headers
listlengths 0
4
| text
stringlengths 54
5.14k
| id
stringclasses 129
values | title
stringclasses 129
values | categories
listlengths 0
83
| seealso
listlengths 0
35
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[
"Water characteristics",
"Water masses"
]
| The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper [[water mass]] with distinct temperature and salinity. The Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water in the northernmost North Atlantic is the source for Subarctic Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Intermediate Water. North Atlantic Central Water can be divided into the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water since the western part is strongly affected by the Gulf Stream and therefore the upper layer is closer to underlying fresher subpolar intermediate water. The eastern water is saltier because of its proximity to Mediterranean Water. North Atlantic Central Water flows into South Atlantic Central Water at [[15th parallel north|15°N]]. There are five intermediate waters: four low-salinity waters formed at subpolar latitudes and one high-salinity formed through evaporation. Arctic Intermediate Water, flows from north to become the source for North Atlantic Deep Water south of the Greenland-Scotland sill. These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins. The wide range of salinities in the North Atlantic is caused by the asymmetry of the northern subtropical [[gyre]] and the large number of contributions from a wide range of sources: Labrador Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea, Mediterranean, and South Atlantic Intermediate Water. The [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] (NADW) is a complex of four water masses, two that form by deep convection in the open ocean — Classical and Upper Labrador Sea Water — and two that form from the inflow of dense water across the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland sill — Denmark Strait and Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water. Along its path across Earth the composition of the NADW is affected by other water masses, especially [[Antarctic Bottom Water]] and Mediterranean Overflow Water. The NADW is fed by a flow of warm shallow water into the northern North Atlantic which is responsible for the anomalous warm climate in Europe. Changes in the formation of NADW have been linked to global climate changes in the past. Since man-made substances were introduced into the environment, the path of the NADW can be traced throughout its course by measuring tritium and radiocarbon from [[nuclear weapon test]] in the 1960s and [[chlorofluorocarbon|CFCs]]. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Water characteristics",
"Gyres"
]
| The clockwise warm-water [[North Atlantic Gyre]] occupies the northern Atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm-water [[South Atlantic Gyre]] appears in the southern Atlantic. In the North Atlantic, surface circulation is dominated by three inter-connected currents: the [[Gulf Stream]] which flows north-east from the North American coast at [[Cape Hatteras]]; the [[North Atlantic Current]], a branch of the Gulf Stream which flows northward from the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland|Grand Banks]]; and the [[Subpolar Front]], an extension of the North Atlantic Current, a wide, vaguely defined region separating the subtropical gyre from the subpolar gyre. This system of currents transport warm water into the North Atlantic, without which temperatures in the North Atlantic and Europe would plunge dramatically. North of the North Atlantic Gyre, the cyclonic [[North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre]] plays a key role in climate variability. It is governed by ocean currents from marginal seas and regional topography, rather than being steered by wind, both in the deep ocean and at sea level. The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global [[thermohaline circulation]]. Its eastern portion includes [[Eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddying]] branches of the [[North Atlantic Current]] which transport warm, saline waters from the subtropics to the north-eastern Atlantic. There this water is cooled during winter and forms return currents that merge along the eastern continental slope of Greenland where they form an intense (40–50 [[Sverdrup|Sv]]) current which flows around the continental margins of the [[Labrador Sea]]. A third of this water becomes part of the deep portion of the [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] (NADW). The NADW, in its turn, feeds the [[meridional overturning circulation]] (MOC), the northward heat transport of which is threatened by anthropogenic climate change. Large variations in the subpolar gyre on a decade-century scale, associated with the [[North Atlantic oscillation]], are especially pronounced in [[Labrador Sea Water]], the upper layers of the MOC. The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre. The [[South Atlantic Central Water]] originates in this gyre, while [[Antarctic Intermediate Water]] originates in the upper layers of the circumpolar region, near the [[Drake Passage]] and the Falkland Islands. Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean. On the African east coast, the small cyclonic [[Angola Gyre]] lies embedded in the large subtropical gyre. The southern subtropical gyre is partly masked by a wind-induced [[Ekman layer]]. The residence time of the gyre is 4.4–8.5 years. [[North Atlantic Deep Water]] flows southward below the [[thermocline]] of the subtropical gyre. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Water characteristics",
"Sargasso Sea"
]
| The Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic can be defined as the area where two species of ''[[Sargassum]]'' (''S. fluitans'' and ''natans'') float, an area wide and encircled by the [[Gulf Stream]], [[North Atlantic Drift]], and [[North Equatorial Current]]. This population of seaweed probably originated from Tertiary ancestors on the European shores of the former [[Tethys Ocean]] and has, if so, maintained itself by [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetative growth]], floating in the ocean for millions of years. Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include the [[sargassum fish]], a predator with algae-like appendages which hovers motionless among the ''Sargassum''. Fossils of similar fishes have been found in fossil bays of the former Tethys Ocean, in what is now the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] region, that were similar to the Sargasso Sea. It is possible that the population in the Sargasso Sea migrated to the Atlantic as the Tethys closed at the end of the Miocene around 17 Ma. The origin of the Sargasso fauna and flora remained enigmatic for centuries. The fossils found in the Carpathians in the mid-20th century often called the "quasi-Sargasso assemblage", finally showed that this assemblage originated in the [[Carpathian Basin]] from where it migrated over [[Sicily]] to the Central Atlantic where it evolved into modern species of the Sargasso Sea. The location of the spawning ground for European eels [[Eel life history#Search for the spawning grounds|remained unknown for decades]]. In the early 19th century it was discovered that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground for both the [[European eel|European]] and [[American eel]] and that the former migrate more than and the latter . Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream transport eel larvae from the Sargasso Sea to foraging areas in North America, Europe, and Northern Africa. Recent but disputed research suggests that eels possibly use [[Earth's magnetic field]] to navigate through the ocean both as larvae and as adults. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Climate"
]
| Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence the climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas. The [[Gulf Stream]] and its northern extension towards Europe, the [[North Atlantic Current|North Atlantic Drift]] is thought to have at least some influence on climate. For example, the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline of southeastern North America, keeping it warmer in winter along the coast than inland areas. The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from occurring on the Florida Peninsula. In the higher latitudes, the North Atlantic Drift, warms the atmosphere over the oceans, keeping the British Isles and north-western Europe mild and cloudy, and not severely cold in winter like other locations at the same high latitude. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]] area) and Africa's north-western coast. In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Climate",
"Natural hazards"
]
| Every winter, the [[Icelandic Low]] produces frequent storms. [[Iceberg]] are common from early February to the end of July across the shipping lanes near the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]]. The ice season is longer in the polar regions, but there is little shipping in those areas. [[Atlantic hurricane|Hurricanes]] are a hazard in the western parts of the North Atlantic during the summer and autumn. Due to a consistently strong [[wind shear]] and a weak [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]], [[South Atlantic tropical cyclone]] are rare. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Geology and plate tectonics"
]
| The Atlantic Ocean is underlain mostly by dense [[mafic]] oceanic crust made up of [[basalt]] and [[gabbro]] and overlain by fine clay, silt and siliceous ooze on the abyssal plain. The continental margins and continental shelf mark lower density, but greater thickness [[felsic]] continental rock that often much older than that of the seafloor. The oldest oceanic crust in the Atlantic is up to 145 million years and situated off the west coast of Africa and east coast of North America, or on either side of the South Atlantic. In many places, the continental shelf and continental slope are covered in thick sedimentary layers. For instance, on the North American side of the ocean, large carbonate deposits formed in warm shallow waters such as Florida and the Bahamas, while coarse river outwash sands and silt are common in shallow shelf areas like the [[Georges Bank]]. Coarse sand, boulders, and rocks were transported into some areas, such as off the coast of Nova Scotia or the [[Gulf of Maine]] during the [[Pleistocene]] ice ages. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Geology and plate tectonics",
"Central Atlantic"
]
| The break-up of Pangaea began in the Central Atlantic, between North America and Northwest Africa, where rift basins opened during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. This period also saw the first stages of the uplift of the Atlas Mountains. The exact timing is controversial with estimates ranging from 200 to 170 Ma. The opening of the Atlantic Ocean coincided with the initial break-up of the supercontinent [[Pangaea]], both of which were initiated by the eruption of the [[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]] (CAMP), one of the most extensive and voluminous [[large igneous province]] in Earth's history associated with the [[Triassic–Jurassic extinction event]], one of Earth's major [[extinction event]]. Theoliitic [[Dike (geology)|dikes]], [[Aquatic sill|sills]], and lava flows from the CAMP eruption at 200 Ma have been found in West Africa, eastern North America, and northern South America. The extent of the volcanism has been estimated to of which covered what is now northern and central Brazil. The formation of the [[Central American Isthmus]] closed the [[Central American Seaway]] at the end of the Pliocene 2.8 Ma ago. The formation of the isthmus resulted in the migration and extinction of many land-living animals, known as the [[Great American Interchange]], but the closure of the seaway resulted in a "Great American Schism" as it affected ocean currents, salinity, and temperatures in both the Atlantic and Pacific. Marine organisms on both sides of the isthmus became isolated and either diverged or went extinct. Geologically, the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to the south by two conjugate margins, Newfoundland and Iberia, and to the north by the Arctic [[Eurasian Basin]]. The opening of the Northern Atlantic closely followed the margins of its predecessor, the [[Iapetus Ocean]], and spread from the Central Atlantic in six stages: [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]–[[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], [[Porcupine Bank|Porcupine]]–North America, Eurasia–Greenland, Eurasia–North America. Active and inactive spreading systems in this area are marked by the interaction with the [[Iceland hotspot]]. Seafloor spreading led to the extension of the crust and formations of troughs and sedimentary basins. The Rockall Trough opened between 105 and 84 million years ago although along the rift failed along with one leading into the [[Bay of Biscay]]. Spreading began opening the [[Labrador Sea]] around 61 million years ago, continuing until 36 million years ago. Geologists distinguish two magmatic phases. One from 62 to 58 million years ago predates the separation of Greenland from northern Europe while the second from 56 to 52 million years ago happened as the separation occurred. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Geology and plate tectonics",
"Central Atlantic"
]
| Iceland began to form 62 million years ago due to a particularly concentrated mantle plume. Large quantities of [[basalt]] erupted at this time period are found on Baffin Island, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Scotland, with ash falls in Western Europe acting as a stratigraphic marker. The opening of the North Atlantic caused significant uplift of continental crust along the coast. For instance, in spite of 7 km thick basalt, Gunnbjorn Field in East Greenland is the highest point on the island, elevated enough that it exposes older Mesozoic sedimentary rocks at its base, similar to old lava fields above sedimentary rocks in the uplifted Hebrides of western Scotland. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Geology and plate tectonics",
"South Atlantic"
]
| West Gondwana (South America and Africa) broke up in the Early Cretaceous to form the South Atlantic. The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was also the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in 1965. This magnificent fit, however, has since then proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones along the shorelines to accommodate the northward-propagating break-up. Intra-continental rifts and deformations have also been introduced to subdivide both continental plates into sub-plates. Geologically the South Atlantic can be divided into four segments: Equatorial segment, from 10°N to the Romanche Fracture Zone (RFZ);; Central segment, from RFZ to Florianopolis Fracture Zone (FFZ, north of Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise); Southern segment, from FFZ to the Agulhas-Falkland Fracture Zone (AFFZ); and Falkland segment, south of AFFZ. In the southern segment the Early Cretaceous (133–130 Ma) intensive [[magmatism]] of the [[Paraná and Etendeka traps|Paraná–Etendeka Large Igneous Province]] produced by the [[Tristan hotspot]] resulted in an estimated volume of . It covered an area of in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay and in Africa. [[Dyke swarm]] in Brazil, Angola, eastern Paraguay, and Namibia, however, suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area and also indicate failed rifts in all these areas. Associated offshore basaltic flows reach as far south as the Falkland Islands and South Africa. Traces of magmatism in both offshore and onshore basins in the central and southern segments have been dated to 147–49 Ma with two peaks between 143 and 121 Ma and 90–60 Ma. In the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements between the Patagonia and Colorado sub-plates between the Early Jurassic (190 Ma) and the Early Cretaceous (126.7 Ma). Around 150 Ma sea-floor spreading propagated northward into the southern segment. No later than 130 Ma rifting had reached the Walvis Ridge–Rio Grande Rise. In the central segment rifting started to break Africa in two by opening the [[Benue Trough]] around 118 Ma. Rifting in the central segment, however, coincided with the [[Geomagnetic reversal#Superchrons|Cretaceous Normal Superchron]] (also known as the Cretaceous quiet period), a 40 Ma period without magnetic reversals, which makes it difficult to date sea-floor spreading in this segment. The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break-up, but, because it is located on the Equator, magnetic anomalies cannot be used for dating. Various estimates date the propagation of sea-floor spreading in this segment to the period 120–96 Ma. This final stage, nevertheless, coincided with or resulted in the end of continental extension in Africa. About 50 Ma the opening of the [[Drake Passage]] resulted from a change in the motions and separation rate of the South American and Antarctic plates. First small ocean basins opened and a shallow gateway appeared during the Middle Eocene. 34–30 Ma a deeper seaway developed, followed by an [[Eocene–Oligocene extinction event|Eocene–Oligocene climatic deterioration]] and the growth of the [[Antarctic ice sheet]]. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Geology and plate tectonics",
"Closure of the Atlantic"
]
| An embryonic subduction margin is potentially developing west of Gibraltar. The [[Gibraltar Arc]] in the western Mediterranean is migrating westward into the Central Atlantic where it joins the converging African and Eurasian plates. Together these three tectonic forces are slowly developing into a new subduction system in the eastern Atlantic Basin. Meanwhile, the [[Scotia Arc]] and [[Caribbean Plate]] in the western Atlantic Basin are eastward-propagating subduction systems that might, together with the Gibraltar system, represent the beginning of the closure of the Atlantic Ocean and the final stage of the Atlantic [[Wilson cycle]]. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"History",
"Human origin"
]
| [[Human evolution|Humans evolved]] in Africa; first by diverging from other apes around 7 mya; then developing stone tools around 2.6 mya; to finally evolve as [[Anatomically modern human|modern humans]] around 200 kya. The earliest evidence for the complex behavior associated with this [[behavioral modernity]] has been found in the Greater [[Cape Floristic Region]] (GCFR) along the coast of South Africa. During the latest glacial stages, the now-submerged plains of the [[Agulhas Bank]] were exposed above sea level, extending the South African coastline farther south by hundreds of kilometers. A small population of modern humans — probably fewer than a thousand reproducing individuals — survived glacial maxima by exploring the high diversity offered by these Palaeo-Agulhas plains. The GCFR is delimited to the north by the [[Cape Fold Belt]] and the limited space south of it resulted in the development of social networks out of which complex Stone Age technologies emerged. Human history thus begins on the coasts of South Africa where the Atlantic [[Benguela Current|Benguela Upwelling]] and Indian Ocean [[Agulhas Current]] meet to produce an intertidal zone on which shellfish, fur seal, fish and sea birds provided the necessary protein sources. The African origin of this modern behaviour is evidenced by 70,000 years-old engravings from [[Blombos Cave]], South Africa. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"History",
"Old World"
]
| [[Mitochondrial DNA]] (mtDNA) studies indicate that 80–60,000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa, derived from a single, small population, coincided with the emergence of behavioral complexity and the rapid [[Marine isotope stage|MIS]] 5–4 environmental changes. This group of people not only expanded over the whole of Africa, but also started to disperse [[Recent African origin of modern humans|out of Africa]] into Asia, Europe, and Australasia around 65,000 years ago and quickly replaced the archaic humans in these regions. During the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] (LGM) 20,000 years ago humans had to abandon their initial settlements along the European North Atlantic coast and retreat to the Mediterranean. Following rapid climate changes at the end of the LGM this region was repopulated by [[Magdalenian]] culture. Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted by large-scale hazards such as the [[Laacher See]] volcanic eruption, the inundation of [[Doggerland]] (now the [[North Sea]]), and the formation of the [[Baltic Sea]]. The European coasts of the North Atlantic were permanently populated about 9–8.5 thousand years ago. This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. 50 kya-old, deeply stratified [[shell midden]] found in [[Ysterfontein]] on the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age (MSA). The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations. While their middens resemble 12–11 kya-old Late Stone Age (LSA) middens found on every inhabited continent, the 50–45 kya-old [[Enkapune Ya Muto]] in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa. The same development can be seen in Europe. In [[La Riera Cave]] (23–13 kya) in Asturias, Spain, only some 26,600 molluscs were deposited over 10 kya. In contrast, 8–7 kya-old shell middens in Portugal, Denmark, and Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris and artefacts. The [[Ertebølle culture|Ertebølle]] middens in Denmark, for example, accumulated of shell deposits representing some 50 million molluscs over only a thousand years. This intensification in the exploitation of marine resources has been described as accompanied by new technologies — such as boats, harpoons, and fish-hooks — because many caves found in the Mediterranean and on the European Atlantic coast have increased quantities of marine shells in their upper levels and reduced quantities in their lower. The earliest exploitation, however, took place on the now submerged shelves, and most settlements now excavated were then located several kilometers from these shelves. The reduced quantities of shells in the lower levels can represent the few shells that were exported inland. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"History",
"New World"
]
| During the LGM the [[Laurentide Ice Sheet]] covered most of northern North America while [[Beringia]] connected Siberia to Alaska. In 1973 late American geoscientist [[Paul S. Martin]] proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of the Americas by which [[Clovis culture|Clovis hunters]] migrated into North America around 13,000 years ago in a single wave through an ice-free corridor in the ice sheet and "spread southward explosively, briefly attaining a density sufficiently large to overkill much of their prey." Others later proposed a "three-wave" migration over the [[Bering Land Bridge]]. These hypotheses remained the long-held view regarding the [[Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia|settlement of the Americas]], a view challenged by more recent archaeological discoveries: the oldest archaeological sites in the Americas have been found in South America; sites in north-east Siberia report virtually no human presence there during the LGM; and most Clovis artefacts have been found in eastern North America along the Atlantic coast. Furthermore, colonisation models based on mtDNA, [[yDNA]], and [[atDNA]] data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg" nor the "three-wave" hypotheses but they also deliver mutually ambiguous results. Contradictory data from archaeology and genetics will most likely deliver future hypotheses that will, eventually, confirm each other. A proposed route across the Pacific to South America could explain early South American finds and another hypothesis proposes a northern path, through the Canadian Arctic and down the North American Atlantic coast. Early settlements across the Atlantic have been suggested by alternative theories, ranging from purely hypothetical to mostly disputed, including the [[Solutrean hypothesis]] and some of the [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories]]. The [[Norse colonization of North America|Norse settlement]] of the [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Iceland]] began during the 9th and 10th centuries. A settlement on [[Greenland]] was established before 1000 CE, but contact with it was lost in 1409 and it was finally abandoned during the early [[Little Ice Age]]. This setback was caused by a range of factors: an unsustainable economy resulted in erosion and denudation, while conflicts with the local [[Inuit]] resulted in the failure to adapt their Arctic technologies; a colder climate resulted in starvation, and the colony got economically marginalized as the [[Great Plague]] and [[Barbary pirates]] harvested its victims on Iceland in the 15th century. Iceland was initially settled 865–930 CE following a warm period when winter temperatures hovered around which made farming favorable at high latitudes. This did not last, however, and temperatures quickly dropped; at 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum of . The ''[[Landnámabók]]'' (''Book of Settlement'') records disastrous famines during the first century of settlement — "men ate [[fox]] and [[raven]]" and "the old and helpless were killed and thrown over cliffs" — and by the early 1200s hay had to be abandoned for short-season crops such as [[barley]]. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"History",
"Atlantic World"
]
| [[Christopher Columbus]] [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|reached the Americas]] in 1492 under Spanish flag. Six years later [[Vasco da Gama]] reached India under the Portuguese flag, by navigating south around the [[Cape of Good Hope]], thus proving that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are connected. In 1500, in his voyage to India following Vasco da Gama, [[Pedro Alvares Cabral]] reached Brazil, taken by the currents of the [[South Atlantic Gyre]]. Following these explorations, Spain and Portugal quickly [[Colonization of the Americas|conquered and colonized]] large territories in the New World and forced the Amerindian population into slavery in order to explore the vast quantities of silver and gold they found. Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations out, but conflicting interests nevertheless led to a series of Spanish-Portuguese wars. A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping other colonial powers away. England, France, and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with [[Piracy in the Atlantic World|pirates]] such as [[Henry Mainwaring]] and [[Alexandre Exquemelin]]. They could explore the convoys leaving the Americas because prevailing winds and currents made the transport of heavy metals slow and predictable. In the colonies of the Americas, depredation, [[smallpox]] and others diseases, and [[slavery]] quickly reduced the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous population of the Americas]] to the extent that the [[Atlantic slave trade]] had to be introduced to replace them — a trade that became the norm and an integral part of the colonization. Between the 15th century and 1888, when [[Slavery in Brazil|Brazil]] became the last part of the Americas to end the slave trade, an estimated ten million Africans were exported as slaves, most of them destined for agricultural labour. The slave trade was officially abolished in the [[Slavery in the British Isles|British Empire]] and the [[Slavery in the United States|United States]] in 1808, and slavery itself was abolished in the British Empire in 1838 and in the United States in 1865 after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. From Columbus to the [[Industrial Revolution]] Trans-Atlantic trade, including colonialism and slavery, became crucial for Western Europe. For European countries with direct access to the Atlantic (including Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain) 1500–1800 was a period of sustained growth during which these countries grew richer than those in Eastern Europe and Asia. Colonialism evolved as part of the Trans-Atlantic trade, but this trade also strengthened the position of merchant groups at the expense of monarchs. Growth was more rapid in non-absolutist countries, such as Britain and the Netherlands, and more limited in [[Absolute monarchy|absolutist monarchies]], such as Portugal, Spain, and France, where profit mostly or exclusively benefited the monarchy and its allies. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"History",
"Atlantic World"
]
| Trans-Atlantic trade also resulted in increasing urbanization: in European countries facing the Atlantic, urbanization grew from 8% in 1300, 10.1% in 1500, to 24.5% in 1850; in other European countries from 10% in 1300, 11.4% in 1500, to 17% in 1850. Likewise, GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but rose by only 30% in the rest of Europe. By end of the 17th century, the volume of the Trans-Atlantic trade had surpassed that of the Mediterranean trade. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Economy"
]
| The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the [[sedimentary rock]] of the continental shelves. The Atlantic harbors petroleum and gas fields, fish, [[marine mammal]] ([[Pinniped|seals]] and whales), [[sand]] and [[gravel]] aggregates, [[placer deposit]], [[polymetallic nodules]], and precious stones. Gold deposits are a mile or two under water on the ocean floor, however, the deposits are also encased in rock that must be mined through. Currently, there is no cost-effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit. Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, [[marine debris]], and the [[incineration]] of toxic wastes at sea. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Fisheries"
]
| The [[Continental shelf|shelves]] of the Atlantic hosts one of the world's richest [[Wild fisheries|fishing resources]]. The most productive areas include the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]], the [[Scotian Shelf]], [[Georges Bank]] off [[Cape Cod]], the [[Bahama Banks]], the waters around Iceland, the [[Irish Sea]], the [[Bay of Fundy]], the [[Dogger Bank]] of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Fisheries have, however, undergone significant changes since the 1950s and global catches can now be divided into three groups of which only two are observed in the Atlantic: fisheries in the Eastern Central and South-West Atlantic oscillate around a globally stable value, the rest of the Atlantic is in overall decline following historical peaks. The third group, "continuously increasing trend since 1950", is only found in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific. In the North-East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in 2013. [[Blue whiting]] reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628,000 tons in 2013. Recovery plans for cod, sole, and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. [[Arctic cod]] reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s but is now recovered. [[Pollachius virens|Arctic saithe]] and [[haddock]] are considered fully fished; [[Sand eel]] is overfished as was [[capelin]] which has now recovered to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of [[redfish]] and deep-water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of [[northern shrimp]] and [[Norwegian lobster]] are in good condition. In the North-East Atlantic 21% of stocks are considered overfished. In the North-West Atlantic landings have decreased from 4.2 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.9 million tons in 2013. During the 21st century some species have shown weak signs of recovery, including [[Greenland halibut]], [[yellowtail flounder]], [[Atlantic halibut]], [[haddock]], [[spiny dogfish]], while other stocks shown no such signs, including cod, [[Witch (righteye flounder)|witch flounder]], and redfish. Stocks of invertebrates, in contrast, remain at record levels of abundance. 31% of stocks are overfished in the North-west Atlantic. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Fisheries"
]
| In 1497 [[John Cabot]] became the first [[Western European]] since the [[Vikings]] to explore mainland North America and one of his major discoveries was the abundant resources of [[Atlantic cod]] off [[Newfoundland]]. Referred to as "Newfoundland Currency" this discovery yielded some 200 million tons of fish over five centuries. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to exploit [[haddock]], [[mackerel]], and [[lobster]]. From the 1950s to the 1970s the introduction of European and Asian distant-water fleets in the area dramatically increased the fishing capacity and the number of exploited species. It also expanded the exploited areas from near-shore to the open sea and to great depths to include deep-water species such as [[Sebastes|redfish]], [[Greenland halibut]], witch flounder, and [[Grenadiers (fish)|grenadiers]]. [[Overfishing]] in the area was recognised as early as the 1960s but, because this was occurring on [[international waters]], it took until the late 1970s before any attempts to regulate was made. In the early 1990s, this finally resulted in the [[collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery]]. The population of a number of deep-sea fishes also collapsed in the process, including [[American plaice]], redfish, and Greenland halibut, together with flounder and grenadier. In the Eastern Central Atlantic small [[pelagic fish]] constitute about 50% of landings with sardine reaching 0.6–1.0 million tons per year. Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished or overfished, with sardines south of [[Cape Bojador]] the notable exception. Almost half of the stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the 1970s; reaching 3.9 million tons in 2013 or slightly less than the peak production in 2010. In the Western Central Atlantic, catches have been decreasing since 2000 and reached 1.3 million tons in 2013. The most important species in the area, [[Gulf menhaden]], reached a million tons in the mid-1980s but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished. [[Round sardinella]] was an important species in the 1990s but is now considered overfished. [[Grouper]] and [[Lutjanidae|snappers]] are overfished and [[northern brown shrimp]] and [[Eastern oyster|American cupped oyster]] are considered fully fished approaching overfished. 44% of stocks are being fished at unsustainable levels. In the South-East Atlantic catches have decreased from 3.3 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.3 million tons in 2013. [[Horse mackerel]] and [[hake]] are the most important species, together representing almost half of the landings. Off South Africa and Namibia [[Merluccius paradoxus|deep-water hake]] and [[Merluccius capensis|shallow-water Cape hake]] have recovered to sustainable levels since regulations were introduced in 2006 and the states of [[Southern African pilchard]] and [[Southern African anchovy|anchovy]] have improved to fully fished in 2013. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Fisheries"
]
| In the South-West Atlantic, a peak was reached in the mid-1980s and catches now fluctuate between 1.7 and 2.6 million tons. The most important species, the [[Illex argentinus|Argentine shortfin squid]], which reached half a million tons in 2013 or half the peak value, is considered fully fished to overfished. Another important species was the [[Brazilian sardinella]], with a production of 100,000 tons in 2013 it is now considered overfished. Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels: [[Whitehead's round herring]] has not yet reached fully fished but [[Cunene horse mackerel]] is overfished. The sea snail [[Haliotis midae|perlemoen abalone]] is targeted by illegal fishing and remain overfished. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Environmental issues",
"Endangered species"
]
| Endangered marine species include the [[manatee]], [[Pinniped|seals]], sea lions, turtles, and whales. [[Drift net]] fishing can kill dolphins, [[albatross]] and other seabirds ([[petrel]], [[auk]]), hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Environmental issues",
"Waste and pollution"
]
| [[Marine pollution]] is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture [[fertilizer]] chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to [[Hypoxia (environmental)|hypoxia]] and the creation of a [[dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]]. [[Marine debris]], which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of [[Oceanic gyres|gyres]] and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. The [[North Atlantic garbage patch]] is estimated to be hundreds of kilometers across in size. Other pollution concerns include agricultural and municipal waste. Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; [[oil pollution]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Lake Maracaibo]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], and [[North Sea]]; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. A USAF [[C-124 Globemaster II|C-124]] aircraft from [[Dover Air Force Base]], Delaware was carrying three [[nuclear bombs]] over the Atlantic Ocean when it experienced a loss of power. For their own safety, the crew jettisoned two nuclear bombs, which were never recovered. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[
"Environmental issues",
"Climate change"
]
| North Atlantic hurricane activity has increased over past decades because of increased sea surface temperature (SST) at tropical latitudes, changes that can be attributed to either the natural [[Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation]] (AMO) or to [[anthropogenic climate change]]. A 2005 report indicated that the Atlantic [[meridional overturning circulation]] (AMOC) slowed down by 30% between 1957 and 2004. If the AMO were responsible for SST variability, the AMOC would have increased in strength, which is apparently not the case. Furthermore, it is clear from statistical analyses of annual tropical cyclones that these changes do not display multidecadal cyclicity. Therefore, these changes in SST must be caused by human activities. The ocean [[mixed layer]] plays an important role in heat storage over seasonal and decadal time-scales, whereas deeper layers are affected over millennia and have a heat capacity about 50 times that of the mixed layer. This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change but it also results in thermal expansion of the oceans which contributes to [[sea level rise]]. 21st-century global warming will probably result in an [[equilibrium level|equilibrium sea-level]] rise five times greater than today, whilst melting of glaciers, including that of the Greenland ice-sheet, expected to have virtually no effect during the 21st century, will probably result in a sea-level rise of 3–6 m over a millennium. | 698 | Atlantic Ocean | [
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Oceans",
"History of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Landforms of the Atlantic Ocean",
"Articles containing video clips"
]
| [
"Transatlantic crossing",
"Seven Seas",
"Gulf Stream shutdown",
"Atlantic hurricanes",
"Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc",
"List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean",
"Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean"
]
|
[]
| '''Arthur Schopenhauer''' (; ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a [[Germans|German]] [[philosopher]]. He is best known for his 1818 work ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the [[Phenomenon|phenomenal]] world as the product of a blind and insatiable [[Schopenhauer#The world as will|noumenal will]]. Building on the [[transcendental idealism]] of [[Immanuel Kant]], Schopenhauer developed an [[atheistic]] metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of [[German idealism]]. He was among the first thinkers in [[Western philosophy]] to share and affirm significant tenets of [[Indian philosophy]], such as [[asceticism]], denial of the [[self (philosophy)|self]], and the notion of the [[Maya (religion)|world-as-appearance]]. His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of [[philosophical pessimism]]. Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his lifetime, Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact across various disciplines, including [[philosophy]], [[literature]], and [[science]]. His writing on [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics|aesthetics]], [[morality]], and [[psychology]] have influenced many thinkers and artists. Those who have cited his influence include philosophers such as [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], and [[Anthony Ludovici]], scientists such as [[Erwin Schrödinger]] and [[Albert Einstein]], psychoanalysts such as [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], writers such as [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Herman Melville]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Machado de Assis]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[John Patric]], [[Marcel Proust]], [[Thomas Hardy]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]] and [[Samuel Beckett]] as well as composers such as [[Richard Wagner]], [[Johannes Brahms]], [[Arnold Schoenberg]] and [[Gustav Mahler]]. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Early life"
]
| Schopenhauer was born on 22 February 1788, in Danzig (then part of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]; present-day [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]]) on Heiligegeistgasse (present day Św. Ducha 47), the son of [[Johanna Schopenhauer]] (née Trosiener) (1766-1838) and Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer (1747-1805), both descendants of wealthy German-Dutch [[Patrician (post-Roman Europe)|patrician]] families. Neither of them was very religious; both supported the [[French Revolution]], and were [[Republicanism|republicans]], [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitans]] and [[Anglophilia|Anglophiles]]. When Danzig became part of [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] in 1793, Heinrich moved to [[Hamburg]]—a free city with a republican constitution —although his firm continued trading in Danzig where most of their extended families remained. [[Adele Schopenhauer|Adele]], Arthur's only sibling, was born on 12 July 1797. In 1797 Arthur was sent to [[Le Havre]] to live for two years with the family of his father's business associate, Grégoire de Blésimaire. He seemed to enjoy his stay there, learned to speak French fluently and started a friendship with Jean Anthime Grégoire de Blésimaire, his peer, which lasted for a large part of their lives. As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute. In 1803 he joined his parents on their long tour of [[Netherlands|Holland]], Britain, [[France]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]] and [[Prussia]]; it was mostly a pleasure tour although Heinrich also visited some of his business associates. Heinrich gave his son a choice: he could stay at home and start preparations for university education, or he could travel with them and then continue his merchant education. Arthur later deeply regretted his choice because he found his merchant training tedious. He spent twelve weeks of the tour attending a school in [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]] where he was very unhappy and appalled by strict but intellectually shallow [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] religiosity, which he continued to sharply criticize later in life despite his general Anglophilia. He was also under pressure from his father, who became very critical of his educational results. Heinrich became so fussy that even his wife started to doubt his mental health. In 1805, Heinrich died by drowning in a canal by their home in Hamburg. Although it was possible that his death was accidental, his wife and son believed that it was suicide because he was very prone to unsociable behavior, [[anxiety]] and [[Major depressive disorder|depression]] which became especially pronounced in his last months of life. Arthur showed similar moodiness since his youth and often acknowledged that he inherited it from his father; there were also several other instances of serious mental health issues on his father's side of the family. His mother Johanna was generally described as vivacious and sociable. Despite the hardships, Schopenhauer seemed to like his father and later always mentioned him in a positive light. Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance that was split in three among Johanna and the children. Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control of his part when he reached the age of majority. He invested it conservatively in government bonds and earned annual interest that was more than double the salary of a university professor. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Early life"
]
| Arthur spent two years as a merchant in honor of his dead father, and because of his own doubts about being too old to start a life of a scholar. Most of his prior education was practical merchant training and he had some trouble with learning Latin, which was a prerequisite for any academic career. His mother moved, with her daughter Adele, to [[Weimar]] the centre of [[German literature]] enjoy social life among writers and artists. Arthur and his mother were not on good terms. In one letter to him she wrote: "You are unbearable and burdensome, and very hard to live with; all your good qualities are overshadowed by your conceit, and made useless to the world simply because you cannot restrain your propensity to pick holes in other people." Arthur left his mother, and they never met again before she died 24 years later. Some negative opinions of the later philosopher about women may be rooted in his troubled relationship with his mother. Arthur lived in Hamburg with his friend Jean Anthime, who was also studying to become a merchant. After quitting his merchant apprenticeship, with some encouragement from his mother, he dedicated himself to studies at the [[Ernestine Gymnasium, Gotha]], in [[Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg]], but he also enjoyed social life among the local nobility, spending large amounts of money, which caused concern to his frugal mother. He left the Gymnasium after writing a satirical poem about one of the schoolmasters. Although Arthur claimed that he left voluntarily, his mother's letter indicates that he was expelled. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Education"
]
| He moved to Weimar but did not live with his mother, who even tried to discourage him from coming by explaining that they would not get along very well. Their relationship deteriorated even further due to their temperamental differences. He accused his mother of being financially irresponsible, flirtatious and seeking to remarry, which he considered an insult to his father's memory. His mother, while professing her love to him, criticized him sharply for being moody, tactless, and argumentative, and urged him to improve his behavior so that he would not alienate people. Arthur concentrated on his studies, which were now going very well, and he also enjoyed the usual social life such as balls, parties and theater. By that time Johanna's famous salon was well established among local intellectuals and dignitaries, the most celebrated of them being [[Goethe]]. Arthur attended her parties, usually when he knew that Goethe would be therealthough the famous writer and statesman seemed not even to notice the young and unknown student. It is possible that Goethe kept a distance because Johanna warned him about her son's depressive and combative nature, or because Goethe was then on bad terms with Arthur's language instructor and roommate, [[Franz Passow]]. Schopenhauer was also captivated by the beautiful [[Karoline Jagemann]], mistress of [[Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach]], and he wrote to her his only known love poem. Despite his later celebration of asceticism and negative views of sexuality, Schopenhauer occasionally had sexual affairsusually with women of lower social status, such as servants, actresses, and sometimes even paid prostitutes. In a letter to his friend Anthime he claims that such affairs continued even in his mature age and admits that he had two out-of-wedlock daughters (born in 1819 and 1836), both of whom died in infancy. In their youthful correspondence Arthur and Anthime were somewhat boastful and competitive about their sexual exploits—but Schopenhauer seemed aware that women usually didn't find him very charming or physically attractive, and his desires often remained unfulfilled. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Education"
]
| He left Weimar to become a student at the [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]] in 1809. There are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer chose that university instead of the then more famous [[University of Jena]], but Göttingen was known as more modern and scientifically oriented, with less attention given to theology. Law or medicine were usual choices for young men of Schopenhauer's status who also needed career and income; he chose [[medicine]] due to his [[Natural science|scientific interests]]. Among his notable professors were [[Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut]], [[Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren]], [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]], [[Friedrich Stromeyer]], [[Heinrich Adolf Schrader]], [[Johann Tobias Mayer]] and [[Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck]]. He studied [[metaphysics]], [[psychology]] and [[logic]] under [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze]], the author of ''[[Aenesidemus (book)|Aenesidemus]]'', who made a strong impression and advised him to concentrate on [[Plato]] and [[Immanuel Kant]]. He decided to switch from medicine to philosophy around 1810–11 and he left Göttingen, which did not have a strong philosophy program: besides Schulze, the only other philosophy professor was [[Friedrich Bouterwek]], whom Schopenhauer disliked. He did not regret his medicinal and scientific studies; he claimed that they were necessary for a philosopher, and even in Berlin he attended more lectures in sciences than in philosophy. During his days at Göttingen, he spent considerable time studying, but also continued his flute playing and social life. His friends included [[Friedrich Gotthilf Osann]], [[Karl Witte]], [[Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen]], and [[William Backhouse Astor Sr.]] He arrived at the newly founded [[University of Berlin]] for the winter semester of 1811–12. At the same time, his mother had just begun her literary career; she published her first book in 1810, a biography of her friend [[Karl Ludwig Fernow]], which was a critical success. Arthur attended lectures by the prominent [[post-Kantian]] philosopher [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], but quickly found many points of disagreement with his ''Wissenschaftslehre''; he also found Fichte's lectures tedious and hard to understand. He later mentioned Fichte only in critical, negative termsseeing his philosophy as a lower quality version of Kant's and considering it useful only because Fichte's poor arguments unintentionally highlighted some failings of Kantianism. He also attended the lectures of the famous Protestant theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]], whom he also quickly came to dislike. His notes and comments on Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer was becoming very [[Criticism of religion|critical of religion]] and moving towards [[atheism]]. He learned by self-directed reading; besides Plato, Kant and Fichte he also read the works of [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]], [[Jakob Friedrich Fries|Fries]], [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi|Jacobi]], [[Francis Bacon|Bacon]], [[John Locke|Locke]], and much current scientific literature. He attended philological courses by [[August Böckh]] and [[Friedrich August Wolf]] and continued his naturalistic interests with courses by [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]], [[Paul Erman]], [[Johann Elert Bode]], [[Ernst Gottfried Fischer]], [[Johann Horkel]], [[Friedrich Christian Rosenthal]] and [[Hinrich Lichtenstein]] (Lichtenstein was also a friend whom he met at one of his mother's parties in Weimar). | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Early work"
]
| Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush in 1813, fearing that the city could be attacked and that he could be pressed into military service as Prussia had just joined the [[War of the Sixth Coalition|war against France]]. He returned to Weimar, but left after less than a month disgusted by the fact that his mother was now living with her supposed lover, Georg Friedrich Konrad Ludwig Müller von Gerstenbergk (1778–1838), a civil servant twelve years younger than her; he considered the relationship an act of infidelity to his father's memory. He settled for a while in [[Rudolstadt]], hoping that no army would pass through the small town. He spent his time in solitude, [[hiking]] in the mountains and the [[Thuringian forest]] and writing his dissertation, ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]]''. He completed his dissertation at about the same time as the French army was defeated at the [[Battle of Leipzig]]. He became irritated by the arrival of soldiers in the town and accepted his mother's invitation to visit her in Weimar. She tried to convince him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was platonic and that she had no intention of remarrying. But Schopenhauer remained suspicious and often came in conflict with Gerstenbergk because he considered him untalented, pretentious, and [[German nationalism|nationalistic]]. His mother had just published her second book, ''Reminiscences of a Journey in the Years 1803, 1804, and 1805'', a description of their family tour of Europe, which quickly became a hit. She found his dissertation incomprehensible and said it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur told her that people would read his work long after the "rubbish" she wrote was totally forgotten. In fact, although they considered her novels of dubious quality, the [[F.A. Brockhaus AG|Brockhaus publishing firm]] held her in high esteem because they consistently sold well. Hans Brockhaus (1888–1965) later claimed that his predecessors "saw nothing in this manuscript, but wanted to please one of our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna, but her son's works are in steady demand and contribute to Brockhaus'[s] reputation." He kept large portraits of the pair in his office in [[Leipzig]] for the edification of his new editors. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Early work"
]
| Also contrary to his mother's prediction, Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Goethe, to whom he sent it as a gift. Although it is doubtful that Goethe agreed with Schopenhauer's philosophical positions, he was impressed by his intellect and extensive scientific education. Their subsequent meetings and correspondence were a great honor to a young philosopher, who was finally acknowledged by his intellectual hero. They mostly discussed Goethe's newly published (and somewhat lukewarmly received) work on [[Theory of Colours|color theory]]. Schopenhauer soon started writing his own treatise on the subject, ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'', which in many points differed from his teacher's. Although they remained polite towards each other, their growing theoretical disagreementsand especially Schopenhauer's extreme self-confidence and tactless criticismssoon made Goethe become distant again and after 1816 their correspondence became less frequent. Schopenhauer later admitted that he was greatly hurt by this rejection, but he continued to praise Goethe, and considered his color theory a great introduction to his own. Another important experience during his stay in Weimar was his acquaintance with Friedrich Majera [[historian of religion]], [[Oriental studies|orientalist]] and disciple of [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]] introduced him to [[Eastern philosophy]] (see also [[Arthur Schopenhauer#Indology|Indology]]). Schopenhauer was immediately impressed by the ''[[Upanishads]]'' (he called them "the production of the highest human wisdom", and believed that they contained superhuman concepts) and the [[Buddha]], and put them on a par with Plato and Kant. He continued his studies by reading the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', an amateurish German journal ''Asiatisches Magazin'' and ''Asiatick Researches'' by [[the Asiatic Society]]. Schopenhauer held a profound respect for [[Indian philosophy]]; although he loved [[Hindu texts]], he was more interested in [[Buddhism]], which he came to regard as the best religion. However, his studies on Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained by the lack of adequate literature, and the latter were mostly restricted to [[Early Buddhism]]. He also claimed that he formulated most of his ideas independently, and only later realized the similarities with Buddhism. [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (1819), as well as in his ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'' (1851) and commented,In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death. [[Image:Arthur Schopenhauer Portrait by Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl 1815.jpeg|thumb|Schopenhauer in 1815. Portrait by Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl]] | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Early work"
]
| As the relationship with his mother fell to a new low, in May 1814 he left Weimar and moved to [[Dresden]]. He continued his philosophical studies, enjoyed the cultural life, socialized with intellectuals and engaged in sexual affairs. His friends in Dresden were [[Johann Gottlob von Quandt]], [[Friedrich Laun]], [[Karl Christian Friedrich Krause]] and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, a young painter who made a romanticized portrait of him in which he improved some of Schopenhauer's unattractive physical features. His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused public quarrels when he ran into them in public. However, his main occupation during his stay in Dresden was his seminal philosophical work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', which he started writing in 1814 and finished in 1818. He was recommended to the publisher [[Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus]] by Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld, an acquaintance of his mother. Although Brockhaus accepted his manuscript, Schopenhauer made a poor impression because of his quarrelsome and fussy attitude, as well as very poor sales of the book after it was published in December 1818. In September 1818, while waiting for his book to be published and conveniently escaping an affair with a maid that caused an unwanted pregnancy, Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation in [[Italy]]. He visited [[Venice]], [[Bologna]], [[Florence]], [[Naples]] and [[Milan]], travelling alone or accompanied by mostly English tourists he met. He spent the winter months in [[Rome]], where he accidentally met his acquaintance [[Karl Witte]] and engaged in numerous quarrels with German tourists in [[Antico Caffè Greco|Caffe Greco]], among them [[Johann Friedrich Böhmer]], who also mentioned his insulting remarks and unpleasant character. He enjoyed art, architecture, and ancient ruins, attended plays and operas, and continued his philosophical contemplation and love affairs. One of his affairs supposedly became serious, and for a while he contemplated marriage to a rich Italian noblewomanbut, despite his mentioning this several times, no details are known and it may have been Schopenhauer exaggerating. He corresponded regularly with his sister Adele and became close to her as her relationship with Johanna and Gerstenbergk also deteriorated. She informed him about their financial troubles as the banking house of A. L. Muhl in Danzigin which her mother invested their whole savings and Arthur a third of hiswas near bankruptcy. Arthur offered to share his assets, but his mother refused and became further enraged by his insulting comments. The women managed to receive only thirty percent of their savings while Arthur, using his business knowledge, took a suspicious and aggressive stance towards the banker and eventually received his part in full. The affair additionally worsened the relationships among all three members of the Schopenhauer family. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Early work"
]
| He shortened his stay in Italy because of the trouble with Muhl and returned to Dresden. Disturbed by the financial risk and the lack of responses to his book he decided to take an academic position since it provided him with both income and an opportunity to promote his views. He contacted his friends at universities in Heidelberg, Göttingen and Berlin and found [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Berlin]] most attractive. He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the famous philosopher [[G. W. F. Hegel]], whom Schopenhauer described as a "clumsy charlatan". He was especially appalled by Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of natural sciences and tried to engage him in a quarrel about it already at his test lecture in March 1820. Hegel was also facing political suspicions at the time, when many progressive professors were [[Carlsbad Decrees|fired]], while Schopenhauer carefully mentioned in his application that he had no interest in politics. Despite their differences and the arrogant request to schedule lectures at the same time as his own, Hegel still voted to accept Schopenhauer to the university. However, only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures, and he dropped out of [[academia]]. A late essay, "On University Philosophy", expressed his resentment towards the work conducted in academies. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Later life"
]
| After his academic failure he continued to travel extensively, visiting [[Leipzig]], [[Nuremberg]], [[Stuttgart]], [[Schaffhausen]], [[Vevey]], [[Milan]] and spending eight months in Florence. However, before he left for his three-year travel, he had an incident with his Berlin neighbor, 47-year-old seamstress Caroline Louise Marquet. The details of the August 1821 incident are unknown. He claimed that he had just pushed her from his entrance after she had rudely refused to leave, and that she had purposely fallen to the ground so that she could sue him. She claimed that he had attacked her so violently that she had become paralyzed on her right side and unable to work. She immediately sued him, and the process lasted until May 1827, when a court found Schopenhauer guilty and forced him to pay her an annual pension until her death in 1842. Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy, where he studied art and socialized with Italian and English nobles. It was his last visit to the country. He left for [[Munich]] and stayed there for a year, mostly recuperating from various health issues, some of them possibly caused by venereal diseases (the treatment his doctor used suggests [[syphilis]]). He contacted publishers, offering to translate Hume into German and Kant into English, but his proposals were declined. Returning to Berlin, he began to study Spanish so he could read some of his favorite authors in their original language. He liked [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Miguel de Cervantes]], and especially [[Baltasar Gracián]]. He also made failed attempts to publish his translations of their works. Few attempts to revive his lecturesagain scheduled at the same time as Hegel'salso failed, as did his inquiries about relocating to other universities. During his Berlin years, Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to marry and have a family. For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss, who was 22 years younger than himself. His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of [[monogamy]] but still not advocating [[polygyny]] musing about a [[Polyamory|polyamorous]] relationship that he called "tetragamy". He had an on-and-off relationship with a young dancer, [[Caroline Medon|Caroline Richter]] (she also used the surname Medon after one of her ex-lovers). They met when he was 33 and she was 19 and working at the Berlin Opera. She had already had numerous lovers and a son out of wedlock, and later gave birth to another son, this time to an unnamed foreign diplomat (she soon had another pregnancy but the child was stillborn). As Schopenhauer was preparing to escape from Berlin in 1831, due to a [[cholera]] epidemic, he offered to take her with him on the condition that she left her young son behind. She refused and he went alone; in his will he left her a significant sum of money, but insisted that it should not be spent in any way on her second son. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Later life"
]
| Schopenhauer claimed that, in his last year in Berlin, he had a [[Premonition|prophetic dream]] that urged him to escape from the city. As he arrived in his new home in [[Frankfurt]], he supposedly had another [[Supernatural|supernatural experience]], an apparition of his dead father and his mother, who was still alive. This experience led him to spend some time investigating [[paranormal]] phenomena and [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]]. He was quite critical of the available studies and claimed that they were mostly ignorant or fraudulent, but he did believe that there are authentic cases of such phenomena and tried to explain them through his metaphysics as manifestations of the will. Upon his arrival in Frankfurt, he experienced a period of depression and declining health. He renewed his correspondence with his mother, and she seemed concerned that he might commit suicide like his father. By now Johanna and Adele were living very modestly. Johanna's writing did not bring her much income, and her popularity was waning. Their correspondence remained reserved, and Arthur seemed undisturbed by her death in 1838. His relationship with his sister grew closer and he corresponded with her until she died in 1849. In July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for [[Mannheim]] but returned in July 1833 to remain there for the rest of his life, except for a few short journeys. He lived alone except for a succession of pet [[poodle]] named [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] and Butz. In 1836, he published ''On the Will in Nature''. In 1836 he sent his essay "[[On the Freedom of the Will]]" to the contest of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and won the prize for the following year. He sent another essay, "[[On the Basis of Morality]]", to the Royal Danish Society for Scientific Studies, but did not win the prize despite being the only contestant. The Society was appalled that several distinguished contemporary philosophers were mentioned in a very offensive manner, and claimed that the essay missed the point of the set topic and that the arguments were inadequate. Schopenhauer, who had been very confident that he would win, was enraged by this rejection. He published both essays as ''The Two Basic Problems of Ethics''. The first edition, published in 1841, again failed to draw attention to his philosophy. In the preface to the second edition, in 1860, he was still pouring insults on the Royal Danish Society. Two years later, after some negotiations, he managed to convince his publisher, Brockhaus, to print the second, updated edition of ''The World as Will and Representation''. That book was again mostly ignored and the few reviews were mixed or negative. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Later life"
]
| However, Schopenhauer did start to attract some followers, mostly outside academia, among practical professionals (several of them were lawyers) who pursued private philosophical studies. He jokingly referred to them as "evangelists" and "apostles". One of the most active early followers was [[Julius Frauenstädt]], who wrote numerous articles promoting Schopenhauer's philosophy. He was also instrumental in finding another publisher after Brockhaus declined to publish ''Parerga and Paralipomena'', believing that it would be another failure. Though Schopenhauer later stopped corresponding with him, claiming that he did not adhere closely enough to his ideas, Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopenhauer's work. They renewed their communication in 1859 and Schopenhauer named him heir for his literary estate. Frauenstädt also became the editor of the first collected works of Schopenhauer. In 1848 Schopenhauer witnessed [[German revolutions of 1848–49|violent upheaval]] in Frankfurt after General [[Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald]] and Prince [[Felix Lichnowsky]] were murdered. He became worried for his own safety and property. Even earlier in life he had had such worries and kept a sword and loaded pistols near his bed to defend himself from thieves. He gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers who wanted to shoot revolutionaries from his window and as they were leaving he gave one of the officers his opera glasses to help him monitor rebels. The rebellion passed without any loss to Schopenhauer and he later praised [[Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz]] for restoring order. He even modified his will, leaving a large part of his property to a Prussian fund that helped soldiers who became invalids while fighting rebellion in 1848 or the families of soldiers who died in battle. As [[Young Hegelians]] were advocating change and progress, Schopenhauer claimed that misery is natural for humans and that, even if some utopian society were established, people would still fight each other out of boredom, or would starve due to overpopulation. In 1851 Schopenhauer published ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', which, as the title says, contains essays that are supplementary to his main work. It was his first successful, widely read book, partly due to the work of his disciples who wrote praising reviews. The essays that proved most popular were the ones that actually did not contain the basic philosophical ideas of his system. Many academic philosophers considered him a great stylist and cultural critic but did not take his philosophy seriously. His early critics liked to point out similarities of his ideas to those Fichte and Schelling, or to claim that there were numerous contradictions in his philosophy. Both criticisms enraged Schopenhauer. However, he was becoming less interested in intellectual fights, but encouraged his disciples to do so. His private notes and correspondence show that he acknowledged some of the criticisms regarding contradictions, inconsistencies, and vagueness in his philosophy, but claimed that he was not concerned about harmony and agreement in his propositions and that some of his ideas should not be taken literally but instead as metaphors. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Life",
"Later life"
]
| Academic philosophers were also starting to notice his work. In 1856 the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer's philosophy, which was won by [[Rudolf Seydel]]'s very critical essay. Schopenhauer's friend [[Jules Lunteschütz]] made the first of his four portraits of himwhich Schopenhauer did not particularly likewhich was soon sold to a wealthy landowner, Carl Ferdinand Wiesike, who built a house to display it. Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by this, and would claim that it was his first chapel. As his fame increased, copies of paintings and photographs of him were being sold and admirers were visiting the places where he had lived and written his works. People visited Frankfurt's ''Englischer Hof'' to observe him dining. Admirers gave him gifts and asked for autographs. He complained, however, that he still felt isolated due to his not very social nature and the fact that many of his good friends had already died from old age. He remained healthy in his own old age, which he attributed to regular walks no matter the weather and always getting enough sleep. He had a great appetite and could read without glasses, but his [[Hearing loss|hearing]] had been declining since his youth and he developed problems with [[rheumatism]]. He remained active and lucid, continued his reading, writing and correspondence until his death. The numerous notes that he made during these years, amongst others on aging, were published [[Posthumous publication|posthumously]] under the title ''Senilia''. In the spring of 1860 his health began to decline, and he experienced shortness of breath and heart palpitations; in September he suffered inflammation of the lungs and, although he was starting to recover, he remained very weak. The last friend to visit him was Wilhelm Gwinner; according to him, Schopenhauer was concerned that he would not be able to finish his planned additions to ''Parerga and Paralipomena'' but was at peace with dying. He died of [[Respiratory failure|pulmonary-respiratory failure]] on 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. He was 72. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"The world as representation"
]
| Schopenhauer saw his philosophy as a continuation of Kant's, and used the results of Kantian epistemological investigation ([[transcendental idealism]]) as starting point for his own. Kant had argued that the [[Empirical evidence|empirical]] world is merely a complex of appearances whose existence and connection occur only in our [[mental representation]]. Schopenhauer reiterates this in the first sentence of his main work: "The world is my representation (''Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung'')". Everything that there is for cognition (the entire world) exists simply as an object in relation to a subjecta 'representation' to a subject. Everything that belongs to the world is, therefore, 'subject-dependent'. In Book One of ''The World as Will and Representation,'' Schopenhauer considers the world from this anglethat is, insofar as it is representation. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Theory of perception"
]
| In November 1813 [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] invited Schopenhauer to help him on his [[Theory of Colours]]. Although Schopenhauer considered colour theory a minor matter, he accepted the invitation out of admiration for Goethe. Nevertheless, these investigations led him to his most important discovery in epistemology: finding a demonstration for the ''a priori'' nature of causality. Kant openly admitted that it was [[David Hume|Hume]]'s skeptical assault on causality that motivated the critical investigations in his ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' and gave an elaborate proof to show that causality is ''a priori''. After [[Gottlob Ernst Schulze|G. E. Schulze]] had made it plausible that Kant had not disproven Hume's skepticism, it was up to those loyal to Kant's project to prove this important matter. The difference between the approaches of Kant and Schopenhauer was this: Kant simply declared that the empirical content of perception is "given" to us from outside, an expression with which Schopenhauer often expressed his dissatisfaction. He, on the other hand, was occupied with the questions: how do we get this empirical content of perception; how is it possible to comprehend subjective sensations "limited to my skin" as the objective perception of things that lie "outside" of me? Causality is therefore not an empirical concept drawn from objective perceptions, as Hume had maintained; instead, as Kant had said, objective perception presupposes knowledge of causality. By this intellectual operation, comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause, the external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of the process that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object, that inverts the impressions on the retinas, and that uses the change in the apparent position of an object relative to more distant objects provided by binocular vision to perceive depth and distance. Schopenhauer stresses the importance of the intellectual nature of perception; the senses furnish the raw material by which the intellect produces the world as representation. He set out his theory of perception for the first time in ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'', and, in the subsequent editions of ''Fourfold Root'', an extensive exposition is given in § 21. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"The world as will"
]
| In Book Two of ''The World as Will and Representation,'' Schopenhauer considers what the world is beyond the aspect of it that appears to usthat is, the aspect of the world beyond representation, the world considered "[[thing-in-itself|in-itself]]" or "[[noumena]]", its inner essence. The very being in-itself of all things, Schopenhauer argues, is will (''Wille''). The empirical world that appears to us as representation has plurality and is ordered in a spatio-temporal framework. The world as thing in-itself must exist outside the subjective forms of space and time. Although the world manifests itself to our experience as a multiplicity of objects (the "objectivation" of the will), each element of this multiplicity has the same blind essence striving towards existence and life. Human rationality is merely a secondary phenomenon that does not distinguish humanity from the rest of nature at the fundamental, essential level. The advanced cognitive abilities of human beings, Schopenhauer argues, serve the ends of willingan illogical, directionless, ceaseless striving that condemns the human individual to a life of suffering unredeemed by any final purpose. Schopenhauer's philosophy of the will as the essential reality behind the world as representation is often called [[Voluntarism (philosophy)|metaphysical voluntarism]]. For Schopenhauer, understanding the world as will leads to ethical concerns (see the [[Arthur Schopenhauer#Ethics|ethics section below]] for further detail), which he explores in the Fourth Book of ''The World as Will and Representation'' and again in his two prize essays on ethics, ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]'' and ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]''. No individual human actions are free, Schopenhauer argues, because they are events in the world of appearance and thus are subject to the principle of sufficient reason: a person's actions are a necessary consequence of motives and the given character of the individual human. Necessity extends to the actions of human beings just as it does to every other appearance, and thus we cannot speak of freedom of individual willing. Albert Einstein quoted the Schopenhauerian idea that "a man can ''do'' as he will, but not ''will'' as he will." Yet the will as thing in-itself is free, as it exists beyond the realm of representation and thus is not constrained by any of the forms of necessity that are part of the principle of sufficient reason. According to Schopenhauer, salvation from our miserable existence can come through the will's being 'tranquillized' by the metaphysical insight that reveals individuality to be merely an illusion. The saint or 'great soul' intuitively "recognizes the whole, comprehends its essence, and finds that it is constantly passing away, caught up in vain strivings, inner conflict, and perpetual suffering". The negation of the will, in other words, stems from the insight that the world in-itself (free from the forms of space and time) is one. [[Asceticism|Ascetic]] practices, Schopenhauer remarks, are used to aid the will's 'self-abolition', which brings about a blissful, redemptive 'will-less' state of emptiness that is free from striving or suffering. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Art and aesthetics"
]
| For Schopenhauer, human "willing"—desiring, craving, etc.—is at the root of [[suffering]]. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation. Here one moves away from ordinary cognizance of individual things to cognizance of eternal Platonic ''Ideas''—in other words, cognizance that is free from the service of will. In aesthetic contemplation, one no longer perceives an object of perception as something from which one is separated; rather "it is as if the object alone existed without anyone perceiving it, and one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception, but the two have become one, the entirety of consciousness entirely filled and occupied by a single perceptual image". Subject and object are no longer distinguishable, and the ''Idea'' comes to the fore. From this aesthetic immersion, one is no longer an individual who suffers as a result of servitude to one's individual will but, rather, becomes a "pure, will-less, painless, timeless, subject of cognition". The pure, will-less subject of cognition is cognizant only of Ideas, not individual things: this is a kind of cognition that is unconcerned with relations between objects according to the Principle of Sufficient Reason (time, space, cause and effect) and instead involves complete absorption in the object. Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation, since it attempts to depict the essence/pure Ideas of the world. Music, for Schopenhauer, is the purest form of art because it is the one that depicts the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Reason, therefore as an individual object. According to [[Daniel Albright]], "Schopenhauer thought that [[philosophy of music|music]] was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself". He deemed music a timeless, universal language comprehended everywhere, that can imbue global enthusiasm, if in possession of a significant melody. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Mathematics"
]
| Schopenhauer's [[Mathematical realism|realist]] views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of contemporaneous attempts to prove the [[parallel postulate]] in [[Euclidean geometry]]. Writing shortly before the discovery of [[hyperbolic geometry]] demonstrated the logical independence of the [[axiom]]—and long before the [[general theory of relativity]] revealed that it does not necessarily express a property of physical space—Schopenhauer criticized mathematicians for trying to use indirect [[concept]] to prove what he held was directly evident from [[intuition|intuitive perception]]. Throughout his writings, Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions. Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid's axioms. This follows [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s reasoning. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Ethics"
]
| Schopenhauer asserts that the task of ethics is not to prescribe moral actions that ought to be done, but to investigate moral actions. As such, he states that philosophy is always theoretical: its task to explain what is given. According to Kant's transcendental idealism, space and time are forms of our sensibility in which phenomena appear in multiplicity. Reality [[thing-in-itself|in itself]] is free from multiplicity, not in the sense that an object is one, but that it is outside the ''possibility'' of multiplicity. Two individuals, though they appear distinct, are in-themselves not distinct. Appearances are entirely subordinated to the [[principle of sufficient reason]]. The egoistic individual who focuses his aims on his own interests has to deal with empirical laws as well as he can. What is relevant for ethics are individuals who can act against their own self-interest. If we take a man who suffers when he sees his fellow men living in poverty and consequently uses a significant part of his income to support ''their'' needs instead of his ''own'' pleasures, then the simplest way to describe this is that he makes ''less distinction between himself'' and others than is usually made. Regarding how things ''appear'' to us, the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals, but the altruist experiences the sufferings of others as his own. In the same way a compassionate man cannot hurt animals, though they appear as distinct from himself. What motivates the altruist is compassion. The suffering of others is for him not a cold matter to which he is indifferent, but he feels connectiveness to all beings. Compassion is thus the basis of morality. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Ethics",
"Eternal justice"
]
| Schopenhauer calls the principle through which multiplicity appears the ''[[principium individuationis]]''. When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle for existence. Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves only at the expense of others—the will, as the only thing that exists, has no other option but to devour itself to experience pleasure. This is a fundamental characteristic of the will, and cannot be circumvented. Unlike temporal or human justice, which requires time to repay an evil deed and "has its seat in the state, as requiting and punishing", eternal justice "rules not the state but the world, is not dependent upon human institutions, is not subject to chance and deception, is not uncertain, wavering, and erring, but infallible, fixed, and sure". Eternal justice is not retributive, because retribution requires time. There are no delays or reprieves. Instead, punishment is tied to the offence, "to the point where the two become one. ... Tormenter and tormented are one. The [Tormenter] errs in that he believes he is not a partaker in the suffering; the [tormented], in that he believes he is not a partaker in the guilt." Suffering is the moral outcome of our attachment to pleasure. Schopenhauer deemed that this truth was expressed by the Christian dogma of [[original sin]] and, in Eastern religions, by the [[Reincarnation|dogma of rebirth.]] | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Ethics",
"Quietism"
]
| He who sees through the ''principium individuationis'' and comprehends suffering ''in general'' as his own will see suffering everywhere and, instead of fighting for the happiness of his individual manifestation, will abhor life itself since he knows that it is inseparably connected with suffering. For him, a happy individual life in a world of suffering is like a beggar who dreams one night that he is a king. Those who have experienced this intuitive knowledge cannot affirm life, but exhibit asceticism and quietism, meaning that they are no longer sensitive to motives, are not concerned about their individual welfare, and accept without resistance the evil that others inflict on them. They welcome poverty and neither seek nor flee death. Schopenhauer referred to asceticism as the denial of the will to live. Human life is a ceaseless struggle for satisfaction and, instead of continuing their struggle, ascetics break it. It does not matter if these ascetics adhere to the dogmata of Christianity or to [[Dharmic faith|Dharmic religions]], since their way of living is the result of intuitive knowledge. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Psychology"
]
| Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the necessity of sex, but Schopenhauer addressed sex and related concepts forthrightly: He named a force within man that he felt took invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Will to Life (''Wille zum Leben''), defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and all creatures, to stay alive; a force that inveigles us into reproducing. Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man's [[psyche (psychology)|psyche]], guaranteeing the quality of the human race: It has often been argued that Schopenhauer's thoughts on sexuality foreshadowed the [[evolution|theory of evolution]], a claim met with satisfaction by [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] as he included a quotation from Schopenhauer in his ''[[Descent of Man]]''. This has also been noted about [[Sigmund Freud|Freud's]] concepts of the [[libido]] and the [[unconscious mind]], and [[evolutionary psychology]] in general. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Political and social thought",
"Politics"
]
| Schopenhauer's politics were an echo of his system of ethics, which he elucidated in detail in his ''Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik'' (the two essays ''On the Freedom of the Will'' and ''On the Basis of Morality''). In occasional political comments in his ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'' and ''Manuscript Remains'', Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of [[limited government]]. Schopenhauer shared the view of [[Thomas Hobbes]] on the necessity of the state and state action to check the innate destructive tendencies of our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative, judicial and executive branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday sense, not a cosmological one). He declared that [[monarchy]] is "natural to man in almost the same way as it is to bees and ants, to cranes in flight, to wandering elephants, to wolves in a pack in search of prey, and to other animals". Intellect in monarchies, he writes, always has "much better chances against stupidity, its implacable and ever-present foe, than it has in republics; but this is a great advantage." On the other hand, Schopenhauer disparaged [[republicanism]] as being "as unnatural to man as it is unfavorable to higher intellectual life and thus to the arts and sciences". By his own admission, Schopenhauer did not give much thought to politics, and several times he wrote proudly of how little attention he paid "to political affairs of [his] day". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he maintained his position of "minding not the times but the eternities". He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Germans. A typical example is: "For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect." | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Political and social thought",
"Punishment"
]
| The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It places "beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined ..." He claimed that this doctrine was not original to him but had appeared in the writings of [[Plato]], [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[Samuel von Pufendorf|Pufendorf]], and [[Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von Feuerbach|Anselm Feuerbach]]. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Political and social thought",
"Races and religions"
]
| Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern "white races" due to their sensitivity and creativity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, whom he saw as equal): The highest civilization and culture, apart from the [[History of Hinduism|ancient Hindus]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]], are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the [[Brahmans]], the [[Inca Empire|Incas]], and the rulers of the [[South Sea Islands]]. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization. Schopenhauer was fervently [[Abolitionism|opposed to slavery]]. Speaking of the treatment of slaves in the [[Slavery in the United States|slave-holding states of the United States]], he condemned "those devils in human form, those bigoted, church-going, strict sabbath-observing scoundrels, especially the Anglican parsons among them" for how they "treat their innocent black brothers who through violence and injustice have fallen into their devil's claws". The slave-holding states of North America, Schopenhauer writes, are a "disgrace to the whole of humanity". In his ''Metaphysics of Sexual Love'', Schopenhauer wrote: | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Political and social thought",
"Races and religions"
]
| Further, the consideration as to the complexion is very decided. Blondes prefer dark persons, or brunettes; but the latter seldom prefer the former. The reason is, that fair hair and blue eyes are in themselves a variation from the type, almost an abnormity, analogous to white mice, or at least to grey horses. In no part of the world, not even in the vicinity of the pole, are they indigenous, except in Europe, and are clearly of Scandinavian origin. I may here express my opinion in passing that the white colour of the skin is not natural to man, but that by nature he has a black or brown skin, like our forefathers the Hindus; that consequently a white man has never originally sprung from the womb of nature, and that thus there is no such thing as a white race, much as this is talked of, but every white man is a faded or bleached one. Forced into the strange world, where he only exists like an exotic plant, and like this requires in winter the hothouse, in the course of thousands of years man became white. The gipsies, an Indian race which immigrated only about four centuries ago, show the transition from the complexion of the Hindu to our own. Therefore in sexual love nature strives to return to dark hair and brown eyes as the primitive type; but the white colour of the skin has become a second nature, though not so that the brown of the Hindu repels us. Finally, each one also seeks in the particular parts of the body the corrective of his own defects and aberrations, and does so the more decidedly the more important the part is. Schopenhauer also maintained a marked metaphysical and political [[anti-Judaism]]. He argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against what he styled the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the [[Aryan]]-[[Vedas|Vedic]] theme of spiritual self-conquest. He saw this as opposed to the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism and superficiality of a worldly "Jewish" spirit: [Judaism] is, therefore, the crudest and poorest of all religions and consists merely in an absurd and revolting [[theism]]. It amounts to this that the [[Kyrios|''κύριος'' ['Lord']]], who has created the world, desires to be worshipped and adored; and so above all he is jealous, is envious of his colleagues, of all the other gods; if sacrifices are made to them he is furious and his Jews have a bad time ... It is most deplorable that this religion has become the basis of the prevailing religion of Europe; for it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency. While all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Political and social thought",
"Women"
]
| In his 1851 essay "On Women", Schopenhauer expressed opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" of "reflexive, unexamined reverence for the female (''abgeschmackten Weiberveneration'')". He wrote: "Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted." He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed his opposition to [[monogamy]]. He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey". The essay does give some compliments, however: "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are", and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. Schopenhauer's writings influenced many, from [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] to nineteenth-century [[feminists]]. His [[biology|biological]] analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]]. When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for [[Arthur Schopenhauer (sculpture)|a sculpture portrait]] by the Prussian sculptor [[Elisabet Ney]] in 1859, he was much impressed by the young woman's wit and independence, as well as by her skill as a visual artist. After his time with Ney, he told Richard Wagner's friend [[Malwida von Meysenbug]]: "I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man." | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Political and social thought",
"Pederasty"
]
| In the third, expanded edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'' (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the ''Metaphysics of Sexual Love''. He wrote that [[pederasty]] has the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated that "the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils". Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement that "by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty." | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Political and social thought",
"Heredity and eugenics"
]
| Schopenhauer viewed personality and [[intellect]] as inherited. He quotes [[Horace]]'s saying, "From the brave and good are the brave descended" (''Odes'', iv, 4, 29) and Shakespeare's line from ''[[Cymbeline]]'', "Cowards father cowards, and base things sire base" (IV, 2) to reinforce his hereditarian argument. Mechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his intellect through his mother, and personal character through the father. This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer's view of loveplacing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the "final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation. ... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake." This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on [[eugenics]] or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote: With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his ''Republic'', he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could [[castrate]] all [[criminals|scoundrels]] and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole [[harem]], and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of [[Pericles]]. In another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis: "If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the [[despotism]] of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by [[mating]] the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic." Analysts (e.g., [[Keith Ansell-Pearson]]) have suggested that Schopenhauer's anti-[[egalitarianism|egalitarianist]] sentiment and his support for eugenics influenced the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Political and social thought",
"Animal welfare"
]
| As a consequence of his [[Monism|monistic]] philosophy, Schopenhauer was very concerned about animal welfare. For him, all individual animals, including humans, are essentially phenomenal manifestations of the one underlying Will. For him the word "will" designates force, power, impulse, energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that can signify both the essence of all external things and our own direct, inner experience. Since every living thing possesses will, humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other. For this reason, he claimed that a good person would have sympathy for animals, who are our fellow sufferers. In 1841, he praised the establishment in London of the [[Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]], and in Philadelphia of the Animals' Friends Society. Schopenhauer went so far as to protest using the pronoun "it" in reference to animals because that led to treatment of them as though they were inanimate things. To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter. Schopenhauer was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. He criticized [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's]] belief that animals are a mere means for the satisfaction of humans. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Intellectual interests and affinities",
"Indology"
]
| Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the [[Hindu texts|ancient Hindu texts]], the ''[[Upanishads]]'', translated by French writer [[Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron|Anquetil du Perron]] from the Persian translation of Prince [[Dara Shukoh]] entitled ''Sirre-Akbar'' ("The Great Secret"). He was so impressed by its [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] that he called it "the production of the highest human wisdom", and believed it contained superhuman concepts. Schopenhauer considered [[India]] as "the land of the most ancient and most pristine wisdom, the place from which [[Europeans]] could trace their descent and the tradition by which they had been influenced in so many decisive ways", and regarded the ''Upanishads'' as "the most profitable and elevating reading which [...] is possible in the world. It has been the solace of my life, and will be the solace of my death." Schopenhauer was first introduced to Anquetil du Perron's translation by Friedrich Majer in 1814. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in [[Weimar]] at the home of Schopenhauer's mother, according to the biographer Safranski. Majer was a follower of [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and an early [[Indologist]]. Schopenhauer did not begin serious study of the Indic texts, however, until the summer of 1814. Safranski maintains that, between 1815 and 1817, Schopenhauer had another important cross-pollination with Indian thought in [[Dresden]]. This was through his neighbor of two years, [[Karl Christian Friedrich Krause]]. Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mastered [[Sanskrit]], unlike Schopenhauer, and they developed a professional relationship. It was from Krause that Schopenhauer learned [[meditation]] and received the closest thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought. The book ''Oupnekhat'' (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before going to bed. He called the opening up of [[Sanskrit literature]] "the greatest gift of our century", and predicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads would become the cherished faith of the West. Most noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer's work, was the significance of the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'', whose [[Mahāvākyas|Mahāvākya]], [[Tat Tvam Asi]], is mentioned throughout ''The World as Will and Representation''. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Intellectual interests and affinities",
"Buddhism"
]
| Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the [[Four Noble Truths]] of [[Buddhism]]. Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire ([[taṇhā]]), and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four "truths of the Buddha" correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will. In Buddhism, however, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral. For Schopenhauer, will had [[ontology|ontological]] primacy over the [[intellect]]; desire is prior to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions of [[puruṣārtha]] or goals of life in [[Vedānta]] [[Hinduism]]. In Schopenhauer's philosophy, denial of the will is attained by: (-) personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or (-) knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people. However, Buddhist [[nirvāṇa]] is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the ''person'' as some Western scholars have thought, but only the "extinguishing" (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person's character. Schopenhauer made the following statement in his discussion of religions: If I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth, I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own, for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch as ''in my philosophizing I have certainly not been under its influence'' [emphasis added]. For up till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism. Buddhist philosopher [[Nishitani Keiji]], however, sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer. While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his [[methodology]] was resolutely [[empirical]], rather than speculative or transcendental: Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions. Also note: This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Intellectual interests and affinities",
"Buddhism"
]
| The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other [[Dharma|Dharmic]] faith loses credence since he did not begin a serious study of Buddhism until after the publication of ''The World as Will and Representation'' in 1818. Scholars have started to revise earlier views about Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence, however, appears in Schopenhauer's 1815/16 notes (transcribed and translated by Urs App) about Buddhism. They are included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer's interest in Buddhism and documents its influence. Other scholarly work questions how similar Schopenhauer's philosophy actually is to Buddhism. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Philosophy",
"Intellectual interests and affinities",
"Magic and occultism"
]
| Some traditions in [[Western esotericism]] and [[parapsychology]] interested Schopenhauer and influenced his philosophical theories. He praised [[animal magnetism]] as evidence for the reality of magic in his ''On the Will in Nature'', and went so far as to accept the division of magic into [[Left-hand path and right-hand path|left-hand and right-hand magic]], although he doubted the existence of demons. Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed all forms of magical transformation depended on the human Will, not on ritual. This theory notably parallels [[Aleister Crowley]]'s system of magick and its emphasis on human will. Given the importance of the Will to Schopenhauer's overarching system, this amounts to "suggesting his whole philosophical system had magical powers." Schopenhauer rejected the theory of [[disenchantment]] and claimed philosophy should synthesize itself with magic, which he believed amount to "practical metaphysics." [[Neoplatonism]], including the traditions of [[Plotinus]] and to a lesser extent [[Marsilio Ficino]], has also been cited as an influence on Schopenhauer. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Interests"
]
| Schopenhauer had a wide range of interests, from science and opera to occultism and literature. In his student years, Schopenhauer went more often to lectures in the sciences than philosophy. He kept a strong interest as his personal library contained near to 200 books of scientific literature at his death, and his works refer to scientific titles not found in the library. Many evenings were spent in the theatre, opera and ballet; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]] and [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]]. Schopenhauer considered music the highest art, and played the flute during his whole life. As a polyglot, he knew [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], English, [[Latin]] and [[ancient Greek]], and was an avid reader of poetry and literature. He particularly revered [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Petrarch]], [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón]] and [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. If Goethe had not been sent into the world simultaneously with Kant in order to counterbalance him, so to speak, in the spirit of the age, the latter would have been haunted like a nightmare many an aspiring mind and would have oppressed it with great affliction. But now the two have an infinitely wholesome effect from opposite directions and will probably raise the German spirit to a height surpassing even that of antiquity. In philosophy, his most important influences were, according to himself, Kant, [[Plato]] and the [[Upanishads]]. Concerning the Upanishads and [[Vedas]], he writes in ''The World as Will and Representation'': If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange, as to many others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if it did not sound conceited, contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate, though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Thoughts on other philosophers",
"Giordano Bruno and Spinoza"
]
| Schopenhauer saw [[Giordano Bruno|Bruno]] and [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] as philosophers not bound to their age or nation. "Both were fulfilled by the thought, that as manifold the appearances of the world may be, it is still ''one'' being, that appears in all of them. ... Consequently, there is no place for God as creator of the world in their philosophy, but God is the world itself." Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza stuck for the presentation of his philosophy with the concepts of [[scholasticism]] and [[Cartesian philosophy]], and tried to use geometrical proofs that do not hold because of vague and overly broad definitions. Bruno on the other hand, who knew much about nature and ancient literature, presented his ideas with Italian vividness, and is amongst philosophers the only one who comes near Plato's poetic and dramatic power of exposition. Schopenhauer noted that their philosophies do not provide any ethics, and it is therefore very remarkable that Spinoza called his main work ''[[Ethics (Spinoza)|Ethics]]''. In fact, it could be considered complete from the standpoint of life-affirmation, if one completely ignores morality and self-denial. It is yet even more remarkable that Schopenhauer mentions Spinoza as an example of the denial of the will, if one uses the French biography by Jean Maximilien Lucas as the key to ''[[Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione]]''. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Thoughts on other philosophers",
"Immanuel Kant"
]
| The importance of Kant for Schopenhauer, in philosophy as well as on a personal level, cannot be overstated. Kant's philosophy was the foundation of Schopenhauer's, and he had high praise for the [[Critique of Pure Reason#Transcendental Aesthetic|Transcendental Aesthetic]] section of Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason.'' Schopenhauer maintained that Kant stands in the same relation to philosophers such as Berkeley and [[Plato]], as Copernicus to [[Hicetas]], [[Philolaus]], and [[Aristarchus of Samos|Aristarchus]]: Kant succeeded in demonstrating what previous philosophers merely asserted. Schopenhauer writes about Kant's influence on his work in the preface to the second edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'': In his study room, one bust was of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], the other was of Kant. The bond which Schopenhauer felt with the philosopher of Königsberg is demonstrated in an unfinished poem he dedicated to Kant (included in volume 2 of the ''Parerga''): Schopenhauer dedicated one fifth of his main work, ''The World as Will and Representation'', to a detailed [[Critique of the Kantian philosophy|criticism of the Kantian philosophy]]. Schopenhauer praised Kant for his distinction between appearance and the [[thing-in-itself]], whereas the general consensus in [[German Idealism]] was that this was the weakest spot of Kant's theory, since, according to Kant, causality can find application on objects of experience only, and consequently, things-in-themselves cannot be the cause of appearances. The inadmissibility of this reasoning was also acknowledged by Schopenhauer. He insisted that this was a true conclusion, drawn from false premises. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Thoughts on other philosophers",
"Post-Kantian school"
]
| The leading figures of [[German idealism|post-Kantian philosophy]]—[[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|F. W. J. Schelling]] and [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|G. W. F. Hegel]]—were not respected by Schopenhauer. He argued that they were not philosophers at all, for they lacked "the first requirement of a philosopher, namely a seriousness and honesty of inquiry." Rather, they were merely sophists who, excelling in the art of beguiling the public, pursued their own selfish interests (such as professional advancement within the university system). Diatribes against the vacuity, dishonesty, pomposity, and self-interest of these contemporaries are to be found throughout Schopenhauer's published writings. The following passage is an example: Schopenhauer deemed Schelling the most talented of the three and wrote that he would recommend his "elucidatory paraphrase of the highly important doctrine of Kant" concerning the intelligible character, if he had been honest enough to admit he was parroting Kant, instead of hiding this relation in a cunning manner. Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel, whom he considered less worthy than Fichte or Schelling. Whereas Fichte was merely a windbag (''Windbeutel''), Hegel was a "commonplace, inane, loathsome, repulsive, and ignorant charlatan." The philosophers [[Karl Popper]] and [[Mario Bunge]] agreed with this distinction. Hegel, Schopenhauer wrote in the preface to his ''Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics,'' not only "performed no service to philosophy, but he has had a detrimental influence on philosophy, and thereby on German literature in general, really a downright stupefying, or we could even say a pestilential influence, which it is therefore the duty of everyone capable of thinking for himself and judging for himself to counteract in the most express terms at every opportunity." | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Influence"
]
| Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the [[First World War]]. His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation of philosophers including [[Julius Bahnsen]], [[Paul Deussen]], Lazar von Hellenbach, [[Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann]], Ernst Otto Lindner, [[Philipp Mainländer]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Olga Plümacher]] and [[Agnes Taubert]]. His legacy shaped the intellectual debate, and forced movements that were utterly opposed to him, [[neo-Kantianism]] and [[positivism]], to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly. The French writer [[Maupassant]] commented that "to-day even those who execrate him seem to carry in their own souls particles of his thought". Other philosophers of the 19th century who cited his influence include [[Hans Vaihinger]], [[Johannes Volkelt|Volkelt]], [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Solovyov]] and [[Otto Weininger|Weininger]]. Schopenhauer was well read by physicists, most notably Einstein, [[Erwin Schrödinger|Schrödinger]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], and [[Ettore Majorana|Majorana]]. Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a "continual consolation" and called him a genius. In his Berlin study three figures hung on the wall: [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]], [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]], Schopenhauer. [[Konrad Wachsmann]] recalled: "He often sat with one of the well-worn Schopenhauer volumes, and as he sat there, he seemed so pleased, as if he were engaged with a serene and cheerful work." When [[Erwin Schrödinger]] discovered Schopenhauer ("the greatest savant of the West") he considered switching his study of physics to philosophy. He maintained the idealistic views during the rest of his life. [[Wolfgang Pauli]] accepted the main tenet of Schopenhauer's metaphysics, that the [[thing-in-itself]] is will. But most of all Schopenhauer is famous for his influence on artists. [[Richard Wagner]] became one of the earliest and most famous adherents of the Schopenhauerian philosophy. The admiration was not mutual, and Schopenhauer proclaimed: "I remain faithful to Rossini and Mozart!" So he has been [[philosopher nicknames|nickname]] "the artist's philosopher". See also [[Tristan und Isolde#Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde|Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde]]. Under the influence of Schopenhauer, [[Leo Tolstoy]] became convinced that the truth of all religions lies in self-renunciation. When he read Schopenhauer's, philosophy Tolstoy exclaimed "at present I am convinced that Schopenhauer is the greatest genius among men. ... It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection." He said that what he has written in ''[[War and Peace]]'' is also said by Schopenhauer in ''The World as Will and Representation''. [[Jorge Luis Borges]] remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view, despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in particular, was because Schopenhauer had already written it for him. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Influence"
]
| Other figures in literature who were strongly influenced by Schopenhauer were [[Thomas Mann]], [[Thomas Hardy]], [[Afanasy Fet]], [[Joris-Karl Huysmans|J.-K. Huysmans]] and [[George Santayana]]. In Herman Melville's final years, while he wrote ''Billy Budd'', he read Schopenhauer's essays and marked them heavily. Scholar Brian Yothers notes that Melville "marked numerous misanthropic and even suicidal remarks, suggesting an attraction to the most extreme sorts of solitude, but he also made note of Schopenhauer's reflection on the moral ambiguities of genius." Schopenhauer's attraction to and discussions of both Eastern and Western religions in conjunction with each other made an impression on Melville in his final years. [[Sergei Prokofiev]], although initially reluctant to engage with works noted for their pessimism, became fascinated with Schopenhauer after reading ''Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life'' in ''Parerga and Paralipomena.'' "With his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and an awareness of happiness." [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading ''The World as Will and Representation'' and admitted that he was one of the few philosophers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay "Schopenhauer als Erzieher" one of his ''[[Untimely Meditations]]''. Early in his career, [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism, and some traits of Schopenhauer's influence (particularly Schopenhauerian transcendentalism) can be observed in the [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]. However, later on, Wittgenstein rejected epistemological [[transcendental idealism]] for [[Gottlob Frege]]'s conceptual [[Metaphysical realism|realism]]. In later years, Wittgenstein became highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker. His friend [[Bertrand Russell]] had a low opinion on the philosopher, and even came to attack him in his [[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|''History of Western Philosophy'']] for hypocritically praising asceticism yet not acting upon it. Opposite to Russell on the foundations of mathematics, the Dutch mathematician [[L. E. J. Brouwer]] incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas in the philosophical school of [[intuitionism]], where mathematics is considered as a purely mental activity instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality are revealed. Brouwer was also influenced by Schopenhauer's metaphysics, and wrote an essay on mysticism. Schopenhauer's philosophy has made its way into a novel ''[[The Schopenhauer Cure]]'' by American existential psychiatrist and emeritus professor of psychiatry [[Irvin Yalom]]. | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Selected bibliography"
]
| (-) ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]] (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde''), 1813 (-) ''[[On Vision and Colors]]'' (''Ueber das Sehn und die Farben''), 1816 (-) ''Theory of Colors (Theoria colorum)'', 1830. (-) ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'' (alternatively translated in English as ''The World as Will and Idea''; original German is ''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung''): vol. 1818/1819, vol. 2, 1844 (-) Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, (-) Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, (-) Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, (-) Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 pp.) (-) ''[[The Art of Being Right]] (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten)'', 1831 (-) ''[[On the Will in Nature]] (Ueber den Willen in der Natur)'', 1836 (-) ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]] (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens''), 1839 (-) ''[[On the Basis of Morality]] (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral)'', 1840 (-) ''The Two Basic Problems of Ethics: On the Freedom of the Will, On the Basis of Morality (Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik: Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens, Ueber das Fundament der Moral''), 1841. (-) ''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'' (2 vols., 1851) – Reprint: (Oxford: Clarendon Press) (2 vols., 1974) (English translation by E. F. J. Payne) (-) Printings: (-) 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN (-) Vols. 1 and 2, , (-) Vol. 1, ISBN (-) Vol. 2, , (-) 1974/1980 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, , (-) 2001 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, (-) ''Essays and Aphorisms'', being excerpts from Volume 2 of ''Parerga und Paralipomena'', selected and translated by R. J. Hollingdale, with Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 1970, Paperback 1973: (-) ''An Enquiry concerning Ghost-seeing, and what is connected therewith (Versuch über das Geistersehn und was damit zusammenhangt)'', 1851 (-) Arthur Schopenhauer, ''Manuscript Remains'', Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd., | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[
"Selected bibliography",
"Online"
]
| (-) ''The Art Of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten)''. (bilingual) [''[[The Art of Being Right]]''] (-) ''Studies in Pessimism'' – audiobook from [[LibriVox]] (-) ''The World as Will and Idea'' at [[Internet Archive]]: (-) ''Volume I'' (-) ''Volume II'' (-) ''Volume III'' (-) ''On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason'' and ''On the will in nature.'' Two essays: (-) Internet Archive. Translated by Mrs. Karl Hillebrand (1903). (-) Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. Reprinted by Cornell University Library Digital Collections (-) Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer's manuscripts in SchopenhauerSource (-) ''Essays of Schopenhauer'' | 700 | Arthur Schopenhauer | [
"Arthur Schopenhauer",
"1788 births",
"1860 deaths",
"19th-century atheists",
"19th-century essayists",
"19th-century German male writers",
"19th-century German non-fiction writers",
"19th-century German philosophers",
"19th-century German writers",
"19th-century philosophers",
"Aesthetics",
"Animal rights scholars",
"Anti-natalists",
"Aphorists",
"Atheist philosophers",
"Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery",
"Continental philosophers",
"Critical theorists",
"Critics of Christianity",
"Critics of Judaism",
"Critics of religions",
"Cultural critics",
"Epistemologists",
"Ethicists",
"Flautists",
"German atheist writers",
"German atheists",
"German Buddhist scholars",
"German ethicists",
"German eugenicists",
"German flautists",
"German logicians",
"German male essayists",
"German male non-fiction writers",
"German male writers",
"German monarchists",
"German people of Dutch descent",
"German philologists",
"German philosophers",
"Humboldt University of Berlin faculty",
"Idealists",
"Kantian philosophers",
"Logicians",
"Metaphilosophers",
"Metaphysicians",
"Monism",
"Moral philosophers",
"Ontologists",
"Phenomenologists",
"Philosophers of art",
"Philosophers of culture",
"Philosophers of education",
"Philosophers of ethics and morality",
"Philosophers of history",
"Philosophers of language",
"Philosophers of literature",
"Philosophers of logic",
"Philosophers of love",
"Philosophers of mind",
"Philosophers of pessimism",
"Philosophers of psychology",
"Philosophers of religion",
"Philosophers of science",
"Philosophical pessimists",
"Philosophy writers",
"Political philosophers",
"Social commentators",
"Social critics",
"Social philosophers",
"Theorists on Western civilization",
"University of Göttingen alumni",
"Writers from Gdańsk"
]
| [
"Mortal coil",
"Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism",
"God in Buddhism",
"Misotheism",
"Nihilism",
"''Massacre of the Innocents'' (Guido Reni)",
"Eye of a needle",
"Existential nihilism"
]
|
[]
| '''Angola''' (; ), officially the '''Republic of Angola''' (), is a country located on the west coast of [[Southern Africa]]. It is the second-largest [[lusophone]] ([[List of territorial entities where Portuguese is an official language|Portuguese-speaking]]) country in both total area and [[List of countries and dependencies by population|population]] (behind [[Brazil]]), and it is the [[List of African countries by area|seventh-largest]] country in [[Africa]], bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north, [[Zambia]] to the east, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. Angola has an [[Enclave and exclave|exclave]] province, the province of [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] that borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and largest city is [[Luanda]]. Angola has been inhabited since the [[Paleolithic|Paleolithic Age]]. Its formation as a nation-state originates from [[European exploration of Africa|Portuguese colonisation]], which initially began with coastal settlements and [[trading post]] founded in the 16th century. In the 19th century, European settlers gradually began to establish themselves in the interior. The [[Portuguese Angola|Portuguese colony]] that became Angola did not have its present borders until the early 20th century, owing to resistance by native groups such as the Cuamato, the [[Oukwanyama|Kwanyama]] and the [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]]. After a protracted [[Angolan War of Independence|anti-colonial struggle]], Angola achieved independence in 1975 as a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[People's Republic of Angola|one-party Republic]]. The country descended into a devastating [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] the same year, between the ruling [[MPLA|People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA), backed by the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Cuba]], and the insurgent anti-communist [[UNITA|National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA), supported by the [[United States]] and [[South Africa]]. The country has been governed by MPLA ever since its independence in 1975. Following the end of the war in 2002, Angola emerged as a relatively stable [[Unitary state|unitary]], [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[Republic|constitutional republic]]. Angola has vast [[Mineral resource estimation|mineral]] and [[Oil reserves|petroleum reserves]], and its economy is among the fastest-growing in the world, especially since the end of the civil war. However, economic growth is highly uneven, with most of the nation's [[Distribution of wealth#Wealth concentration|wealth concentrated]] in a disproportionately small sector of the population. The [[standard of living]] remains low for most Angolans; [[life expectancy]] is among the lowest in the world, while [[infant mortality]] is among the highest. Since 2017, the government of João Lourenço has made fighting corruption its flagship, so much so that many individuals of the previous government are either jailed or awaiting trial. While this was not done by the previous government, skeptics see the actions as politically motivated. Angola is a member of the [[United Nations]], [[OPEC]], [[African Union]], the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]], and the [[Southern African Development Community]]. As of 2019, the Angolan population is estimated at 31.83 million. Angola is multicultural and multiethnic. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese rule, namely the predominance of the [[Portuguese language]] and of the [[Catholic Church]], intermingled with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Etymology"
]
| The name ''Angola'' comes from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] colonial name ('Kingdom of Angola'), which appeared as early as [[Paulo Dias de Novais]]'s 1571 charter. The [[Toponymy|toponym]] was derived by the Portuguese from the title held by the kings of [[Kingdom of Ndongo|Ndongo]]. Ndongo in the [[highland]], between the [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] and [[Lucala River]], was nominally a possession of the [[Kingdom of Kongo]], but was seeking greater independence in the 16th century. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"History",
"Early migrations and political units"
]
| Modern Angola was populated predominantly by [[nomad]] [[Khoi]] and [[San people|San]] prior to the first [[Bantu migration]]. The Khoi and San peoples were neither [[Pastoralism|pastoralist]] nor [[cultivator]], but rather [[hunter-gatherer]]. They were displaced by [[Bantu peoples]] arriving from the north in the first millennium BC, most of whom likely originated in what is today northwestern [[Nigeria]] and southern [[Niger]]. Bantu speakers introduced the cultivation of [[banana]] and [[taro]], as well as large cattle herds, to Angola's central highlands and the Luanda plain. A number of political entities were established; the best-known of these was the [[Kingdom of the Kongo]], based in Angola, which extended northward to what is now the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], the [[Republic of the Congo]] and [[Gabon]]. It established [[trade route]] with other city-states and civilisations up to and down the coast of southwestern and western Africa and even with [[Great Zimbabwe]] and the [[Mutapa Empire]], although it engaged in little or no transoceanic trade. To its south lay the [[Kingdom of Ndongo]], from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as ''Dongo''. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"History",
"Portuguese colonization"
]
| [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Age of Discovery|explorer]] [[Diogo Cão]] reached the area in 1484. The previous year, the Portuguese had established relations with the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]], which stretched at the time from modern [[Gabon]] in the north to the [[Kwanza River]] in the south. The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at [[Soyo]], which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] [[enclave and exclave|exclave]]. [[Paulo Dias de Novais]] founded São Paulo de Loanda ([[Luanda]]) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. [[Benguela]] was fortified in 1587 and became a township in 1617. The Portuguese established several other settlements, forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in [[Slavery in Angola|Angolan slaves]] for [[plantations in the American South|plantations]]. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the [[Portuguese Empire]], usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe. This part of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] continued until after [[Empire of Brazil|Brazil's]] [[independence of Brazil|independence]] in the 1820s. Despite Portugal's territorial claims in Angola, its control over much of the country's vast interior was minimal. In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress slow. [[John Iliffe (historian)|John Iliffe]] notes that "Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great [[famine]] occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys". During the [[Portuguese Restoration War]], the [[Dutch West India Company]] [[Dutch Loango-Angola|occupied]] the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere. A fleet under [[Salvador de Sá]] retook Luanda in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]] were signed in 1649; others with [[Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba|Njinga]]'s Kingdom of [[Matamba]] and [[Ndongo]] followed in 1656. The conquest of [[Pungo Andongo]] in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Colonial outposts also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited. Hamstrung by a series of political upheavals in the early 1800s, Portugal was slow to mount a large scale annexation of Angolan territory. The [[slave trade]] was abolished in Angola in 1836, and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves. Four years later, a more progressive administration appointed by Lisbon abolished [[slavery]] altogether. However, these decrees remained largely unenforceable, and the Portuguese depended on assistance from the British [[Royal Navy]] to enforce their ban on the slave trade. This coincided with a series of renewed military expeditions into the bush. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"History",
"Portuguese colonization"
]
| By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion as far east as the [[Congo River]] and as far south as [[Moçâmedes|Mossâmedes]]. Until the late 1880s, Lisbon entertained proposals to link Angola with its [[colony]] in [[Mozambique]] but was blocked by British and Belgian opposition. In this period, the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola. The [[Berlin Conference]] in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders, delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola, although many details were unresolved until the 1920s. Trade between Portugal and its African territories rapidly increased as a result of protective [[tariff]], leading to increased development, and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"History",
"Angolan independence"
]
| Under colonial law, black Angolans were forbidden from forming political parties or labour unions. The first nationalist movements did not take root until after [[World War II]], spearheaded by a largely Westernised, Portuguese-speaking urban class which included many [[mestiço]]. During the early 1960s they were joined by other associations stemming from ''ad hoc'' labour activism in the rural workforce. Portugal's refusal to address increasing Angolan demands for [[self-determination]] provoked an armed conflict which erupted in 1961 with the [[Baixa de Cassanje revolt]] and gradually evolved into a protracted [[Angolan War of Independence|war of independence]] that persisted for the next twelve years. Throughout the conflict, three militant nationalist movements with their own partisan guerrilla wings emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces, supported to varying degrees by the [[Portuguese Communist Party]]. The ''[[FNLA|National Front for the Liberation of Angola]]'' (FNLA) recruited from [[Bakongo]] refugees in [[Zaire]]. Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in [[Kinshasha|Léopoldville]], and especially from a common border with Zaire, Angolan political exiles were able to build up a power base among a large expatriate community from related families, clans, and traditions. People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties to the historical Kingdom of Kongo. Though as foreigners skilled Angolans could not take advantage of [[Mobutu Sese Seko]]'s state employment programme, some found work as middlemen for the absentee owners of various lucrative private ventures. The migrants eventually formed the FNLA with the intention of making a bid for political power upon their envisaged return to Angola. A largely [[Ovimbundu]] guerrilla initiative against the Portuguese in central Angola from 1966 was spearheaded by [[Jonas Savimbi]] and the ''[[UNITA|National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]]'' (UNITA). It remained handicapped by its geographic remoteness from friendly borders, the ethnic fragmentation of the Ovimbundu, and the isolation of peasants on European plantations where they had little opportunity to mobilise. During the late 1950s, the rise of the Marxist–Leninist ''[[MPLA|Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]]'' (MPLA) in the east and Dembos hills north of Luanda came to hold special significance. Formed as a coalition resistance movement by the [[Angolan Communist Party]], the organisation's leadership remained predominantly [[Ambundu]] and courted public sector workers in [[Luanda]]. Although both the MPLA and its rivals accepted material assistance from the [[Soviet Union]] or the [[People's Republic of China]], the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was openly critical of the [[United States]] and its support for Portugal. This allowed it to win important ground on the diplomatic front, soliciting support from nonaligned governments in [[Morocco]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], and the [[United Arab Republic]]. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"History",
"Angolan independence"
]
| The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters from [[Conakry]] to Léopoldville in October 1961, renewing efforts to create a common front with the FNLA, then known as the ''Union of Angolan Peoples'' (UPA) and its leader [[Holden Roberto]]. Roberto turned down the offer. When the MPLA first attempted to insert its own insurgents into Angola, the cadres were ambushed and annihilated by UPA partisans on Roberto's orders—setting a precedent for the bitter factional strife which would later ignite the [[Angolan Civil War]]. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"History",
"Angolan Civil war"
]
| Throughout the war of independence, the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism, as well as their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against the Portuguese. Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community. The [[Soviet Union]] and [[Cuba]] became especially sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms, ammunition, funding, and training. They also backed UNITA militants until it became clear that the latter was at irreconcilable odds with the MPLA. The collapse of Portugal's [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] government following the 1974 [[Carnation Revolution]] suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations for Angolan independence. Encouraged by the [[Organisation of African Unity]], Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, and MPLA chairman [[Agostinho Neto]] met in [[Mombasa]] in early January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government. This was ratified by the [[Alvor Agreement]] later that month, which called for general elections and set the country's independence date for 11 November 1975. All three factions, however, followed up on the ceasefire by taking advantage of the gradual Portuguese withdrawal to seize various strategic positions, acquire more arms, and enlarge their militant forces. The rapid influx of weapons from numerous external sources, especially the Soviet Union and the United States, as well as the escalation of tensions between the nationalist parties, fueled a new outbreak of hostilities. With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority. Meanwhile, the MPLA began securing control of Luanda, a traditional Ambundu stronghold. Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda over the next few months after the FNLA attacked MPLA forces in March 1975. The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May, and UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by an MPLA contingent that June. An upswing in Soviet arms shipments to the MPLA influenced a decision by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] to likewise provide substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA. In August 1975, the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form of ground troops. The Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no troops; however, Cuba was more forthcoming and in late September dispatched nearly five hundred combat personnel to Angola, along with sophisticated weaponry and supplies. By independence, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country. They were kept supplied by a massive [[Cuba–Angola airbridge|airbridge]] carried out with Soviet aircraft. The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents from Luanda and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and [[South Africa]] troops, which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA. The FNLA was largely annihilated, although UNITA managed to withdraw its civil officials and militia from Luanda and seek sanctuary in the southern provinces. From there, Savimbi continued to mount a determined insurgent campaign against the MPLA. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"History",
"Angolan Civil war"
]
| Between 1975 and 1991, the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on the principles of [[scientific socialism]], incorporating [[Planned economy|central planning]] and a [[Marxist–Leninist]] [[one-party state]]. It embarked on an ambitious programme of [[Nationalization|nationalisation]], and the domestic private sector was essentially abolished. Privately owned enterprises were nationalised and incorporated into a single umbrella of state-owned enterprises known as ''Unidades Economicas Estatais'' (UEE). Under the MPLA, Angola experienced a significant degree of modern [[industrialisation]]. However, corruption and graft also increased and public resources were either allocated inefficiently or simply embezzled by officials for personal enrichment. The ruling party survived an attempted coup d'état by the [[Maoism|Maoist]]-oriented [[Communist Organization of Angola|Communist Organisation of Angola]] (OCA) in 1977, which was suppressed after a series of bloody political purges left thousands of OCA supporters dead. The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990, and declared [[social democracy]] to be its new platform. Angola subsequently became a member of the [[International Monetary Fund]]; restrictions on the market economy were also reduced in an attempt to draw foreign investment. By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA, the [[Bicesse Accords]], which scheduled [[Angolan general election, 1992|new general elections]] for September 1992. When the MPLA secured a major electoral victory, UNITA objected to the results of both the presidential and legislative vote count and returned to war. Following the election, the [[Halloween massacre (Angola)|Halloween massacre]] occurred from 30 October to 1 November, where MPLA forces killed thousands of UNITA supporters. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"History",
"21st century"
]
| On 22 March 2002, Jonas Savimbi was killed in action against government troops. UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease-fire shortly afterwards. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of a major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilise, regular democratic processes did not prevail until the [[elections in Angola]] in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new [[Constitution of Angola|constitution]] in 2010, all of which strengthened the prevailing [[dominant-party system]]. Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis; the result of the prolonged war, of the abundance of [[minefield]], of the continued political (and to a much lesser degree) military activities in favour of the independence of the [[enclave and exclave|exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] (carried out in the context of the protracted [[Cabinda War|Cabinda conflict]] by the [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda|FLEC]]), but most of all, by the depredation of the country's rich mineral resources by the régime. While most of the internally displaced have now [[Squatting in Angola|squatted]] around the capital, in musseques ([[shanty towns]]) the general situation for Angolans remains desperate. [[Drought]] in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in [[Southern Africa]] in 25 years. Drought affected 1.4 million people across seven of Angola's 18 provinces. [[Food prices]] rose and acute [[malnutrition]] rates doubled, with more than 95,000 children affected. [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] stepped down as [[President of Angola]] after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by [[João Lourenço]], Santos' chosen successor. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Geography"
]
| At , Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country - comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or of Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes [[4th parallel south|4°]] and [[18th parallel south|18°S]], and longitudes [[12th meridian east|12°]] and [[24th meridian east|24°E]]. Angola borders [[Namibia]] to the south, [[Zambia]] to the east, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north-east and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The coastal [[enclave and exclave|exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] in the north has borders with the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the north and with the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south. Angola's capital, [[Luanda]], lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country. Angola had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 8.35/10, ranking it 23rd globally out of 172 countries. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Climate"
]
| Angola, although located in a [[tropical zone]], has a climate uncharacteristic of this zone, due to the confluence of three factors: (-) the cold [[Benguela Current]] flowing along the southern part of the coast (-) the relief in the interior (-) the influence of the [[Namib Desert]] in the southwest Angola's climate features two seasons: (-) rainfall from November to April (-) drought, known as ''Cacimbo'', from May to October, drier, as the name implies, and with lower temperatures While the coastline has high rainfall rates, decreasing from north to south and from to , with average annual temperatures above , one can divide the interior zone into three areas: (-) North, with high rainfall and high temperatures (-) Central Plateau, with a dry season and average temperatures of the order of 19 °C (-) South, with very high thermal amplitudes due to the proximity of the [[Kalahari Desert]] and the influence of masses of tropical air | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Administrative divisions"
]
| , Angola is divided into [[Provinces of Angola|eighteen provinces]] (''províncias'') and [[Municipalities of Angola|162 municipalities]]. The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes (townships). The provinces are: | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Geography",
"Exclave of Cabinda"
]
| With an area of approximately , the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some wide, of the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] along the lower [[Congo River]]. Cabinda borders the [[Congo Republic]] to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The town of Cabinda is the chief population centre. According to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom live in neighbouring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname, "the Kuwait of Africa". Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output. Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under [[Portuguese Angola|Portuguese rule]] by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards. Ever since [[Portugal]] handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups (MPLA, UNITA and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the [[Government of Angola]] (which has employed its armed forces, the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists. The [[Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda]]-[[Forças Armadas de Cabinda|Armed Forces of Cabinda]] (FLEC-FAC) announced the virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N'Zita Henriques Tiago. One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation, into smaller and smaller factions. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Government and politics"
]
| The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Vice-Presidents and the Council of Ministers. The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature, the [[National Assembly of Angola]], elected from both provincial and nationwide constituencies. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency. After 38 years of rule, in 2017 President dos Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership. The leader of the winning party at the parliamentary elections in August 2017 would become the next president of Angola. The MPLA selected the former Defense Minister [[João Lourenço]] as Santos' chosen successor. In what has been described as a political purge to cement his power and reduce the influence of the Dos Santos family, Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief of the national police, Ambrósio de Lemos, and the head of the intelligence service, Apolinário José Pereira. Both are considered allies of former president Dos Santos. He also removed [[Isabel dos Santos|Isabel Dos Santos]], daughter of the former president, as head of the country's state oil company Sonangol. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Constitution"
]
| The [[Constitution of Angola|Constitution of 2010]] establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of [[judicial review]]. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president. After the end of the civil war, the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character. The [[Constitution of Angola|new constitution]], adopted in 2010, did away with presidential elections, introducing a system in which the president and the vice-president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president. Directly or indirectly, the president controls all other organs of the state, so there is ''de facto'' no [[separation of powers]]. In the classifications used in constitutional law, this government falls under the category of ''authoritarian regime.'' | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Armed forces"
]
| The Angolan Armed Forces (FAA, Forças Armadas Angolanas ) are headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defence. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA) and [[National Air Force of Angola|National Air Force]] (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is 107,000; plus paramilitary forces of 10,000 (2015 est.). Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made [[EMB-312 Tucano]] for training, Czech-made L-39s for training and bombing, and a variety of western-made aircraft such as the C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, etc. A small number of AAF personnel are stationed in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville). | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Police"
]
| The National Police departments are Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, to provide helicopter support for operations. The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The force has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 taxation and frontier supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 economic activity inspectors. The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganisation, modernisation projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programmes and the replacement of [[AKM rifle]] with 9 mm [[Uzi]] for officers in urban areas. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Justice"
]
| A Supreme Court serves as a court of appeal. The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction, established with the approval of Law no. 2/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Court and Law n. 3/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Process. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary laws, but it is weak and fragmented. There are only 12 courts in more than 140 counties in the country. Its first task was the validation of the candidacies of the political parties to the legislative elections of 5 September 2008. Thus, on 25 June 2008, the Constitutional Court was institutionalized and its Judicial Counselors assumed the position before the President of the Republic. Currently, seven advisory judges are present, four men and three women. In 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of [[money-laundering]] as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Foreign relations"
]
| Angola is a founding member state of the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of [[Lusophone]] nations across four continents, where [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is an official language. On 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time a non-permanent member of the [[United Nations Security Council]], with 190 favorable votes out of a total of 193. The term of office began on 1 January 2015 and expired on 31 December 2016. Since January 2014, the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region (CIRGL). [80] In 2015, CIRGL Executive Secretary Ntumba Luaba said that Angola is the example to be followed by the members of the organization, due to the significant progress made during the 12 years of peace, namely in terms of socio-economic stability and political-military. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Government and politics",
"Human rights"
]
| Angola is classified as 'not free' by [[Freedom House]] in the [[Freedom in the World]] 2014 report. The report noted that the [[Angolan legislative election, 2012|August 2012 parliamentary elections]], in which the ruling [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls. Voter turnout dropped from 80% in 2008 to 60%. A 2012 report by the [[United States State Department|U.S. Department of State]] said, "The three most important [[human rights]] abuses [in 2012] were official corruption and impunity; limits on the freedoms of assembly, association, speech, and press; and cruel and excessive punishment, including reported cases of torture and beatings as well as unlawful killings by police and other security personnel." Angola ranked forty-two of forty-eight sub-Saharan African states on the 2007 Index of African Governance list and scored poorly on the 2013 [[Ibrahim Index of African Governance]]. It was ranked 39 out of 52 [[sub-Saharan Africa]] countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa. In 2019, [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] acts were decriminalized in Angola, and the government also prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation. The vote was overwhelming: 155 for, 1 against, 7 abstaining. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Economy"
]
| Angola has diamonds, oil, gold, copper and rich wildlife (which was dramatically depleted during the civil war), forest and fossil fuels. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. [[Smallholding|Smallholder]] and [[plantation]] agriculture dramatically dropped in the [[Angolan Civil War]], but began to recover after 2002. Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of [[Angolan civil war]] to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest-growing in the world, with an average [[GDP]] growth of 20% between 2005 and 2007. In the period 2001–10, Angola had the world's highest [[annual average GDP growth]], at 11.1%. In 2004, the [[Exim Bank of China]] approved a $2 billion [[line of credit]] to Angola, to be used for rebuilding Angola's [[infrastructure]], and to limit the influence of the [[International Monetary Fund]] there. China is Angola's biggest trade partner and [[export]] destination as well as the fourth-largest source of [[import]]. Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011, up 11.5% year-on-year. China's imports, mainly [[crude oil]] and diamonds, increased 9.1% to $24.89 billion while China's exports to Angola, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8%. The oil [[Overproduction|glut]] led to a local [[price]] for unleaded gasoline of [[Pound sterling|£]].37 a gallon. The Angolan economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007. Due to the global [[recession]], the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has allowed the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons and a resulting large-scale increase in agriculture production. Angola's economy is expected to grow by 3.9 per cent in 2014 said the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), robust growth in the non-oil economy, mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector, is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production. Angola's financial system is maintained by the [[National Bank of Angola]] and managed by the governor [[:no:Jose de Lima Massano|Jose de Lima Massano]]. According to a study on the banking sector, carried out by [[Deloitte]], the monetary policy led by [[Banco Nacional de Angola]] (BNA), the Angolan national bank, allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013, which contributed to the sector's growth trend. Estimates released by Angola's central bank, said country's economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 per cent over the next four years, boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Economy"
]
| Although the country's economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002, mainly due to fast-rising earnings in the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]]. However, high [[poverty rate]] and blatant [[social inequality]] chiefly stems from persistent [[authoritarianism]], "neo-patrimonial" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military and economic structures, and of [[Corruption in Angola|a pervasive corruption]]. The main beneficiaries are political, administrative, economic and military power holders, who have accumulated (and continue to accumulate) enormous wealth. "Secondary beneficiaries" are the middle strata that are about to become [[social class]]. However, almost half the population has to be considered poor, with dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities (whereby now slightly more than 50% of the people live). A study carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found that in rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as "poor" according to UN norms but in the urban areas only 19%, and an overall rate of 37%. In cities, a majority of families, well beyond those officially classified as poor, must adopt a variety of survival strategies. In urban areas social inequality is most evident and it is extreme in Luanda. In the [[Human Development Index]] Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group. In January 2020, a leak of government documents known as the ''Luanda Leaks'' showed that U.S. consulting companies such as [[Boston Consulting Group]], [[McKinsey & Company]], and [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] had helped members of the family of former President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] (especially his daughter [[Isabel dos Santos]]) corruptly run Sonangol for their own personal profit, helping them use the company's revenues to fund vanity projects in France and Switzerland. The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression. One of the economic consequences of social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the asset accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the [[Angolans in Portugal|Angolan presence]] (including the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy, [[Telecommunications in Angola|telecommunications]], and [[mass media]] has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of touristic enterprises. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Economy"
]
| Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the nation's development of oil resources. According to a report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 per cent in 2001 to 19 per cent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001. However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country for so long has not diminished, but on the contrary deepened in all respects. With a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz (US$6.8 billion), Angola is now the third-largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassed only by [[Nigeria]] and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy, Abraão Gourgel, the financial market of the country grew modestly from 2002 and now lies in third place at the level of sub-Saharan Africa. On 19 December 2014, the Capital Market in Angola started. [[Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives|BODIVA]] (Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives, in English) received the secondary public debt market, and it is expected to start the corporate debt market by 2015, but the stock market should be a reality only in 2016. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Natural resources"
]
| ''[[The Economist]]'' reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy, almost all of the country's [[revenue]] and all of its dominant [[export]]. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising [[Extraction of petroleum|oil production]] which surpassed in late 2005 and was expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the [[Petroleum industry|oil industry]] is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of [[OPEC]]. According to [[the Heritage Foundation]], a conservative American [[think tank]], oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil. "China has extended three multibillion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government; two loans of $2 billion from China Exim Bank, one in 2004, the second in 2007, as well as one loan in 2005 of $2.9 billion from [[China International Fund]] Ltd." Growing oil revenues also created opportunities for [[Corruption in Angola|corruption]]: according to a recent [[Human Rights Watch]] report, 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts in 2007–2010. Furthermore, [[Sonangol]], the state-run oil company, controls 51% of Cabinda's oil. Due to this market control, the company ends up determining the profit received by the government and the taxes it pays. The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol " is a taxpayer, it carries out quasi-fiscal activities, it invests public funds, and, as concessionaire, it is a sector regulator. This multifarious work programme creates conflicts of interest and characterises a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state." In 2002 Angola demanded compensation for [[oil spill]] allegedly caused by [[Chevron Corporation]], the first time it had fined a multinational corporation operating in its waters. Operations in its [[List of diamond mines|diamond mines]] include partnerships between state-run [[Endiama]] and mining companies such as [[ALROSA]] which operate in Angola. Access to [[biocapacity]] in Angola is higher than world average. In 2016, Angola had 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, slightly more than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use about half as much biocapacity as Angola contains. As a result, Angola is running a biocapacity reserve. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Agriculture"
]
| Agriculture and forestry is an area of potential opportunity for the country. The African Economic Outlook organization states that "Angola requires 4.5 million tonnes a year of grain but grows only about 55% of the [[maize]] it needs, 20% of the [[rice]] and just 5% of its required [[wheat]]". In addition, the World Bank estimates that "less than 3 per cent of Angola's abundant fertile land is cultivated and the economic potential of the forestry sector remains largely unexploited" . Before independence in 1975, [[Angola (Portugal)|Angola]] was a breadbasket of southern Africa and a major exporter of [[banana]], coffee and [[sisal]], but [[Angolan Civil War|three decades of civil war]] (1975–2002) destroyed fertile countryside, left it littered with [[landmine]] and drove millions into the cities. The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and [[Portugal]], while more than 90% of farming is done at the family and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Transport"
]
| Transport in Angola consists of: (-) Three separate [[Rail transport in Angola|railway systems]] totalling (-) of highway of which is paved (-) 1,295 navigable inland waterways (-) five major [[sea port]] (-) 243 [[List of airports in Angola|airports]], of which 32 are paved. Angola centers its port trade in five main ports: [[Port of Namibe|Namibe]], [[Port of Lobito|Lobito]], [[Soyo]], [[Cabinda (city)|Cabinda]] and Luanda. The [[port of Luanda]] is the largest of the five, as well as being one of the busiest on the African continent. Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is (which year ?) often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While a reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and the war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternate tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The [[Angolan government]] has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union, and is comparable to many European main routes. Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Telecommunications"
]
| The [[telecommunication]] industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola. In October 2014, the building of an [[optic fiber]] underwater cable was announced. This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub, thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally. On 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held in [[Luanda]] under the motto "The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola", to promote debate on topical issues on [[telecommunications]] in Angola and worldwide. A study of this sector, presented at the forum, said Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test LTE – with speeds up to 400 Mbit/s – and mobile penetration of about 75%; there are about 3.5 million [[smartphone]] in the Angolan market; There are about of optical fibre installed in the country. The first Angolan [[satellite]], [[Angosat 1|AngoSat-1]], was launched into orbit on 26 December 2017. It was launched from the [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur space center]] in Kazakhstan on board a [[Zenit-3F|Zenit 3F]] rocket. The satellite was built by Russia's [[RSC Energia]], a subsidiary of the state-run space industry player [[Roscosmos]]. The satellite payload was supplied by [[Airbus Defence & Space]]. Due to an on-board power failure during solar panel deployment, on 27 December, RSC Energia revealed that they lost communications contact with the satellite. Although, subsequent attempts to restore communications with the satellite were successful, the satellite eventually stopped sending data and RSC Energia confirmed that AngoSat-1 was inoperable. The launch of AngoSat-1 was aimed at ensuring telecommunications throughout the country. According to Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, the satellite was aimed at providing telecommunications services, TV, internet and [[e-government]] and was expected to remain in orbit "at best" for 18 years. A replacement satellite named AngoSat-2 is in the works and is expected to be in service by 2020. As of February 2021, Ango-Sat-2 was about 60% ready. The officials reported the launch is expected in about 17 months, by July 2022. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Economy",
"Technology"
]
| The management of the [[top-level domain]] '.ao' passed from [[Portugal]] to Angola in 2015, following new legislation. A joint decree of Minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies José Carvalho da Rocha and the minister of Science and Technology, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, states that "under the massification" of that Angolan domain, "conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root '.ao' of Portugal to Angola". | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Demographics"
]
| Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census, the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970. It is composed of [[Ovimbundu]] (language [[Umbundu]]) 37%, [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]] (language [[Kimbundu]]) 23%, [[Bakongo]] 13%, and 32% other ethnic groups (including the [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]], the [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]], the [[Ganguela]] and the [[Xindonga]]) as well as about 2% ''[[mestiço]]'' (mixed European and African), 1.6% Chinese and 1% European. The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of the population, at 62%. The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people in 2050, 2.7 times the 2014 population. However, on 23 March 2016, official data revealed by Angola's National Statistic Institute – Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE), states that Angola has a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants. It is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo, who arrived in the 1970s. there were an estimated 400,000 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] migrant workers, at least 220,000 [[Portuguese Angolans|Portuguese]], and about 259,000 [[Chinese people in Angola|Chinese living in Angola]]. 1 million Angolans are [[mixed race]] (black and white). Since 2003, more than 400,000 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] migrants have been expelled from Angola. Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese, but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola. The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants. Also, there is a small [[Brazil]] community of about 5,000 people. , the [[total fertility rate]] of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman (2012 estimates), the 11th highest in the world. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Languages"
]
| The languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], introduced during the Portuguese colonial era. The most widely spoken indigenous languages are [[Umbundu]], [[Kimbundu]] and [[Kikongo]], in that order. Portuguese is the official language of the country. Although the exact numbers of those fluent in Portuguese or who speak Portuguese as a first language are unknown, a 2012 study mentions that Portuguese is the first language of 39% of the population. In 2014, a census carried out by the Instituto Nacional de Estatística in Angola mentions that 71.15% of the nearly 25.8 million inhabitants of Angola (meaning around 18.3 million people) use Portuguese as a first or second language. According to the 2014 census, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is spoken by 71.1% of Angolans, [[Umbundu language|Umbundu]] by 23%, [[Kikongo language|Kikongo]] by 8.2%, [[Kimbundu]] by 7.8%, [[Chokwe language|Chokwe]] by 6.5%, [[Nyaneka language|Nyaneka]] by 3.4%, [[Ngangela language|Ngangela]] by 3.1%, [[Fiote language|Fiote]] by 2.4%, [[Kwanyama language|Kwanyama]] by 2.3%, [[Muhumbi language|Muhumbi]] by 2.1%, [[Luvale language|Luvale]] by 1%, and [[Languages of Angola|other languages]] by 4.1%. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Religion"
]
| There are about 1,000 religious communities, mostly Christian, in Angola. While reliable statistics are nonexistent, estimates have it that more than half of the population are Catholics, while about a quarter adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period: the [[Congregationalist]] mainly among the [[Ovimbundu]] of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its west, the [[Methodists]] concentrating on the [[Kimbundu]] speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje, the [[Baptists]] almost exclusively among the [[Bakongo]] of the north-west (now present in Luanda as well) and dispersed [[Adventists]], [[Reformed]] and [[Lutherans]]. In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the "[[syncretic]]" [[Tocoists]] and in the north-west a sprinkling of [[Kimbanguism]] can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zaïre. Since independence, hundreds of [[Pentecostal]] and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, whereby now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin. the [[U.S. Department of State]] estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000, less than 1% of the population, while the [[Islam in Angola|Islamic Community of Angola]] puts the figure closer to 500,000. Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East (especially [[Lebanon]]), although some are local converts. The Angolan government does not [[Islam in Angola#Legal status|legally recognize]] any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction. In a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution, Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion, 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion, 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution. Foreign [[Missionary|missionaries]] were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations. The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the "New Churches" which actively proselytize. Catholics, as well as some major Protestant denominations, provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds, farm animals, medical care and education. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Health"
]
| Epidemics of [[cholera]], [[malaria]], [[rabies]] and African [[hemorrhagic]] fevers like [[Marburg virus|Marburg hemorrhagic fever]], are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of [[tuberculosis]] and high [[HIV/AIDS in Africa|HIV prevalence]] rates. [[Dengue]], [[filariasis]], [[leishmaniasis]] and [[onchocerciasis]] (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest [[infant mortality rate]] in the world and one of the world's lowest [[life expectancies]]. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient [[niacin]] status was common in Angola. [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria, domestic violence and more. In September 2014, the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) was created by presidential decree, and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola. The purpose of this new centre is to ensure health and medical care in [[oncology]], policy implementation, programmes and plans for prevention and specialised treatment. This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa. In 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of [[vaccination]] against [[measles]], extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country. The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunisation, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against [[polio]] and [[vitamin A]] supplementation. A [[2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak|yellow fever]] outbreak, the worst in the country in three decades began in December 2015. By August 2016, when the outbreak began to subside, nearly 4,000 people were suspected of being infected. As many as 369 may have died. The outbreak began in the capital, Luanda, and spread to at least 16 of the 18 provinces. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Education"
]
| Although by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of pupils are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers. Pupils are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies. In 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 per cent. Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of pupils formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 per cent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school. It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls. During the [[Angolan Civil War]] (1975–2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding. The Ministry of Education recruited 20,000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher training. Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day). Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their pupils. Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school. Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded. According to estimates by the [[UNESCO Institute for Statistics]], the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4%. By 2015, this had increased to 71.1%. 82.9% of men and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001. Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools, [[politechnic|polytechnical]] institutes and universities in [[Portugal]] and [[Brazil]] through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites. In September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million [[Euro]] in the computerisation of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, "as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching". | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Demographics",
"Education"
]
| In 2010, the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network, distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive, multimedia resources and computers with Internet access, as well as areas for reading, researching and socialising. The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries, in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country. At this time, the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA, the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
[
"Culture"
]
| Angolan culture has been heavily influenced by [[Portuguese culture]], especially in terms of language and religion, and the culture of the indigenous ethnic groups of Angola, predominantly [[Bantu people|Bantu culture]]. The diverse ethnic communities—the [[Ovimbundu]], [[Northern Mbundu people|Ambundu]], [[Bakongo]], [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]], [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]] and other peoples—to varying degrees maintain their own cultural traits, traditions and languages, but in the cities, where slightly more than half of the population now lives, a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times; in [[Luanda]], since its foundation in the 16th century. In this urban culture, Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. African roots are evident in music and dance and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature, especially in the works of [[Angolan literature|Angolan authors]]. In 2014, Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25-year break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals and lasted for 20 days, with the theme ”Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development. | 701 | Angola | [
"Angola",
"1975 establishments in Angola",
"Central African countries",
"Countries in Africa",
"Former Portuguese colonies",
"Least developed countries",
"Member states of OPEC",
"Member states of the African Union",
"Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries",
"Member states of the United Nations",
"Portuguese-speaking countries and territories",
"Republics",
"Southern African countries",
"States and territories established in 1975"
]
| [
"Index of Angola-related articles",
"Outline of Angola"
]
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.