ubiquitous throughout [[freshwater]] and [[ocean|marine]] environments from the deep sea to the highest mountain streams. Extant species can range in size from ''[[Paedocypris]]'', at , to the massive [[ocean sunfish]], at , and the long-bodied [[oarfish]], at . The vast majority of Actinopterygii (~95%) are [[Teleost|teleosts]]. | 734 | Actinopterygii | [
"Ray-finned fish",
"Fish classes",
"Silurian bony fish",
"Extant Silurian first appearances"
]
| []
|
[
"Characteristics"
]
| Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of a typical ray-finned fish are shown in the adjacent diagram. The swim bladder is the more derived structure. Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales; but all [[teleost]], the most advanced actinopterygians, have leptoid scales. The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges while the inner part is crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more transparent than other types of scales, and lack the hardened enamel or dentine-like layers found in the scales of many other fish. Unlike ganoid scales, which are found in non-teleost actinopterygians, new scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows. Ray-finned and lobe-finned fishes, including tetrapods, possessed lungs used for aerial respiration. Only bichirs retain ventrally budding lungs. | 734 | Actinopterygii | [
"Ray-finned fish",
"Fish classes",
"Silurian bony fish",
"Extant Silurian first appearances"
]
| []
|
[
"Body shapes and fin arrangements"
]
| Ray-finned fish are very varied in size and shape, their feeding specializations, and in the number of their ray-fins and the manner in which they arrange them. | 734 | Actinopterygii | [
"Ray-finned fish",
"Fish classes",
"Silurian bony fish",
"Extant Silurian first appearances"
]
| []
|
[
"Reproduction"
]
| In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage. However other patterns of [[ontogeny]] exist, with one of the commonest being [[sequential hermaphroditism]]. In most cases this involves [[protogyny]], fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. [[Protandry]], where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny. Most families use [[external fertilization|external]] rather than [[internal fertilization]]. Of the [[oviparity|oviparous]] teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care. [[Viviparity]], [[ovoviviparity]], or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition. The oldest case of viviparity in ray-finned fish is found in [[Middle Triassic]] species of ''[[Saurichthys]]''. Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of living teleost species; male care is far more common than female care. Male territoriality [[exaptation|"preadapts"]] a species for evolving male parental care. There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The [[mangrove rivulus]] is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred. | 734 | Actinopterygii | [
"Ray-finned fish",
"Fish classes",
"Silurian bony fish",
"Extant Silurian first appearances"
]
| []
|
[
"Fossil record"
]
| The earliest known fossil actinopterygian is ''[[Andreolepis hedei]]'', dating back 420 million years ([[Late Silurian]]). Remains have been found in [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], and [[Estonia]]. | 734 | Actinopterygii | [
"Ray-finned fish",
"Fish classes",
"Silurian bony fish",
"Extant Silurian first appearances"
]
| []
|
[
"Classification"
]
| Actinopterygii is divided into the classes [[Cladistia]] and [[Actinopteri]]. The latter comprised subclasses [[Chondrostei]] and [[Neopterygii]]. The [[Neopterygii]], in turn, is divided into the infraclasses [[Holostei]] and [[Teleostei]]. During the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]] the teleosts in particular diversified widely, and as a result, 96% of all known fish species are teleosts. The [[cladogram]] shows the major groups of actinopterygians and their relationship to the terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods) that evolved from a related group of fish. Approximate dates are from Near et al., 2012. The polypterids (bichirs and reedfish) are the sister lineage of all other actinopterygians, the Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) are the sister lineage of Neopterygii, and Holostei (bowfin and gars) are the sister lineage of teleosts. The [[Elopomorpha]] (eels and tarpons) appear to be the most basal teleosts. The listing below follows [[Www.deepfin.org|Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes]] with notes when this differs from Nelson, [[ITIS]] and [[FishBase]] and extinct groups from Van der Laan 2016 and Xu 2021. (-) Order †?[[Asarotiformes]] Schaeffer 1968 (-) Order †?[[Discordichthyiformes]] Minikh 1998 (-) Order †?[[Paphosisciformes]] Grogan & Lund 2015 (-) Order †?[[Scanilepiformes]] Selezneya 1985 (-) Order †[[Cheirolepidiformes]] Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977 (-) Order †[[Paramblypteriformes]] Heyler 1969 (-) Order †[[Rhadinichthyiformes]] (-) Order †[[Palaeonisciformes]] Hay 1902 (-) Order †[[Tarrasiiformes]] sensu Lund & Poplin 2002 (-) Order †[[Ptycholepiformes]] Andrews et al. 1967 (-) Order †[[Haplolepidiformes]] Westoll 1944 (-) Order †[[Aeduelliformes]] Heyler 1969 (-) Order †[[Platysomiformes]] Aldinger 1937 (-) Order †[[Dorypteriformes]] Cope 1871 (-) Order †[[Eurynotiformes]] Sallan & Coates 2013 (-) '''Class [[Cladistia]]''' Pander 1860 (-) Order †[[Guildayichthyiformes]] Lund 2000 (-) Order [[Polypteriformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[bichir]] and [[reedfish]]) (-) '''Class [[Actinopteri]]''' Cope 1972 s.s. (-) Order †[[Elonichthyiformes]] Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977 (-) Order †[[Phanerorhynchiformes]] (-) Order †[[Bobasatraniiformes]] Berg 1940 (-) Order †[[Saurichthyiformes]] Aldinger 1937 (-) '''Subclass [[Chondrostei]]''' Müller, 1844 (-) Order †[[Birgeria|Birgeriiformes]] Heyler 1969 (-) Order †[[Chondrosteiformes]] Aldinger, 1937 (-) Order [[Acipenseriformes]] Berg 1940 (includes [[sturgeon]] and [[paddlefish]]) (-) '''Subclass [[Neopterygii]]''' Regan 1923 sensu Xu & Wu 2012 (-) Order †[[Pholidopleuriformes]] Berg 1937 (-) Order †[[Redfieldiiformes]] Berg 1940 (-) Order †[[Platysiagiformes]] Brough 1939 (-) Order †[[Polzbergiiformes]] Griffith 1977 (-) Order †[[Perleidiformes]] Berg 1937 (-) Order †[[Louwoichthyiformes]] Xu 2021 (-) Order †[[Peltopleuriformes]] Lehman 1966 (-) Order †[[Luganoiiformes]] Lehman 1958 (-) Order †[[Pycnodontiformes]] Berg 1937 (-) Infraclass '''[[Holostei]]''' Müller 1844 (-) '''Division Halecomorpha''' Cope 1872 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998 (-) Order †[[Parasemionotiformes]] Lehman 1966 (-) Order †[[Ionoscopiformes]] Grande & Bemis 1998 (-) Order [[Amiiformes]] Huxley 1861 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998 ([[bowfin]]) (-) '''Division Ginglymodi''' Cope 1871 (-) Order †[[Dapediiformes]] Thies & Waschkewitz 2015 (-) Order †[[Semionotiformes]] Arambourg & Bertin 1958 (-) Order [[Lepisosteiformes]] Hay 1929 ([[gar]]) (-) Clade '''Teleosteomorpha''' Arratia 2000 sensu Arratia 2013 (-) Order †[[Prohaleciteiformes]] Arratia 2017 (-) '''Division Aspidorhynchei''' Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016 (-) Order †[[Aspidorhynchiformes]] Bleeker 1859 (-) Order †[[Pachycormiformes]] Berg 1937 (-) Infraclass '''[[Teleostei]]''' Müller 1844 sensu Arratia 2013 (-) Order †?[[Araripichthyiformes]] (-) Order †?[[Ligulelliiformes]] Taverne 2011 (-) Order †?[[Tselfatiiformes]] Nelson 1994 (-) Order †[[Pholidophoriformes]] Berg 1940 (-) Order †[[Dorsetichthyiformes]] Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016 (-) Order †[[Leptolepidiformes]] (-) Order †[[Crossognathiformes]] Taverne 1989 (-) Order †[[Ichthyodectiformes]] Bardeck & Sprinkle 1969 | 734 | Actinopterygii | [
"Ray-finned fish",
"Fish classes",
"Silurian bony fish",
"Extant Silurian first appearances"
]
| []
|
[
"Classification"
]
| (-) '''Teleocephala''' de Pinna 1996 s.s. (-) '''Megacohort Elopocephalai''' Patterson 1977 sensu Arratia 1999 ([[Elopomorpha]] Greenwood et al. 1966) (-) Order [[Elopiformes]] Gosline 1960 ([[ladyfish]] and [[tarpon]]) (-) Order [[Albuliformes]] Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Forey et al. 1996 (bonefishes) (-) Order [[Notacanthiformes]] Goodrich 1909 ([[halosaurs]] and [[spiny eel]]) (-) Order [[Anguilliformes]] Jarocki 1822 sensu Goodrich 1909 (true [[eel]]) (-) '''Megacohort Osteoglossocephalai''' sensu Arratia 1999 (-) '''Supercohort Osteoglossocephala''' sensu Arratia 1999 ([[Osteoglossomorpha]] Greenwood et al. 1966) (-) Order †[[Lycopteriformes]] Chang & Chou 1977 (-) Order [[Hiodontiformes]] McAllister 1968 sensu Taverne 1979 ([[mooneye]] and [[goldeye]]) (-) Order [[Osteoglossiformes]] Regan 1909 sensu Zhang 2004 (bony-tongued fishes) (-) '''Supercohort Clupeocephala''' Patterson & Rosen 1977 sensu Arratia 2010 (-) '''Cohort Otomorpha''' Wiley & Johnson 2010 ([[Otocephala]]; Ostarioclupeomorpha) (-) '''Subcohort Clupei''' Wiley & Johnson 2010 ([[Clupeomorpha]] Greenwood et al. 1966) (-) Order †[[Ellimmichthyiformes]] Grande 1982 (-) Order [[Clupeiformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[herring]] and [[anchovy|anchovies]]) (-) '''Subcohort Alepocephali''' (-) Order [[Alepocephaliformes]] Marshall 1962 (-) '''Subcohort [[Ostariophysi]]''' Sagemehl 1885 (-) '''Section Anotophysa''' (Rosen & Greenwood 1970) Sagemehl 1885 (-) Order †[[Sorbininardiformes]] Taverne 1999 (-) Order [[Gonorynchiformes]] Regan 1909 ([[milkfish]]) (-) '''Section Otophysa''' Garstang 1931 (-) Order [[Cypriniformes]] Bleeker 1859 sensu Goodrich 1909 ([[Barb (fish)|barbs]], [[carp]], [[danios]], [[goldfish]], [[Loach (fish)|loaches]], [[minnow]], [[rasbora]]) (-) Order [[Characiformes]] Goodrich 1909 ([[characin]], [[pencilfish]], [[Freshwater hatchetfish|hatchetfishes]], [[piranha]], [[tetra]], [[Golden dorado|dourado / golden (genus ''Salminus'')]] and [[Piaractus mesopotamicus|pacu]]) (-) Order [[Gymnotiformes]] Berg 1940 ([[electric eel]] and [[knifefish (disambiguation)|knifefishes]]) (-) Order [[Siluriformes]] Cuvier 1817 sensu Hay 1929 ([[catfish]]) (-) '''Cohort Euteleosteomorpha''' (Greenwood et al. 1966) ([[Euteleostei]] Greenwood 1967 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996) (-) '''Subcohort Lepidogalaxii''' (-) [[Lepidogalaxiiformes]] Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ([[Lepidogalaxias salamandroides|salamanderfish]]) (-) '''Subcohort [[Protacanthopterygii]]''' Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996 (-) Order [[Argentiniformes]] ([[barreleye]] and [[slickhead]]) (formerly in Osmeriformes) (-) Order [[Galaxiiformes]] (-) Order [[Salmoniformes]] Bleeker 1859 sensu Nelson 1994 ([[salmon]] and [[trout]]) (-) Order [[Esociformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[esox|pike]]) (-) '''Subcohort Stomiati''' (-) Order [[Osmeriformes]] ([[Smelt (fish)|smelts]]) (-) Order [[Stomiatiformes]] Regan 1909 ([[bristlemouth]] and [[marine hatchetfish]]) (-) '''Subcohort [[Neoteleostei]]''' Nelson 1969 (-) '''Infracohort Ateleopodia''' (-) Order [[Ateleopodiformes]] ([[jellynose fish]]) (-) '''Infracohort Eurypterygia''' Rosen 1973 (-) '''Section Aulopa''' [Cyclosquamata Rosen 1973] (-) Order [[Aulopiformes]] Rosen 1973 ([[Bombay duck]] and [[lancetfish]]) (-) '''Section Ctenosquamata''' Rosen 1973 (-) '''Subsection Myctophata''' [Scopelomorpha] (-) Order [[Myctophiformes]] Regan 1911 ([[lanternfish]]) (-) '''Subsection [[Acanthomorpha]]''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-) '''Division Lampridacea''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 [Lampridomorpha; Lampripterygii] (-) Order [[Lampriformes]] Regan 1909 ([[oarfish]], [[opah]] and [[ribbonfishes]]) (-) '''Division Paracanthomorphacea''' sensu Grande et al. 2013 ([[Paracanthopterygii]] Greenwood 1937) (-) Order [[Percopsiformes]] Berg 1937 ([[Amblyopsidae|cavefishes]] and [[trout-perch]]) (-) Order †[[Sphenocephaliformes]] Rosen & Patterson 1969 (-) Order [[Zeiformes]] Regan 1909 ([[dory (fish)|dories]]) (-) Order [[Stylephoriformes]] Miya et al. 2007 (-) Order [[Gadiformes]] Goodrich 1909 ([[cod]]) (-) '''Division Polymixiacea''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Polymyxiomorpha; Polymixiipterygii) (-) Order †[[Pattersonichthyiformes]] Gaudant 1976 (-) Order †[[Ctenothrissiformes]] Berg 1937 (-) Order [[Polymixiiformes]] Lowe 1838 ([[beardfish]]) (-) '''Division Euacanthomorphacea''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Euacanthomorpha sensu Johnson & Patterson 1993; [[Acanthopterygii]] Gouan 1770 sensu]) (-) '''Subdivision Berycimorphaceae''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-) Order [[Beryciformes]] ([[fangtooth]] and [[pineconefish]]) (incl. [[Stephanoberyciformes]]; [[Cetomimiformes]]) (-) '''Subdivision Holocentrimorphaceae''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 | 734 | Actinopterygii | [
"Ray-finned fish",
"Fish classes",
"Silurian bony fish",
"Extant Silurian first appearances"
]
| []
|
[
"Classification"
]
| (-) Order [[Holocentriformes]] ([[Soldierfish]]) (-) '''Subdivision Percomorphaceae''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ([[Percomorpha]] sensu Miya et al. 2003; [[Acanthopteri]]) (-) '''Series Ophidiimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-) Order [[Ophidiiformes]] ([[pearlfish]]) (-) '''Series Batrachoidimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-) Order [[Batrachoidiformes]] ([[Batrachoididae|toadfishes]]) (-) '''Series Gobiomopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-) Order [[Kurtiformes]]([[Nurseryfish]] and [[cardinalfish]]) (-) Order [[Gobiiformes]](Sleepers and [[gobies]]) (-) '''Series Scombrimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-) Order [[Syngnathiformes]] ([[Seahorse (fish)|seahorses]], [[pipefish]], [[sea moth]], [[cornetfish]] and [[flying gurnard]]) (-) Order [[Scombriformes]] ([[Tuna]] and ([[mackerel]]) (-) '''Series Carangimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (-) '''Subseries Anabantaria''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 (-) Order [[Synbranchiformes]] ([[swamp eel]]) (-) Order [[Anabantiformes]] (Labyrinthici) ([[gourami]], [[Snakehead (fish)|snakeheads]], ) (-) '''Subseries Carangaria''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 (-) Carangaria incertae sedis (-) Order [[Istiophoriformes]] Betancur-Rodriguez 2013 ([[Marlin]], [[swordfishes]], [[billfish]]) (-) Order [[Carangiformes]] ([[Jack mackerel]], [[pompano]]) (-) Order [[Pleuronectiformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[flatfish]]) (-) '''Subseries Ovalentaria''' Smith & Near 2012 ([[Stiassnyiformes]] sensu Li et al. 2009) (-) Ovalentaria incertae sedis (-) Order [[Cichliformes]] Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ([[Cichlid]], [[Convict blenny]], leaf fishes) (-) Order [[Atheriniformes]] Rosen 1964 ([[Silverside (fish)|silversides]] and [[rainbowfish]]) (-) Order [[Cyprinodontiformes]] Berg 1940 ([[live-bearing aquarium fish|livebearers]], [[killifish]]) (-) Order [[Beloniformes]] Berg 1940 ([[flyingfish]] and [[ricefish]]) (-) Order [[Mugiliformes]] Berg 1940 ([[mullet (fish)|mullets]]) (-) Order [[Blenniiformes]] Springer 1993 ([[Blennies]]) (-) Order [[Gobiesociformes]] Gill 1872 ([[Clingfish]]) (-) '''Series Eupercaria''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 (Percomorpharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013) (-) [[Eupercaria incertae sedis]] (-) Order [[Gerreiformes]] ([[Mojarra]]) (-) Order [[Labriformes]] ([[Wrasse]] and [[Parrotfish]]) (-) Order [[Caproiformes]] ([[Caproidae|Boarfishes]]) (-) Order [[Lophiiformes]] Garman 1899 ([[Anglerfish]]) (-) Order [[Tetraodontiformes]] Regan 1929 ([[Filefish]] and [[pufferfish]]) (-) Order [[Centrarchiformes]] Bleeker 1859 ([[Centrarchidae|Sunfishes]] and mandarin fishes) (-) Order [[Gasterosteiformes]] ([[Stickleback|Sicklebacks]] and relatives) (-) Order [[Scorpaeniformes]] ([[Pterois|Lionfishes]] and relatives) (-) Order [[Perciformes]] Bleeker 1859 | 734 | Actinopterygii | [
"Ray-finned fish",
"Fish classes",
"Silurian bony fish",
"Extant Silurian first appearances"
]
| []
|
[]
| '''Albert Einstein''' ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born [[Theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]], widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time. Einstein is known for developing the [[theory of relativity]], but he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of [[quantum mechanics]]. Relativity and quantum mechanics are together the two pillars of [[modern physics]]. His [[mass–energy equivalence]] formula , which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation". His work is also known for its influence on the [[philosophy of science]]. He received the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the [[photoelectric effect]]", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in "Einstein" becoming [[Archetypal name|synonymous]] with "genius". In 1905, a year sometimes described as his ''[[annus mirabilis]]'' ('miracle year'), Einstein published [[Annus Mirabilis papers|four groundbreaking papers]]. These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect, explained [[Brownian motion]], introduced [[special relativity]], and demonstrated mass-energy equivalence. Einstein thought that the laws of [[classical mechanics]] could no longer be reconciled with those of the [[electromagnetic field]], which led him to develop his special theory of relativity. He then extended the theory to gravitational fields; he published a paper on [[general relativity]] in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe. He continued to deal with problems of [[statistical mechanics]] and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the [[Brownian motion|motion of molecules]]. He also investigated the thermal properties of light and the quantum theory of radiation, which laid the foundation of the [[photon]] theory of light. However, for much of the later part of his career, he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors. First, despite his great contributions to quantum mechanics, he opposed what it evolved into, objecting that nature "does not play dice". Second, he attempted to devise a [[unified field theory]] by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[]
| Einstein was born in the [[German Empire]], but moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the [[Kingdom of Württemberg]]) the following year. In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss [[ETH Zurich|Federal polytechnic school]] (later renamed as ETH Zurich) in [[Zürich]], graduating in 1900. In 1901 he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903 he secured a permanent position at the [[Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property|Swiss Patent Office]] in Bern. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the [[University of Zurich]]. In 1914, Einstein moved to [[Berlin]] in order to join the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]] and the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]. In 1917, Einstein became director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics]]; he also became a German citizen again – Prussian this time. In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power. Einstein did not return to Germany because he objected to the policies of the newly elected [[Nazi Germany|Nazi-led government]]. He settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of [[World War II]], he endorsed [[Einstein–Szilárd letter|a letter]] to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] alerting him to the potential [[German nuclear weapons program]] and recommending that the US begin [[Manhattan Project|similar research]]. Einstein supported the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], but generally denounced the idea of [[nuclear weapons]]. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Early life and education"
]
| Albert Einstein was born in [[Ulm]], in the [[Kingdom of Württemberg]] in the [[German Empire]], on 14 March 1879 into a family of secular [[Ashkenazi Jews]]. His parents were [[Hermann Einstein]], a salesman and engineer, and [[Pauline Koch]]. In 1880, the family moved to [[Munich]], where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded ''Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie'', a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on [[direct current]]. Albert attended a [[Catholic school|Catholic elementary school]] in Munich, from the age of five, for three years. At the age of eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the [[German Empire]] seven years later. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the [[direct current]] (DC) standard to the more efficient [[alternating current]] (AC) standard. The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to [[Milan]] and a few months later to [[Pavia]]. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein, then 15, stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue [[electrical engineering]], but Einstein clashed with the authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict [[rote learning]]. At the end of December 1894, he traveled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the [[Aether (classical element)|Ether]] in a Magnetic Field". Einstein excelled at math and physics from a young age, reaching a mathematical level years ahead of his peers. The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and Euclidean geometry over a single summer. Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] at age 12. A family tutor Max Talmud says that after he had given the 12-year-old Einstein a geometry textbook, after a short time "[Einstein] had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow." His passion for geometry and algebra led the 12-year-old to become convinced that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure". Einstein started teaching himself calculus at 12, and as a 14-year-old he says he had "mastered [[integral calculus|integral]] and [[differential calculus]]". At age 13, when he had become more seriously interested in philosophy (and music), Einstein was introduced to [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. Kant became his favorite philosopher, his tutor stating: "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him." | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Early life and education"
]
| In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss [[ETH Zurich|Federal polytechnic school]] in [[Zürich]] (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination, but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school, he attended the [[Old Cantonal School Aarau|Argovian cantonal school]] ([[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]]) in [[Aarau]], Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of professor [[Jost Winteler]], he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. Albert's sister [[Maja Einstein|Maja]] later married Winteler's son Paul. In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his [[German citizenship|citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg]] to avoid [[Conscription in Germany|military service]]. In September 1896, he passed the Swiss [[Matura]] with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on [[Grading systems by country#Switzerland|a scale of 1–6]]. At 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, who was a year older, moved to [[Olsberg, Aargau|Olsberg]], Switzerland, for a teaching post. Einstein's future wife, a 20-year-old [[Serbs|Serbian]] named [[Mileva Marić]], also enrolled at the polytechnic school that year. She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance, and they spent countless hours debating and reading books together on extra-curricular physics in which they were both interested. Einstein wrote in his letters to Marić that he preferred studying alongside her. In 1900, Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics and was awarded the Federal teaching diploma. There is eyewitness evidence and several letters over many years that indicate Marić might have collaborated with Einstein prior to his 1905 papers, known as the [[Annus Mirabilis papers|''Annus Mirabilis'' papers]], and that they developed some of the concepts together during their studies, although some historians of physics who have studied the issue disagree that she made any substantive contributions. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Marriages and children"
]
| Early correspondence between Einstein and Marić was discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that the couple had a daughter named [[Lieserl Einstein|"Lieserl"]], born in early 1902 in [[Novi Sad]] where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. The contents of Einstein's letter in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of [[scarlet fever]] in infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son [[Hans Albert Einstein]] was born in [[Bern]], Switzerland. Their son [[Einstein family#Eduard "Tete" Einstein (Albert's son)|Eduard]] was born in Zürich in July 1910. The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Marić returned to Zürich with their sons after learning that despite their close relationship before, Einstein's chief romantic attraction was now his cousin [[Elsa Einstein|Elsa Löwenthal]]; she was his first cousin maternally and the second cousin paternally. They divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein transferred his Nobel Prize fund to Marić when he won it. Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with [[schizophrenia]]. His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally being committed permanently after her death. In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings for her. He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: "I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be." He spoke about a "misguided love" and a "missed life" regarding his love for Marie. Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919, after having a relationship with her since 1912. They emigrated to the United States in 1933. Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936. In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam. In a volume of letters released by [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] in 2006, Einstein described about six women, including Margarete Lebach (a blonde Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while being married to Elsa. Later, after the death of his second wife Elsa, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova. Konenkova was a Russian spy who was married to the noted Russian sculptor [[Sergei Konenkov]] (who created the bronze bust of Einstein at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] at Princeton). | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Patent office"
]
| After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He acquired [[Switzerland|Swiss]] citizenship in February 1901, but was not [[conscription in Switzerland|conscripted]] for medical reasons. With the help of [[Marcel Grossmann]]'s father, he secured a job in [[Bern]] at the [[Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property|Swiss Patent Office]], the patent office, as an [[Patent examiner|assistant examiner – level III]]. Einstein evaluated [[patent application]] for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter. In 1903, his position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology". Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the [[Einstein's thought experiments|thought experiments]] that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time. With a few friends he had met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902, self-mockingly named "[[Olympia Academy|The Olympia Academy]]", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Sometimes they were joined by Mileva who attentively listened but did not participate. Their readings included the works of [[Henri Poincaré]], [[Ernst Mach]], and [[David Hume]], which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"First scientific papers"
]
| In 1900, Einstein's paper [[List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein#Journal articles|"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen"]] ("Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena") was published in the journal ''[[Annalen der Physik]]''. On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with [[Alfred Kleiner]], Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as ''[[Pro forma|pro-forma]]'' advisor. As a result, Einstein was awarded a PhD by the [[University of Zürich]], with his dissertation ''A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions''. Also in 1905, which has been called Einstein's ''[[annus mirabilis]]'' (amazing year), he published [[Annus Mirabilis papers|four groundbreaking papers]], on the [[photoelectric effect]], [[Brownian motion]], [[special relativity]], and the [[equivalence of mass and energy]], which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Academic career"
]
| By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the [[University of Bern]]. The following year, after he gave a lecture on [[electrodynamics]] and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich, [[Alfred Kleiner]] recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909. Einstein became a full professor at the German [[Charles-Ferdinand University]] in [[Prague]] in April 1911, accepting [[Cisleithania|Austrian]] citizenship in the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] to do so. During his Prague stay, he wrote 11 scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids. In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914, he was a professor of theoretical physics at the [[ETH Zurich]], where he taught analytical mechanics and [[thermodynamics]]. He also studied [[continuum mechanics]], the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend [[Marcel Grossmann]]. When the "[[Manifesto of the Ninety-Three]]" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German intellectuals that justified Germany's militarism and position during the First World War—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to rebut its contents and sign the pacifistic "[[Manifesto to the Europeans]]". On 3 July 1913, he became a member of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]] in Berlin. [[Max Planck]] and [[Walther Nernst]] visited him the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, additionally offering him the post of director at the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics]], which was soon to be established. Membership in the academy included paid salary and professorship without teaching duties at [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]. He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July, and he moved to Berlin the following year. His decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near his cousin Elsa, with whom he had started a romantic affair. He joined the academy and thus Berlin University on 1 April 1914. As World War I broke out that year, the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics was aborted. The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its director. In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the [[German Physical Society]] (1916–1918). Based on calculations Einstein had made in 1911 using his new theory of general relativity, [[Gravitational lens|light from another star should be bent]] by the Sun's gravity. In 1919, that prediction was confirmed by Sir [[Arthur Eddington]] during the [[solar eclipse of 29 May 1919]]. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world-famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper ''[[The Times]]'' printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown". | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Academic career"
]
| In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". While the [[General relativity|general theory of relativity]] was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat even the cited photoelectric work as an ''explanation'' but merely as a ''discovery of the law'', as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the [[Planck spectrum]] by [[S. N. Bose]]. Einstein was elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1921|Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921]]. He also received the [[Copley Medal]] from the [[Royal Society]] in 1925. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"1921–1922: Travels abroad"
]
| Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor [[John Francis Hylan]], followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at [[Columbia University]] and [[Princeton University]], and in Washington, he accompanied representatives of the [[National Academy of Science]] on a visit to the [[White House]]. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher [[Viscount Haldane]] in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual, and political figures, and delivered a lecture at [[King's College London]]. He also published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], who published his own impressions in ''[[Democracy in America]]'' (1835). For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: "What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy." In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited [[Singapore]], [[Ceylon]] and [[Japan]], where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace|Imperial Palace]], where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons, he described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and having a true feel for art. In his own travel diaries from his 1922–23 visit to Asia, he expresses some views on the Chinese, Japanese and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they were rediscovered in 2018. Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was made by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist. On his return voyage, he visited [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]] for 12 days, his only visit to that region. He was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, [[Sir Herbert Samuel]]. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. Einstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly met [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] and also received a diploma from [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|King Alfonso XIII]] naming him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"1921–1922: Travels abroad"
]
| From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the [[International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]] of the [[League of Nations]] in [[Geneva]] (with a few months of interruption in 1923–1924), a body created to promote international exchange between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists, and intellectuals. Originally slated to serve as the Swiss delegate, Secretary-General [[Eric Drummond]] was persuaded by Catholic activists [[Oskar Halecki]] and [[Giuseppe Motta]] to instead have him become the German delegate, thus allowing [[Gonzague de Reynold]] to take the Swiss spot, from which he promoted traditionalist Catholic values. Einstein's former physics professor [[Hendrik Lorentz]] and the Polish chemist [[Marie Curie]] were also members of the committee. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"1930–1931: Travel to the US"
]
| In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the [[California Institute of Technology]]. After the national attention, he received during his first trip to the US, he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including [[Chinatown, Manhattan|Chinatown]], a lunch with the editors of ''The New York Times'', and a performance of ''Carmen'' at the [[Metropolitan Opera]], where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor [[Jimmy Walker]] and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind". [[Harry Emerson Fosdick]], pastor at New York's [[Riverside Church]], gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at [[Madison Square Garden]] during a [[Hanukkah]] celebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he met [[Caltech]] president and Nobel laureate [[Robert A. Millikan]]. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced [[Pacifism|pacifist]]. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author [[Upton Sinclair]] and film star [[Charlie Chaplin]], both noted for their pacifism. [[Carl Laemmle]], head of [[Universal Studios]], gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy". Chaplin's film, ''[[City Lights]]'', was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. [[Walter Isaacson]], Einstein's biographer, described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity". Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis". | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"1933: Emigration to the US"
]
| In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] under Germany's new chancellor, [[Adolf Hitler]]. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the [[California Institute of Technology]] in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the [[Gestapo]] repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin. He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag passed the [[Enabling Act of 1933|Enabling Act]], which was passed on 23 March and transformed Hitler's government into a ''de facto'' legal dictatorship and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on they heard that their cottage was raided by the Nazis and his personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in [[Antwerp]], Belgium on 28 March, he immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a [[Hitler Youth]] camp. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"1933: Emigration to the US",
"Refugee status"
]
| In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian [[Gerald Holton]] describes how, with "virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the [[German Student Union]] in the [[Nazi book burnings]], with Nazi propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head. In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend [[Max Born]], who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise." After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander [[Oliver Locker-Lampson]], who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his home in a wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of . To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him at his secluded cabin, with a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein, published in the ''Daily Herald'' on 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet [[Winston Churchill]] at his home, and later, [[Austen Chamberlain]] and former Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George|Lloyd George]]. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian [[Martin Gilbert]] notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist [[Frederick Lindemann, 1st Viscount Cherwell|Frederick Lindemann]], to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities. Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their "technical standards" and put [[Allies of World War II|the Allies]]' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including [[Turkey]]'s Prime Minister, [[İsmet İnönü]], to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals". | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"1933: Emigration to the US",
"Refugee status"
]
| Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere. In his speech he described Einstein as a "citizen of the world" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK. Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the [[Institute for Advanced Study]], in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], US, to become a resident scholar. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"1933: Emigration to the US",
"Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study"
]
| In October 1933, Einstein returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany. At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their [[Jewish quota]], which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including [[Christ Church, Oxford]] where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5-year studentship, but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955. He was one of the four first selected (two of the others being [[John von Neumann]] and [[Kurt Gödel]]) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. [[Bruria Kaufman]], his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a [[unified field theory]] and to refute the [[Copenhagen interpretation|accepted interpretation]] of [[quantum physics]], both unsuccessfully. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"1933: Emigration to the US",
"World War II and the Manhattan Project"
]
| In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist [[Leó Szilárd]] attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as [[Edward Teller]] and [[Eugene Wigner]], "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the [[German nuclear energy project|race to build an atomic bomb]], and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon." To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered. He was asked to lend his support by writing [[Einstein–Szilárd letter|a letter]], with Szilárd, to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the [[Belgian Royal Family]] and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the [[Manhattan Project]]. For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles. In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, [[Linus Pauling]], "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..." In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]], signed [[Russell–Einstein Manifesto|a manifesto]] highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"1933: Emigration to the US",
"US citizenship"
]
| Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the [[meritocracy]] in American culture when compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein joined the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the [[Civil rights movement (1896–1954)|civil rights]] of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease", seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next". As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951. When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946 Einstein visited [[Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)|Lincoln University]] in Pennsylvania, a [[historically black college]], where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to [[African Americans]]; alumni include [[Langston Hughes]] and [[Thurgood Marshall]]. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, "I do not intend to be quiet about it." A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student. Einstein has said "Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination". | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Personal life",
"Assisting Zionist causes"
]
| Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], which opened in 1925 and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the [[World Zionist Organization]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], to help raise funds for the planned university. He also submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs. Among those, he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land. That should be followed, he suggested, by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology, to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as [[malaria]], which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development. Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic, for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, was also important. Einstein was not a [[Nationalism|nationalist]]; he was against the creation of an independent Jewish state, which would be established without his help as [[Israel]] in 1948. Einstein felt that Jews could live alongside native Arabs in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. His views were not shared by the majority of Jews seeking to form a new country; as a result, Einstein was limited to a marginal role in the [[Zionism|Zionist movement]]. Chaim Weizmann later became Israel's first president. Upon his death while in office in November 1952 and at the urging of [[Ezriel Carlebach]], Prime Minister [[David Ben-Gurion]] offered Einstein the position of [[President of Israel]], a mostly ceremonial post. The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, [[Abba Eban]], who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons". Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Personal life",
"Love of music"
]
| Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: "If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music... I get most joy in life out of music." His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the [[violin]], not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into [[German culture]]. According to conductor [[Leon Botstein]], Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. When he turned 13, he discovered the [[Mozart violin sonatas|violin sonatas of Mozart]], whereupon he became enamored of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty." At age 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing [[Beethoven's violin sonatas (disambiguation)|Beethoven's violin sonatas]]. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student." Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played [[chamber music]] were a few professionals, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the [[Köchel catalog]] of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by [[Alfred Einstein]], who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and Mozart's works with members of the [[Zoellner Quartet]]. Near the end of his life, when the young [[Juilliard Quartet]] visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was "impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation". | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Personal life",
"Political and religious views"
]
| In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the [[German Democratic Party]], a [[Liberalism|liberal]] party. However, later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of [[socialism]] and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "[[Why Socialism?]]" His opinions on the [[Bolsheviks]] also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more balanced view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on [[Vladimir Lenin]]: "In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience." Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic [[World government|global government]] that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation. The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], with whom he exchanged written letters. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come". Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews. Einstein stated that he had sympathy for the impersonal [[Pantheism|pantheistic]] God of [[Spinozism|Baruch Spinoza's philosophy]]. He did not believe in a [[personal god]] who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. He clarified, however, that "I am not an atheist", preferring to call himself an [[Agnosticism|agnostic]], or a "deeply religious nonbeliever". When asked if he believed in an [[afterlife]], Einstein replied, "No. And one life is enough for me." Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious [[Secular humanist|humanist]] and [[Ethical Culture]] groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the [[First Humanist Society of New York]], and was an honorary associate of the [[Rationalist Association]], which publishes ''[[New Humanist]]'' in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the [[New York Society for Ethical Culture]], he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity." | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Personal life",
"Political and religious views"
]
| In a German-language letter to philosopher [[Eric Gutkind]], dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:The word [[God (word)|God]] is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the [[Bible]] a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the [[Jewish religion]] like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the [[Jewish people]] to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything '[[Jews as the chosen people|chosen]]' about them. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Life and career",
"Death"
]
| On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced [[internal bleeding]] caused by the rupture of an [[abdominal aortic aneurysm]], which had previously been reinforced surgically by [[Rudolph Nissen]] in 1948. He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly." He died in [[Princeton Hospital]] early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, [[Thomas Stoltz Harvey]], removed [[Albert Einstein's brain|Einstein's brain]] for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the [[neuroscience]] of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so [[human intelligence|intelligent]]. Einstein's remains were [[Cremation|cremated]] in [[Trenton, New Jersey|Trenton]], New Jersey, and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at [[UNESCO]] headquarters, nuclear physicist [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]] summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn." | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career"
]
| Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones. On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "[[genius]]". In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the [[Bose–Einstein statistics]], the [[Einstein refrigerator]] and others. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"1905 – ''Annus Mirabilis'' papers"
]
| The [[Annus Mirabilis papers|''Annus Mirabilis'' papers]] are four articles pertaining to the [[photoelectric effect]] (which gave rise to [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]]), [[Brownian motion]], the [[special theory of relativity]], and [[Mass–energy equivalence|E = mc]] that Einstein published in the ''Annalen der Physik'' scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of [[History of physics#Modern physics|modern physics]] and changed views on [[space]], time, and [[matter]]. The four papers are: | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"Statistical mechanics",
"Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics"
]
| Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to ''Annalen der Physik'' was on [[capillary attraction]]. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret [[atom]] phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"Statistical mechanics",
"Theory of critical opalescence"
]
| Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to [[Rayleigh scattering]], which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"Special relativity"
]
| Einstein's "''Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper''" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between [[Maxwell's equations]] (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics. Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the [[speed of light]]). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. There is evidence from Einstein's writings that he collaborated with his first wife, Mileva Marić, on this work. The decision to publish only under his name seems to have been mutual, but the exact reason is unknown. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to [[Time dilation|slow down]], and the body itself would [[Length contraction|contract]] in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a [[luminiferous aether]]—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper on [[mass–energy equivalence]], Einstein produced ''E'' = ''mc'' as a consequence of his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with [[Max Planck]]. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of [[kinematics]] (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, [[Hermann Minkowski]] reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of [[spacetime]]. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 [[General relativity|general theory of relativity]]. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"General relativity",
"General relativity and the equivalence principle"
]
| General relativity (GR) is a [[theory of gravitation]] that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to [[general relativity]], the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of [[spacetime|space and time]] by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern [[astrophysics]]. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of [[black holes]], regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within [[special relativity]] was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that [[free fall]] is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the [[equivalence principle]]. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of [[gravitational time dilation]], [[gravitational redshift]] and [[Gravitational lensing|deflection of light]]. In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"General relativity",
"Gravitational waves"
]
| In 1916, Einstein predicted [[gravitational wave]], ripples in the [[curvature]] of spacetime which propagate as [[wave]], traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its [[Lorentz invariance]] which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|Newtonian theory of gravitation]], which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting [[neutron stars]], [[PSR B1913+16]]. The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at [[LIGO]] published the [[first observation of gravitational waves]], detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"General relativity",
"Hole argument and Entwurf theory"
]
| While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the [[gauge invariance]] in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the [[hole argument]] was mistaken and abandoned the theory in November 1915. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"General relativity",
"Physical cosmology"
]
| In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the [[cosmological constant]], to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of [[Mach's principle]] in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or [[Einstein's static universe]]. Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by [[Edwin Hubble]] in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, [[The Friedmann-Einstein universe]] of 1931 and the [[Einstein–de Sitter universe]] of 1932. In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was "in any case theoretically unsatisfactory". In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder". The astrophysicist [[Mario Livio]] has recently cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that it may be exaggerated. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist [[Cormac O'Raifeartaigh]] discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a [[Steady State theory|steady-state model]] of the universe. In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant. As he stated in the paper, "In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [''sic''] facts, and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space." It thus appears that Einstein considered a [[Steady State theory|steady-state model]] of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"General relativity",
"Energy momentum pseudotensor"
]
| General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. [[Noether's theorem]] allows these quantities to be determined from a [[Lagrangian (field theory)|Lagrangian]] with [[Translational symmetry|translation invariance]], but [[general covariance]] makes translation invariance into something of a [[gauge symmetry]]. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by [[Lev Landau]] and [[Evgeny Lifshitz]], and others, and has become standard. The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by [[Erwin Schrödinger]] and others. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"General relativity",
"Wormholes"
]
| In 1935, Einstein collaborated with [[Nathan Rosen]] to produce a model of a [[wormhole]], often called [[Einstein–Rosen bridges]]. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted [[Schwarzschild black hole]] to make a bridge between two patches. If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"General relativity",
"Einstein–Cartan theory"
]
| In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the [[Torsion tensor|torsion]]. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"General relativity",
"Equations of motion"
]
| The theory of general relativity has a fundamental lawthe [[Einstein field equations]], which describe how space curves. The [[geodesic equation]], which describes how particles move, may be derived from the Einstein field equations. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself. This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by [[Roy Kerr]] for spinning objects. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"Old quantum theory",
"Photons and energy quanta"
]
| In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (''[[quantum|quanta]]''). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with [[Robert Millikan]]'s detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of [[Compton scattering]]. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency ''f'' is associated with a collection of [[photon]] with energy ''hf'' each, where ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]]. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"Old quantum theory",
"Quantized atomic vibrations"
]
| In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. [[Peter Debye]] refined this model. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"Old quantum theory",
"Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables"
]
| Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After [[Ernest Rutherford]] discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the [[periodic table of the elements]]. Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments [[Wilhelm Wien]] had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of [[adiabatic invariant|adiabatic invariance]] of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the [[blackbody radiation|blackbody curves]] at different temperature to be derived from one another by a [[Wien's displacement law|simple shifting process]]. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] identified this adiabatic invariant as the [[action-angle variables|action variable]] of classical mechanics. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
[
"Scientific career",
"Old quantum theory",
"Bose–Einstein statistics"
]
| In 1924, Einstein received a description of a [[statistical mechanics|statistical]] model from Indian physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the ''[[Zeitschrift für Physik]]''. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the [[Bose–Einstein condensate]] phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by [[Eric Allin Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] using [[ultracold atom|ultra-cooling]] equipment built at the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]]–[[JILA]] laboratory at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]]. Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of [[boson]]. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. | 736 | Albert Einstein | [
"Albert Einstein",
"1879 births",
"1955 deaths",
"20th-century American engineers",
"20th-century American physicists",
"20th-century American writers",
"20th-century German physicists",
"Activists from New Jersey",
"American agnostics",
"American anti-capitalists",
"American humanists",
"American inventors",
"American letter writers",
"American Nobel laureates",
"American pacifists",
"American relativity theorists",
"American science writers",
"American socialists",
"American Zionists",
"Articles containing timelines",
"Ashkenazi Jews",
"Charles University faculty",
"Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)",
"Cosmologists",
"Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm",
"Determinists",
"Disease-related deaths in New Jersey",
"Einstein family",
"ETH Zurich alumni",
"ETH Zurich faculty",
"European democratic socialists",
"Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences",
"Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy",
"Foreign Members of the Royal Society",
"German agnostics",
"German anti-capitalists",
"German emigrants to Switzerland",
"German humanists",
"German inventors",
"German Jews",
"German Nobel laureates",
"German relativity theorists",
"German socialists",
"Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences",
"Institute for Advanced Study faculty",
"Jewish agnostics",
"Jewish American physicists",
"Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States",
"Jewish inventors",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"Jewish physicists",
"Jewish socialists",
"Leiden University faculty",
"Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen",
"Members of the American Philosophical Society",
"Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences",
"Members of the Lincean Academy",
"Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences",
"Naturalised citizens of Austria",
"Naturalised citizens of Switzerland",
"Naturalized citizens of the United States",
"New Jersey socialists",
"Nobel laureates in Physics",
"Pantheists",
"Patent examiners",
"People from Princeton, New Jersey",
"People who lost German citizenship",
"Philosophers of mathematics",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophy of science",
"Quantum physicists",
"Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)",
"Scientists from Munich",
"Spinozists",
"Stateless people",
"Swiss agnostics",
"Swiss emigrants to the United States",
"Swiss Jews",
"Swiss physicists",
"Winners of the Max Planck Medal",
"World federalists"
]
| [
"List of peace activists",
"Albert Einstein House",
"Heinrich Burkhardt",
"List of German inventors and discoverers",
"History of gravitational theory",
"Einstein notation",
"Princeton University",
"Jewish Nobel laureates",
"The Einstein Theory of Relativity",
"List of coupled cousins",
"Frist Campus Center",
"Sticky bead argument",
"Relativity priority dispute",
"Einstein's thought experiments",
"Bern Historical Museum"
]
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.