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[
"History",
"Ancient"
] | Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were [[Herophilus]] and [[Erasistratus]]. These two physicians helped pioneer human [[dissection]] for medical research. They also conducted [[vivisection]] on the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance—Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the course of disease. Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis. Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves. Great feats were made during the third century BCE in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus was able to discover and describe not only the salivary glands, but the small intestine and liver. He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland. The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the ''[[Hippocratic Corpus]]'', an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors. [[Aristotle]] described [[vertebrate]] anatomy based on animal [[dissection]]. [[Praxagoras]] identified the difference between [[artery|arteries]] and [[vein]]. Also in the 4th century BCE, [[Herophilos]] and [[Erasistratus]] produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on [[vivisection]] of criminals in [[Alexandria]] during the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic dynasty]]. | 674 | Anatomy | [
"Anatomy",
"Anatomical terminology",
"Branches of biology",
"Morphology (biology)"
] | [
"Plastination",
"Outline of human anatomy",
"Anatomical model"
] |
[
"History",
"Ancient"
] | In the 2nd century, [[Galen of Pergamum]], an [[anatomist]], [[clinician]], writer and [[Philosophy|philosopher]], wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times. He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals. He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his [[vivisection]] experiments on animals. Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years. His work was known to [[Renaissance]] doctors only through [[Islamic Golden Age]] medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time in the 15th century. | 674 | Anatomy | [
"Anatomy",
"Anatomical terminology",
"Branches of biology",
"Morphology (biology)"
] | [
"Plastination",
"Outline of human anatomy",
"Anatomical model"
] |
[
"History",
"Medieval to early modern"
] | Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid". Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists [[Mondino de Luzzi]], [[Alessandro Achillini]] and [[Antonio Benivieni]] at [[Bologna]] carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times. Mondino's ''Anatomy'' of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, then the thorax, then the head and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century. [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by [[Andrea del Verrocchio]]. He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected. [[Andreas Vesalius]] (1514–1564) (Latinized from Andries van Wezel), professor of anatomy at the [[University of Padua]], is considered the founder of modern human anatomy. Originally from [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]], Vesalius published the influential book ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' ("the structure of the human body"), a large format book in seven volumes, in 1543. The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations, often in [[allegory|allegorical]] poses against Italianate landscapes, are thought to have been made by the artist [[Jan van Calcar]], a pupil of [[Titian]]. In England, anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science; these were given by the [[Barber surgeon|Company of Barbers and Surgeons]] in the 16th century, joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the [[Royal College of Physicians]]. | 674 | Anatomy | [
"Anatomy",
"Anatomical terminology",
"Branches of biology",
"Morphology (biology)"
] | [
"Plastination",
"Outline of human anatomy",
"Anatomical model"
] |
[
"History",
"Late modern"
] | In the United States, medical schools began to be set up towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and these were difficult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore and New York were all renowned for [[body snatching]] activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their coffins. A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even [[anatomy murder]] were practised to obtain cadavers. Some graveyards were in consequence protected with watchtowers. The practice was halted in Britain by the [[Anatomy Act]] of 1832, while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician [[William S. Forbes]] of [[Jefferson Medical College]] was found guilty in 1882 of "complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of graves in Lebanon Cemetery". The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir [[John Struthers (anatomist)|John Struthers]], [[Regius Professor of Anatomy (Aberdeen)|Regius Professor of Anatomy]] at the [[University of Aberdeen]] from 1863 to 1889. He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of "pre-clinical" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of [[comparative anatomy]], published over 70 research papers, and became famous for his public dissection of the [[Tay Whale]]. From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools. Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching. [[Ignaz Semmelweis]] investigated [[puerperal fever]] and he discovered how it was caused. He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives. The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth. Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination, the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically. | 674 | Anatomy | [
"Anatomy",
"Anatomical terminology",
"Branches of biology",
"Morphology (biology)"
] | [
"Plastination",
"Outline of human anatomy",
"Anatomical model"
] |
[
"History",
"Late modern"
] | Before the modern medical era, the main means for studying the internal structures of the body were [[dissection]] of the dead and [[inspection]], [[palpation]] and [[auscultation]] of the living. It was the advent of [[microscopy]] that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of [[achromatic lens]] increased the [[Angular resolution|resolving power]] of the microscope and around 1839, [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden]] and [[Theodor Schwann]] identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the [[microtome]] was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. Advances in the fields of [[histology]] and [[Cell biology|cytology]] began in the late 19th century along with advances in surgical techniques allowing for the painless and safe removal of [[biopsy]] specimens. The invention of the [[electron microscope]] brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the [[ultrastructure]] of cells and the [[organelle]] and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of [[X-ray diffraction]] for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of [[molecular anatomy]]. Equally important advances have occurred in ''non-invasive'' techniques for examining the interior structures of the body. [[X-ray]] can be passed through the body and used in medical [[radiography]] and [[fluoroscopy]] to differentiate interior structures that have varying degrees of opaqueness. [[Magnetic resonance imaging]], [[X-ray computed tomography|computed tomography]], and [[Medical ultrasonography|ultrasound imaging]] have all enabled examination of internal structures in unprecedented detail to a degree far beyond the imagination of earlier generations. | 674 | Anatomy | [
"Anatomy",
"Anatomical terminology",
"Branches of biology",
"Morphology (biology)"
] | [
"Plastination",
"Outline of human anatomy",
"Anatomical model"
] |
[] | '''Affirming the consequent''', sometimes called '''converse error''', '''fallacy of the converse''', or '''confusion of necessity and sufficiency''', is a [[formal fallacy]] of taking a true [[indicative conditional|conditional]] statement (e.g., "If the lamp were broken, then the room would be dark,") and invalidly inferring its converse ("The room is dark, so the lamp is broken,") even though the converse may not be true. This arises when a consequent ("the room would be dark") has more than one ''other'' possible antecedents (for example, "the lamp is not plugged in" or "the lamp is in working order, but is switched off"). Converse errors are common in everyday thinking and communication and can result from, among other causes, communication issues, misconceptions about logic, and failure to consider other causes. The opposite statement, [[modus tollens|denying the consequent]], ''is'' a valid form of argument. | 675 | Affirming the consequent | [
"Propositional fallacies"
] | [
"Appeal to consequences",
"Fallacy of the single cause",
"Fallacy of the undistributed middle",
"Inference to the best explanation",
"ELIZA effect",
"Necessity and sufficiency",
"Post hoc ergo propter hoc",
"Modus tollens",
"List of fallacies",
"Confusion of the inverse",
"Modus ponens",
"Abductive reasoning",
"Denying the antecedent"
] |
[
"Formal description"
] | Affirming the consequent is the action of taking a true statement formula_1 and invalidly concluding its converse formula_2. The name ''affirming the [[consequent]]'' derives from using the consequent, ''Q'', of formula_1, to conclude the antecedent ''P''. This illogic can be summarized formally as formula_4 or, alternatively, formula_5. The root cause of such a logic error is sometimes failure to realize that just because ''P'' is a ''possible'' condition for ''Q'', ''P'' may not be the ''only'' condition for ''Q'', i.e. ''Q'' may follow from another condition as well. Affirming the consequent can also result from overgeneralizing the experience of many statements ''having'' true converses. If ''P'' and ''Q'' are "equivalent" statements, i.e. formula_6, it ''is'' possible to infer ''P'' under the condition ''Q''. For example, the statements "It is August 13, so it is my birthday" formula_1 and "It is my birthday, so it is August 13" formula_2 are equivalent and both true consequences of the statement "August 13 is my birthday" (an abbreviated form of formula_6). Using one statement to conclude the other is ''not'' an example of affirming the consequent, but some people may misapply the approach. | 675 | Affirming the consequent | [
"Propositional fallacies"
] | [
"Appeal to consequences",
"Fallacy of the single cause",
"Fallacy of the undistributed middle",
"Inference to the best explanation",
"ELIZA effect",
"Necessity and sufficiency",
"Post hoc ergo propter hoc",
"Modus tollens",
"List of fallacies",
"Confusion of the inverse",
"Modus ponens",
"Abductive reasoning",
"Denying the antecedent"
] |
[
"Additional examples"
] | '''Example 1''' One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For example: If [[Bill Gates]] owns [[United States Bullion Depository|Fort Knox]], then Bill Gates is [[Wealth|rich]]. Bill Gates is rich. Therefore, Bill Gates owns Fort Knox. Owning Fort Knox is not the ''only'' way to be rich. Any number of other ways to be rich exist. However, one can affirm with certainty that "if someone is not rich" (''non-Q''), then "this person does not own Fort Knox" (''non-P''). This is the [[contrapositive]] of the first statement, and it must be true if and only if the original statement is true. '''Example 2''' Here is another useful, obviously-fallacious example, but one that does not require familiarity with who [[Bill Gates]] is and what [[United States Bullion Depository|Fort Knox]] is: If an animal is a dog, then it has four legs. My cat has four legs. Therefore, my cat is a dog. Here, it is immediately intuitive that any number of other antecedents ("If an animal is a deer...", "If an animal is an elephant...", "If an animal is a moose...", ''etc.'') can give rise to the consequent ("then it has four legs"), and that it is preposterous to suppose that having four legs ''must'' imply that the animal is a dog and nothing else. This is useful as a teaching example since most people can immediately recognize that the conclusion reached must be wrong (intuitively, a cat cannot be a dog), and that the method by which it was reached must therefore be fallacious. '''Example 3''' Arguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing, as in the following example: If Brian had been thrown off the top of the [[Eiffel Tower]], then he would be dead. Brian is dead. Therefore, Brian was thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower. Being thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower is not the ''only'' cause of death, since there exist numerous different causes of death. Affirming the consequent is commonly used in [[rationalization (psychology)|rationalization]], and thus appears as a [[coping mechanism]] in some people. '''Example 4''' In ''[[Catch-22]]'', the chaplain is interrogated for supposedly being "Washington Irving"/"Irving Washington", who has been blocking out large portions of soldiers' letters home. The colonel has found such a letter, but with the Chaplain's name signed. "You can read, though, can't you?" the colonel persevered sarcastically. "The author signed his name." "That's my name there." "Then you wrote it. [[Q.E.D.]]" ''P'' in this case is 'The chaplain signs his own name', and ''Q'' 'The chaplain's name is written'. The chaplain's name may be written, but he did not necessarily write it, as the colonel falsely concludes.'' | 675 | Affirming the consequent | [
"Propositional fallacies"
] | [
"Appeal to consequences",
"Fallacy of the single cause",
"Fallacy of the undistributed middle",
"Inference to the best explanation",
"ELIZA effect",
"Necessity and sufficiency",
"Post hoc ergo propter hoc",
"Modus tollens",
"List of fallacies",
"Confusion of the inverse",
"Modus ponens",
"Abductive reasoning",
"Denying the antecedent"
] |
[] | '''Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky''' (; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Soviet-era Russian filmmaker, theatre director, writer, and [[film theory|film theorist]]. He is widely considered one of the greatest and most influential directors in the history of Russian and world cinema. His films explored spiritual and metaphysical themes, and are noted for their slow pacing and long takes, dreamlike visual imagery, and preoccupation with nature and memory. Tarkovsky studied film at Moscow's [[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography|VGIK]] under filmmaker [[Mikhail Romm]], and subsequently directed his first five [[feature film]] in the [[Soviet Union]]: ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' (1962), ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' (1966), ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' (1972), ''[[Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' (1975), and ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' (1979). After years of creative conflict with [[State Committee for Cinematography|state film authorities]], Tarkovsky left the country in 1979 and made his final two films abroad; ''[[Nostalghia]]'' (1983) and ''[[The Sacrifice (1986 film)|The Sacrifice]]'' (1986) were produced in Italy and Sweden respectively. In 1986, he also published a book about cinema and art entitled ''[[Sculpting in Time]]''. He died of cancer later that year. Tarkovsky was the recipient of several awards at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] throughout his career (including the [[International Federation of Film Critics|FIPRESCI prize]], the [[Prize of the Ecumenical Jury]], and the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]]) and winner of the [[Golden Lion]] award at the [[Venice Film Festival]] for his debut film ''Ivan's Childhood''. In 1990, he was posthumously awarded the Soviet Union's prestigious [[Lenin Prize]]. Three of his films—''Andrei Rublev'', ''Mirror'', and ''Stalker''—featured in [[Sight & Sound]]'s [[The Sight & Sound Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time#Critics' poll|2012 poll of the 100 greatest films of all time]]. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
"Directors of Golden Lion winners",
"Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award",
"Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni",
"High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty",
"Lenin Prize winners",
"People from Kadyysky District",
"People's Artists of the RSFSR",
"Russian film directors",
"Russian male actors",
"Russian opera directors",
"Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia",
"Russian people of Polish descent",
"Russian people of Romanian descent",
"Science fiction film directors",
"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Life and career",
"Childhood and early life"
] | Andrei Tarkovsky was born in the village of Zavrazhye in the [[Yuryevetsky District]] of the [[Ivanovo Oblast|Ivanovo Industrial Oblast]] (modern-day [[Kadyysky District]] of the [[Kostroma Oblast]], Russia) to the poet and translator [[Arseny Tarkovsky|Arseny Alexandrovich Tarkovsky]], a native of [[Kropyvnytskyi|Yelisavetgrad]], [[Kherson Governorate]], and Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, a graduate of the [[Maxim Gorky Literature Institute]] who later worked as a [[corrector]]; she was born in Moscow in the Dubasov family estate. Andrei's paternal grandfather Aleksandr Karlovich Tarkovsky (in ) was a [[Poles|Polish]] nobleman who worked as a bank clerk. His wife Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya was a [[Romanians|Romanian]] teacher who arrived from [[Iași]]. Andrei's maternal grandmother Vera Nikolaevna Vishnyakova (née Dubasova) belonged to an old Dubasov family of [[Russian nobility]] that traces its history back to the 17th century; among her relatives was Admiral [[Fyodor Dubasov]], a fact she had to conceal during the Soviet days. She was married to Ivan Ivanovich Vishnyakov, a native of the [[Kaluga Governorate]] who studied law at the [[Moscow State University]] and served as a judge in [[Kozelsk]]. According to the family legend, Tarkovsky's ancestors on his father's side were princes from the [[Shamkhalate of Tarki]], [[Dagestan]], although his sister Marina Tarkovskaya who did a detailed research on their genealogy called it "a myth, even a prank of sorts," stressing that none of the documents confirms this version. Tarkovsky spent his childhood in [[Yuryevets, Ivanovo Oblast|Yuryevets]]. He was described by childhood friends as active and popular, having many friends and being typically in the center of action. His father left the family in 1937, subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941. He returned home in 1943, having been awarded a [[Order of the Red Star|Red Star]] after being shot in one of his legs (which he would eventually need to amputate due to [[gangrene]]). Tarkovsky stayed with his mother, moving with her and his sister Marina to Moscow, where she worked as a proofreader at a printing press. In 1939 Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No. 554. During the war, the three evacuated to [[Yuryevets, Ivanovo Oblast|Yuryevets]], living with his maternal grandmother. In 1943 the family returned to Moscow. Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school, where the poet [[Andrei Voznesensky]] was one of his classmates. He studied piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school. The family lived on Shchipok Street in the [[Zamoskvorechye District]] in Moscow. From November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in the hospital with [[tuberculosis]]. Many themes of his childhood—the evacuation, his mother and her two children, the withdrawn father, the time in the hospital—feature prominently in his film ''[[Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]''. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
"Directors of Golden Lion winners",
"Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award",
"Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni",
"High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty",
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"Russian people of Polish descent",
"Russian people of Romanian descent",
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"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Life and career",
"Childhood and early life"
] | In his school years, Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and a poor student. He still managed to graduate, and from 1951 to 1952 studied [[Arabic]] at the Oriental Institute in Moscow, a branch of the [[Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union]]. Although he already spoke some Arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters, he did not finish his studies and dropped out to work as a prospector for the Academy of Science Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals and Gold. He participated in a year-long research expedition to the river Kureikye near [[Turukhansk]] in the [[Krasnoyarsk Krai|Krasnoyarsk Province]]. During this time in the [[taiga]], Tarkovsky decided to study film. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
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"High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty",
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"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Life and career",
"Film school student"
] | Upon returning from the research expedition in 1954, Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography ([[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography|VGIK]]) and was admitted to the film-directing program. He was in the same class as [[Irma Raush]] whom he married in April 1957. The early [[History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)|Khrushchev era]] offered good opportunities for young film directors. Before 1953, annual film production was low and most films were directed by veteran directors. After 1953, more films were produced, many of them by young directors. The [[Khrushchev Thaw]] relaxed Soviet social restrictions a bit and permitted a limited influx of European and North American literature, films and music. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of the [[Italian neorealism|Italian neorealists]], [[French New Wave]], and of directors such as [[Akira Kurosawa|Kurosawa]], [[Luis Buñuel|Buñuel]], [[Ingmar Bergman|Bergman]], [[Robert Bresson|Bresson]], [[Andrzej Wajda|Wajda]] (whose film ''[[Ashes and Diamonds (film)|Ashes and Diamonds]]'' influenced Tarkovsky) and [[Kenji Mizoguchi|Mizoguchi]]. Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was [[Mikhail Romm]], who taught many film students who would later become influential film directors. In 1956 Tarkovsky directed his first student short film, ''[[The Killers (1956 film)|The Killers]]'', from a short story of [[Ernest Hemingway]]. The short film ''[[There Will Be No Leave Today]]'' and the [[screenplay]] ''[[Concentrate (screenplay)|Concentrate]]'' followed in 1958 and 1959. An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director [[Grigory Chukhray]], who was teaching at the VGIK. Impressed by the talent of his student, Chukhray offered Tarkovsky a position as assistant director for his film ''Clear Skies''. Tarkovsky initially showed interest but then decided to concentrate on his studies and his own projects. During his third year at the VGIK, Tarkovsky met [[Andrei Konchalovsky]]. They found much in common as they liked the same film directors and shared ideas on cinema and films. In 1959 they wrote the script ''Antarctica – Distant Country'', which was later published in the ''[[Moskovsky Komsomolets]]''. Tarkovsky submitted the script to [[Lenfilm]], but it was rejected. They were more successful with the script ''[[The Steamroller and the Violin]]'', which they sold to [[Mosfilm]]. This became Tarkovsky's graduation project, earning him his diploma in 1960 and winning First Prize at the New York Student Film Festival in 1961. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
"Directors of Golden Lion winners",
"Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award",
"Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni",
"High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty",
"Lenin Prize winners",
"People from Kadyysky District",
"People's Artists of the RSFSR",
"Russian film directors",
"Russian male actors",
"Russian opera directors",
"Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia",
"Russian people of Polish descent",
"Russian people of Romanian descent",
"Science fiction film directors",
"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Life and career",
"Film career in the Soviet Union"
] | Tarkovsky's first feature film was ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' in 1962. He had inherited the film from director Eduard Abalov, who had to abort the project. The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and won the [[Golden Lion]] award at the [[Venice Film Festival]] in the year 1962. In the same year, on 30 September, his first son Arseny (called Senka in Tarkovsky's diaries) Tarkovsky was born. In 1965, he directed the film ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' about the life of [[Andrei Rublev]], the fifteenth-century Russian [[iconography|icon painter]]. ''Andrei Rublev'' was not, except for a single screening in Moscow in 1966, immediately released after completion due to problems with Soviet authorities. Tarkovsky had to cut the film several times, resulting in several different versions of varying lengths. The film was widely released in the Soviet Union in a cut version in 1971. Nevertheless, the film had a budget of more than 1 million rubles – a significant sum for that period. A version of the film was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] in 1969 and won the [[International Federation of Film Critics|FIPRESCI prize]]. He divorced his wife, [[Irma Raush]], in June 1970. In the same year, he married [[Larisa Tarkovskaya|Larissa Kizilova]] (née Egorkina), who had been a production assistant for the film ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' (they had been living together since 1965). Their son, Andrei Andreyevich Tarkovsky, was born in the same year on 7 August. In 1972, he completed ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'', an adaptation of the novel ''[[Solaris (novel)|Solaris]]'' by [[Stanisław Lem]]. He had worked on this together with screenwriter [[Friedrich Gorenstein]] as early as 1968. The film was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]], won the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]], and was nominated for the [[Palme d'Or]]. From 1973 to 1974, he shot the film ''[[Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'', a highly autobiographical and unconventionally structured film drawing on his childhood and incorporating some of his father's poems. In this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of childhood affected by war. Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for this film since 1967, under the consecutive titles ''Confession'', ''White day'' and ''A white, white day''. From the beginning the film was not well received by Soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature. Soviet authorities placed the film in the "third category", a severely limited distribution, and only allowed it to be shown in third-class cinemas and workers' clubs. Few prints were made and the film-makers received no returns. Third category films also placed the film-makers in danger of being accused of wasting public funds, which could have serious effects on their future productivity. These difficulties are presumed to have made Tarkovsky play with the idea of going abroad and producing a film outside the Soviet film industry. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
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"European art cinema",
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[
"Life and career",
"Film career in the Soviet Union"
] | During 1975, Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay ''[[Hoffmanniana]]'', about the German writer and poet [[E. T. A. Hoffmann]]. In December 1976, he directed ''[[Hamlet]]'', his only stage play, at the [[Lenkom Theatre]] in Moscow. The main role was played by [[Anatoly Solonitsyn]], who also acted in several of Tarkovsky's films. At the end of 1978, he also wrote the screenplay ''Sardor'' together with the writer Aleksandr Misharin. The last film Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'', inspired by the novel ''[[Roadside Picnic]]'' by the brothers [[Arkady and Boris Strugatsky]]. Tarkovsky had met the brothers first in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death in 1986. Initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel ''[[Dead Mountaineer's Hotel]]'' and he developed a raw script. Influenced by a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and began to work on the script based on ''Roadside Picnic''. Work on this film began in 1976. The production was mired in troubles; improper development of the negatives had ruined all the exterior shots. Tarkovsky's relationship with cinematographer [[Georgy Rerberg]] deteriorated to the point where he hired [[Alexander Knyazhinsky]] as a new first cinematographer. Furthermore, Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978, resulting in further delay. The film was completed in 1979 and won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the [[Cannes Film Festival]]. In a question and answer session at the [[Edinburgh Filmhouse]] on 11 February 1981, Tarkovsky trenchantly rejected suggestions that the film was either impenetrably mysterious or a political [[allegory]]. In 1979 Tarkovsky began production of the film ''The First Day'' (Russian: Первый День ''Pervyj Dyen''), based on a script by his friend and long-term collaborator [[Andrei Konchalovsky]]. The film was set in 18th-century Russia during the reign of [[Peter the Great]] and starred [[Natalya Bondarchuk]] and [[Anatoli Papanov]]. To get the project approved by [[State Committee for Cinematography|Goskino]], Tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script, omitting several scenes that were critical of the [[Religion in the Soviet Union|official atheism in the Soviet Union]]. After shooting roughly half of the film the project was stopped by Goskino after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted to the censors. Tarkovsky was reportedly infuriated by this interruption and destroyed most of the film. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
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"European art cinema",
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[
"Life and career",
"Film career outside the Soviet Union"
] | During the summer of 1979, Tarkovsky traveled to Italy, where he shot the documentary ''[[Voyage in Time]]'' together with his long-time friend [[Tonino Guerra]]. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1980 for an extended trip, during which he and Guerra completed the script for the film ''[[Nostalghia]]''. During this period, he took Polaroid photographs depicting his personal life. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1982 to start shooting ''Nostalghia''. He did not return to his home country. As [[Mosfilm]] withdrew from the project, he had to complete the film with financial support provided by the Italian [[RAI]]. Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983. ''Nostalghia'' was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and won the [[International Federation of Film Critics|FIPRESCI prize]] and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called ''Grand Prix du cinéma de creation'' with [[Robert Bresson]]. Soviet authorities prevented the film from winning the [[Palme d'Or]], a fact that hardened Tarkovsky's resolve to never work in the Soviet Union again. He also said: "I am not a Soviet dissident, I have no conflict with the Soviet Government." But if he returned home, he added, "[he] would be unemployed." In the same year, he also staged the opera ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'' at the [[Royal Opera House]] in London under the musical direction of [[Claudio Abbado]]. He spent most of 1984 preparing the film ''[[The Sacrifice (1986 film)|The Sacrifice]]''. At a press conference in [[Milan]] on 10 July 1984, he announced that he would never return to the Soviet Union and would remain in Europe. At that time, his son Andrei Andreyevich was still in the Soviet Union and not allowed to leave the country. On 28 August 1985, Tarkovsky arrived at Latina Refugee Camp in [[Latina, Lazio|Latina]], where he was registered with the serial number 13225/379. ''The Sacrifice'' was Tarkovsky's last film, dedicated to his son, Andrei Andreyevich. ''Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky'', which documents the making of ''The Sacrifice'', was released after the filmmaker's death in 1986. In a particularly poignant scene, writer/director [[Michal Leszczylowski]] follows Tarkovsky on a walk as he expresses his sentiments on death — he claims himself to be immortal and has no fear of dying. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
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[
"Life and career",
"Death"
] | During 1985, he shot the film ''The Sacrifice'' in Sweden. At the end of the year he was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. In January 1986, he began treatment in Paris and was joined there by his son, who was finally allowed to leave the Soviet Union. ''The Sacrifice'' was presented at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and received the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]], the [[International Federation of Film Critics|FIPRESCI prize]] and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. As Tarkovsky was unable to attend due to his illness, the prizes were collected by his son, Andrei Andreyevich. In Tarkovsky's last [[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970–1986|diary]] entry (15 December 1986), he wrote: "But now I have no strength left — that is the problem". The diaries are sometimes also known as ''[[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970–1986|Martyrolog]]'' and were published posthumously in 1989 and in English in 1991. Tarkovsky died in Paris on 29 December 1986. His funeral ceremony was held at the [[Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Paris|Alexander Nevsky Cathedral]]. He was buried on 3 January 1987 in the [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery|Russian Cemetery]] in [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois, Essonne|Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois]] in France. The inscription on his gravestone, which was conceived by Tarkovsky's wife, Larisa Tarkovskaya, reads: ''To the man who saw the Angel''. A conspiracy theory emerged in Russia in the early 1990s when it was alleged that Tarkovsky did not die of natural causes, but was assassinated by the [[KGB]]. Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies by former KGB agents who claim that [[Viktor Chebrikov]] gave the order to eradicate Tarkovsky to curtail what the Soviet government and the KGB saw as [[Anti-Soviet agitation|anti-Soviet propaganda]] by Tarkovsky. Other evidence includes several memoranda that surfaced after the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|1991 coup]] and the claim by one of Tarkovsky's doctors that his cancer could not have developed from a natural cause. As with Tarkovsky, his wife [[Larisa Tarkovskaya]] and actor [[Anatoly Solonitsyn]] all died from the very same type of lung cancer. Vladimir Sharun, sound designer in ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'', is convinced that they were all poisoned by the chemical plant where they were shooting the film. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
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[
"Influences"
] | Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s, a period referred to as the [[Khrushchev Thaw]], during which Soviet society opened to foreign films, literature and music, among other things. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of European, American and Japanese directors, an experience that influenced his own film making. His teacher and mentor at the film school, [[Mikhail Romm]], allowed his students considerable freedom and emphasized the independence of the film director. Tarkovsky was, according to fellow student Shavkat Abdusalmov, fascinated by Japanese films. He was amazed by how every character on the screen is exceptional and how everyday events such as a Samurai cutting bread with his sword are elevated to something special and put into the limelight. Tarkovsky has also expressed interest in the art of [[Haiku]] and its ability to create "images in such a way that they mean nothing beyond themselves". Tarkovsky was also a deeply religious Orthodox Christian, who believed great art should have a higher spiritual purpose. He was a perfectionist not given to humor or humility: his signature style was ponderous and literary, having many characters that pondered over religious themes and issues regarding faith. Tarkovsky perceived that the art of cinema has only been truly mastered by very few filmmakers, stating in a 1970 interview with Naum Abramov that "they can be counted on the fingers of one hand". In 1972, Tarkovsky told film historian [[Leonid Kozlov]] his ten favorite films. The list includes: ''[[Diary of a Country Priest]]'' and ''[[Mouchette]]'' by [[Robert Bresson]]; ''[[Winter Light]]'', ''[[Wild Strawberries (film)|Wild Strawberries]]'', and ''[[Persona (1966 film)|Persona]]'' by [[Ingmar Bergman]]; ''[[Nazarín]]'' by [[Luis Buñuel]]; ''[[City Lights]]'' by [[Charlie Chaplin]]; ''[[Ugetsu]]'' by [[Kenji Mizoguchi]]; ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' by [[Akira Kurosawa]], and ''[[Woman in the Dunes]]'' by [[Hiroshi Teshigahara]]. Among his favorite directors were Buñuel, Mizoguchi, Bergman, Bresson, Kurosawa, [[Michelangelo Antonioni]], [[Jean Vigo]], and [[Carl Theodor Dreyer]]. With the exception of ''City Lights'', the list does not contain any films of the early silent era. The reason is that Tarkovsky saw film as an art as only a relatively recent phenomenon, with the early film-making forming only a prelude. The list has also no films or directors from Tarkovsky's native Russia, although he rated Soviet directors such as [[Boris Barnet]], [[Sergei Parajanov]] and [[Alexander Dovzhenko]] highly. He said of Dovzhenko's ''[[Earth (1930 film)|Earth]]'': "I have lived a lot among very simple farmers and met extraordinary people. They spread calmness, had such tact, they conveyed a feeling of dignity and displayed wisdom that I have seldom come across on such a scale. Dovzhenko had obviously understood wherein the sense of life resides. [...] This trespassing of the border between nature and mankind is an ideal place for the existence of man. Dovzhenko understood this." | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
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"European art cinema",
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] |
[
"Influences"
] | Andrei Tarkovsky was not a fan of science fiction, largely dismissing it for its "comic book" trappings and vulgar commercialism. However, in a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film ''[[The Terminator]]'', saying that its "vision of the future and the relation between man and its destiny is pushing the frontier of cinema as an art". He was critical of the "brutality and low acting skills", but was nevertheless impressed by the film. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
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"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
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"European art cinema",
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[
"Cinematic style"
] | In a 1962 interview, Tarkovsky argued: "All art, of course, is intellectual, but for me, all the arts, and cinema even more so, must above all be emotional and act upon the heart." His films are characterized by [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] themes, extremely [[long take]], and images often considered by critics to be of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, levitation, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. He once said: "Juxtaposing a person with an environment that is boundless, collating him with a countless number of people passing by close to him and far away, relating a person to the whole world, that is the meaning of cinema." Tarkovsky incorporated levitation scenes into several of his films, most notably ''Solaris''. To him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value and magical inexplicability. Water, clouds, and reflections were used by him for their surreal beauty and photogenic value, as well as their symbolism, such as waves or the forms of brooks or running water. Bells and candles are also frequent symbols. These are symbols of film, sight and sound, and Tarkovsky's film frequently has themes of self-reflection. Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in [[Real time (media)|real time]]. By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another. Up to, and including, his film ''[[Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'', Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory. After ''Mirror'', he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the [[Classical unities|dramatic unities]] proposed by [[Aristotle]]: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black-and-white sequences. This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'', which features a color epilogue of [[Andrei Rublev|Rublev's]] authentic religious icon paintings. All of his films afterwards contain monochrome, and in ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker's]]'' case [[Photographic print toning|sepia]] sequences, while otherwise being in color. In 1966, in an interview conducted shortly after finishing ''Andrei Rublev'', Tarkovsky dismissed color film as a "commercial gimmick" and cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color. He claimed that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors most of the time, and that color should therefore be used in film mainly to emphasize certain moments, but not all the time, as this distracts the viewer. To him, films in color were like moving paintings or photographs, which are too beautiful to be a realistic depiction of life. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
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[
"Cinematic style",
"Bergman on Tarkovsky"
] | [[Ingmar Bergman]], a renowned director, commented on Tarkovsky: Contrarily, however, Bergman conceded the truth in the claim made by a critic who wrote that "with ''[[Autumn Sonata]]'' Bergman does Bergman", adding: "Tarkovsky began to make Tarkovsky films, and that [[Federico Fellini|Fellini]] began to make Fellini films [...] [[Luis Buñuel|Buñuel]] nearly always made Buñuel films." This [[pastiche]] of one's own work has been derogatorily termed as "self-karaoke". | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
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"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
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] |
[
"Cinematic style",
"Vadim Yusov"
] | Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with cinematographer [[Vadim Yusov]] from 1958 to 1972, and much of the visual style of Tarkovsky's films can be attributed to this collaboration. Tarkovsky would spend two days preparing for Yusov to film a single long take, and due to the preparation, usually only a single take was needed. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
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"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
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] |
[
"Cinematic style",
"Sven Nykvist"
] | In his last film, ''[[The Sacrifice (1986 film)|The Sacrifice]]'', Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer [[Sven Nykvist]], who had worked on many films with director [[Ingmar Bergman]]. (Nykvist was not alone: several people involved in the production had previously collaborated with Bergman, notably lead actor [[Erland Josephson]], who had also acted for Tarkovsky in ''[[Nostalghia]]''.) Nykvist complained that Tarkovsky would frequently look through the camera and even direct actors through it, but ultimately stated that choosing to work with Tarkovsky was one of the best choices he had ever made. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
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] | [
"European art cinema",
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] |
[
"Filmography"
] | Tarkovsky is mainly known as a film director. During his career he directed seven feature films, as well as three shorts from his time at VGIK. His features are: (-) ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' (1962) (-) ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' (1966) (-) ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' (1972) (-) ''[[Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' (1975) (-) ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' (1979) (-) ''[[Nostalghia]]'' (1983) (-) ''[[The Sacrifice (1986 film)|The Sacrifice]]'' (1986) He also wrote several screenplays. Furthermore, he directed the play ''[[Hamlet]]'' for the stage in Moscow, directed the opera ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'' in London, and he directed a radio production of the short story ''Turnabout'' by [[William Faulkner]]. He also wrote ''[[Sculpting in Time]]'', a book on film theory. Tarkovsky's first feature film was ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' in 1962. He then directed ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' in 1966, ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' in 1972, ''[[Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' in 1975 and ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' in 1979. The documentary ''[[Voyage in Time]]'' was produced in Italy in 1982, as was ''[[Nostalghia]]'' in 1983. His last film ''[[The Sacrifice (1986 film)|The Sacrifice]]'' was produced in Sweden in 1986. Tarkovsky was personally involved in writing the screenplays for all his films, sometimes with a cowriter. Tarkovsky once said that a director who realizes somebody else's screenplay without being involved in it becomes a mere illustrator, resulting in dead and monotonous films. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
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"Deaths from lung cancer",
"Directors of Golden Lion winners",
"Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award",
"Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni",
"High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty",
"Lenin Prize winners",
"People from Kadyysky District",
"People's Artists of the RSFSR",
"Russian film directors",
"Russian male actors",
"Russian opera directors",
"Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia",
"Russian people of Polish descent",
"Russian people of Romanian descent",
"Science fiction film directors",
"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Published books"
] | (-) ''[[Sculpting in Time]]'', published in 1986 (-) ''[[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970–1986|Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970'''''–'''''1986]]'', published in 1989 A book of 60 photos, ''Instant Light, Tarkovsky Polaroids'', taken by Tarkovsky in Russia and Italy between 1979 and 1984 was published in 2006. The collection was selected by Italian photographer Giovanni Chiaramonte and Tarkovsky's son Andrey A. Tarkovsky. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
"Directors of Golden Lion winners",
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"Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia",
"Russian people of Polish descent",
"Russian people of Romanian descent",
"Science fiction film directors",
"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Unproduced screenplays",
"''Concentrate''"
] | '''''Concentrate''''' (, ''Kontsentrat'') is a never-filmed 1958 screenplay by Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year in the [[taiga]] as a member of a research expedition, prior to his enrollment in film school. It's about the leader of a geological expedition, who waits for the boat that brings back the [[concentrate]] collected by the expedition. The expedition is surrounded by mystery, and its purpose is a state secret. Although some authors claim that the screenplay was filmed, according to Marina Tarkovskaya, Tarkovsky's sister (and wife of Aleksandr Gordon, a fellow student of Tarkovsky during his film school years) the screenplay was never filmed. Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination at the State Institute of Cinematography ([[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography|VGIK]]) in a single sitting. He earned the highest possible grade, "excellent" () for this work. In 1994 fragments of ''Concentrate'' were filmed and used in the documentary ''Andrei Tarkovsky's Taiga Summer'' by Marina Tarkovskaya and Aleksandr Gordon. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
"Directors of Golden Lion winners",
"Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award",
"Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni",
"High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty",
"Lenin Prize winners",
"People from Kadyysky District",
"People's Artists of the RSFSR",
"Russian film directors",
"Russian male actors",
"Russian opera directors",
"Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia",
"Russian people of Polish descent",
"Russian people of Romanian descent",
"Science fiction film directors",
"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Unproduced screenplays",
"''Hoffmanniana''"
] | '''''Hoffmanniana''''' () is a never-filmed 1974 screenplay by Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on the life and work of German author [[E. T. A. Hoffmann]]. In 1974 an acquaintance from [[Tallinnfilm]] approached Tarkovsky to write a screenplay on a German theme. Tarkovsky considered [[Thomas Mann]] and E. T. A. Hoffmann, and also thought about [[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]]'s ''[[Peer Gynt]]''. In the end Tarkovsky signed a contract for a script based on the life and work of Hoffmann. He planned to write the script during the summer of 1974 at his [[dacha]]. Writing was not without difficulty, less than a month before the deadline he had not written a single page. He finally finished the project in late 1974 and submitted the final script to Tallinnfilm in October. Although the script was well received by the officials at Tallinnfilm, it was the consensus that no one but Tarkovsky would be able to direct it. The script was sent to [[State Committee for Cinematography|Goskino]] in February 1976, and although approval was granted for proceeding with making the film, the screenplay was never realized. In 1984, during the time of his exile in the West, Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and made a few changes. He also considered to finally direct a film based on the screenplay but ultimately dropped this idea. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
"Directors of Golden Lion winners",
"Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award",
"Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni",
"High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty",
"Lenin Prize winners",
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"Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia",
"Russian people of Polish descent",
"Russian people of Romanian descent",
"Science fiction film directors",
"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Films about Tarkovsky"
] | (-) ''[[Voyage in Time]]'' (1983): documents the travels in Italy of Andrei Tarkovsky in preparation for the making of his film ''Nostalghia'', [[Tonino Guerra]]. (-) ''Tarkovsky: A Poet in the Cinema'' (1984): directed by Donatella Baglivo. (-) Moscow Elegy (1987): a documentary/homage to Tarkovsky by Aleksandr Sokurov. (-) ''Auf der Suche nach der verlorenen Zeit'' (1988): Andrej Tarkowskijs Exil und Tod. Documentary directed by Ebbo Demant. Germany. (-) ''[[One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich]]'' (1999): French documentary film directed by [[Chris Marker]]. (-) "Andrey" (color/b&w, short-fiction, 35 mm, 15 min, 2006) A film by Nariné Mktchyan and Arsen Azatyan. Festivals: Yerevan IFF 2006, Rotterdam IFF 2007, Busan IFF 2007, Sydney IFF 2007, Zerkalo FF Ivanovo (Special Prize) 2008, Kinoshock FF 2014. (-) ''Tarkovsky: Time Within Time'' (2015): documentary by P. J. Letofsky. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
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"Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia",
"Russian people of Polish descent",
"Russian people of Romanian descent",
"Science fiction film directors",
"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Awards and commemoration"
] | Numerous awards were bestowed on Tarkovsky throughout his lifetime. (-) At the [[Venice Film Festival]], the [[Golden Lion]] of the for ''[[Ivan's Childhood]]'' (-) At the [[Cannes Film Festival]], the [[International Federation of Film Critics|FIPRESCI prize]] three times, the [[Prize of the Ecumenical Jury]] three times (more than any other director), the [[Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)|Grand Prix Spécial du Jury]] twice, and the [[Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director|Best Director]] award once. He was also nominated for the [[Palme d'Or]] three times. (-) In 1987, the [[BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language#1980s|BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film]] of the [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] for ''[[The Sacrifice (1986 film)|The Sacrifice]]''. Under the influence of [[Glasnost]] and [[Perestroika]], Tarkovsky was finally recognized in the Soviet Union in the Autumn of 1986, shortly before his death, by a retrospective of his films in Moscow. After his death, an entire issue of the film magazine ''Iskusstvo Kino'' was devoted to Tarkovsky. In their obituaries, the film committee of the [[Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union]] and the Union of Soviet Film Makers expressed their sorrow that Tarkovsky had to spend the last years of his life in exile. Posthumously, he was awarded the [[Lenin Prize]] in 1990, one of the highest state honors in the Soviet Union. In 1989 the ''Andrei Tarkovsky Memorial Prize'' was established, with its first recipient being the Russian animator [[Yuri Norstein]]. In three consecutive events, the [[Moscow International Film Festival]] awarded the ''Andrei Tarkovsky Award'' in 1993, 1995, and 1997. In 1996 the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in [[Yuryevets, Ivanovo Oblast|Yuryevets]], his childhood town. A [[minor planet]], [[3345 Tarkovskij]], discovered by Soviet astronomer [[Lyudmila Karachkina]] in 1982, has been named after him. Tarkovsky has been the subject of several documentaries. Most notable is the 1988 documentary ''[[Moscow Elegy]]'', by Russian film director [[Alexander Sokurov]]. Sokurov's own work has been heavily influenced by Tarkovsky. The film consists mostly of narration over stock footage from Tarkovsky's films. ''Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky'' is a 1988 documentary film by [[Michal Leszczylowski]], an editor of the film ''The Sacrifice''. Film director [[Chris Marker]] produced the television documentary ''[[One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich]]'' as an homage to Andrei Tarkovsky in 2000. At the entrance to the [[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography]] in [[Moscow]], there is a monument that includes statues of Tarkovsky, [[Gennady Shpalikov]] and [[Vasily Shukshin]]. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
"Directors of Golden Lion winners",
"Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award",
"Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni",
"High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty",
"Lenin Prize winners",
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"Russian people of Polish descent",
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"Science fiction film directors",
"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[
"Reception and influence on others"
] | [[Ingmar Bergman]] was quoted as saying: "Tarkovsky for me is the greatest [of us all], the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream". Film historian [[Steven Dillon (writer and professor)|Steven Dillon]] says that much of subsequent film was deeply influenced by the films of Tarkovsky. | 676 | Andrei Tarkovsky | [
"Andrei Tarkovsky",
"1932 births",
"1986 deaths",
"20th-century Russian male actors",
"Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery",
"Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners",
"Deaths from cancer in France",
"Deaths from lung cancer",
"Directors of Golden Lion winners",
"Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award",
"Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni",
"High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors faculty",
"Lenin Prize winners",
"People from Kadyysky District",
"People's Artists of the RSFSR",
"Russian film directors",
"Russian male actors",
"Russian opera directors",
"Russian Orthodox Christians from Russia",
"Russian people of Polish descent",
"Russian people of Romanian descent",
"Science fiction film directors",
"Soviet emigrants to France",
"Soviet emigrants to Italy",
"Soviet film directors",
"Soviet male actors"
] | [
"European art cinema",
"Moscow International Film Festival",
"Slow cinema"
] |
[] | '''Ambiguity''' is a type of [[meaning (linguistics)|meaning]] in which a phrase, statement or resolution is not explicitly defined, making several interpretations [[wikt:plausible#Adjective|plausible]]. A common aspect of ambiguity is [[uncertainty]]. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose [[intention|intended]] meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. (The ''[[wikt:ambi-#Prefix|ambi]]-'' part of the [[Terminology|term]] reflects an idea of "[[2 (number)|two]]", as in "two meanings".) The concept of ambiguity is generally contrasted with [[vagueness]]. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted (although some may not be immediately obvious), whereas with information that is vague, it is difficult to form any interpretation at the desired level of specificity. Context may play a role in resolving ambiguity. For example, the same piece of information may be ambiguous in one context and unambiguous in another. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Linguistic forms"
] | Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with [[semantic ambiguity]]. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful [[context (language use)|context]]-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to [[vagueness]]. Linguistic ambiguity [[Ambiguity (law)|can be a problem in law]], because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Linguistic forms",
"Lexical ambiguity"
] | The [[Polysemy|lexical ambiguity]] of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. "Meaning" here refers to whatever should be captured by a good dictionary. For instance, the word "bank" has several distinct lexical definitions, including "[[Bank|financial institution]]" and "[[Bank (geography)|edge of a river]]". Or consider "[[apothecary]]". One could say "I bought herbs from the apothecary". This could mean one actually spoke to the apothecary ([[pharmacist]]) or went to the apothecary ([[pharmacy]]). The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says "I buried $100 in the bank", most people would not think someone used a shovel to dig in the mud. However, some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word. Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate the appropriate meaning with a word in context, a task referred to as [[word sense disambiguation]]. The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, and sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case, a less ambiguous term should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a politician whose "[[weasel word]]" and [[obfuscation]] are necessary to gain support from multiple [[Electoral district|constituents]] with [[mutually exclusive]] conflicting desires from their candidate of choice. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of [[political science]]. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. "Good", for example, can mean "useful" or "functional" (''That's a good hammer''), "exemplary" (''She's a good student''), "pleasing" (''This is good soup''), "moral" (''a good person'' versus ''the lesson to be learned from a story''), "[[righteous]]", etc. "I have a good daughter" is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply [[prefix]] and [[suffix]] can also create ambiguity ("unlockable" can mean "capable of being unlocked" or "impossible to lock"). | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Linguistic forms",
"Semantic and syntactic ambiguity"
] | [[Semantic ambiguity]] occurs when a word, phrase or sentence, taken out of context, has more than one interpretation. In "We saw her duck" (example due to Richard Nordquist), the words "her duck" can refer either (1) to the person's bird (the noun "duck", modified by the possessive pronoun "her"), or (2) to a motion she made (the verb "duck", the subject of which is the objective pronoun "her", object of the verb "saw"). [[Syntactic ambiguity]] arises when a sentence can have two (or more) different meanings because of the structure of the sentence—its syntax. This is often due to a modifying expression, such as a prepositional phrase, the application of which is unclear. "He ate the cookies on the couch", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. "To get in, you will need an entrance fee of $10 or your voucher and your drivers' license." This could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR BOTH your voucher and your license. Or it could mean that you need your license AND you need EITHER ten dollars OR a voucher. Only rewriting the sentence, or placing appropriate punctuation can resolve a syntactic ambiguity. For the notion of, and theoretic results about, syntactic ambiguity in artificial, [[formal languages]] (such as computer [[programming language]]), see [[Ambiguous grammar]]. Usually, semantic and syntactic ambiguity go hand in hand. The sentence "We saw her duck" is also syntactically ambiguous. Conversely, a sentence like "He ate the cookies on the couch" is also semantically ambiguous. Rarely, but occasionally, the different parsings of a syntactically ambiguous phrase result in the same meaning. For example, the command "Cook, cook!" can be parsed as "Cook (noun used as vocative), cook (imperative verb form)!", but also as "Cook (imperative verb form), cook (noun used as vocative)!". It is more common that a syntactically unambiguous phrase has a semantic ambiguity; for example, the lexical ambiguity in "Your boss is a funny man" is purely semantic, leading to the response "Funny ha-ha or funny peculiar?" [[Spoken language]] can contain many more types of ambiguities which are called phonological ambiguities, where there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words. For example, "ice cream" and "I scream". Such ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context. A mishearing of such, based on incorrectly resolved ambiguity, is called a [[mondegreen]]. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Linguistic forms",
"Semantic and syntactic ambiguity"
] | [[Metonymy]] involves referring to one entity by the name of a different but closely related entity (for example, using "wheels" to refer to a car, or "Wall Street" to refer to the stock exchanges located on that street or even the entire US financial sector). In the modern vocabulary of critical semiotics, metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is based on contextual contiguity (located close together), or a function or process that an object performs, such as "sweet ride" to refer to a nice car. Metonym miscommunication is considered a primary mechanism of linguistic humor. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Philosophy"
] | Philosophers (and other users of logic) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing (or intentionally adding) ambiguity in arguments because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say, "I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth", an example of a glittering generality. Some will think s/he opposes taxes in general because they hinder economic growth. Others may think s/he opposes only those taxes that s/he believes will hinder economic growth. In writing, the sentence can be rewritten to reduce possible misinterpretation, either by adding a comma after "taxes" (to convey the first sense) or by changing "which" to "that" (to convey the second sense) or by rewriting it in other ways. The devious politician hopes that each constituent will interpret the statement in the most desirable way, and think the politician supports everyone's opinion. However, the opposite can also be true—an opponent can turn a positive statement into a bad one if the speaker uses ambiguity (intentionally or not). The logical fallacies of amphiboly and equivocation rely heavily on the use of ambiguous words and phrases. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Philosophy"
] | In [[continental philosophy]] (particularly phenomenology and existentialism), there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity, as it is generally seen as an integral part of the human condition. [[Martin Heidegger]] argued that the relation between the subject and object is ambiguous, as is the relation of mind and body, and part and whole.[3] In Heidegger's phenomenology, Dasein is always in a meaningful world, but there is always an underlying background for every instance of signification. Thus, although some things may be certain, they have little to do with Dasein's sense of care and existential anxiety, e.g., in the face of death. In calling his work Being and Nothingness an "essay in phenomenological ontology" [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] follows Heidegger in defining the human essence as ambiguous, or relating fundamentally to such ambiguity. [[Simone de Beauvoir]] tries to base an ethics on Heidegger's and Sartre's writings (The Ethics of Ambiguity), where she highlights the need to grapple with ambiguity: "as long as philosophers and they [men] have thought, most of them have tried to mask it... And the ethics which they have proposed to their disciples have always pursued the same goal. It has been a matter of eliminating the ambiguity by making oneself pure inwardness or pure externality, by escaping from the sensible world or being engulfed by it, by yielding to eternity or enclosing oneself in the pure moment." Ethics cannot be based on the authoritative certainty given by mathematics and logic, or prescribed directly from the empirical findings of science. She states: "Since we do not succeed in fleeing it, let us, therefore, try to look the truth in the face. Let us try to assume our fundamental ambiguity. It is in the knowledge of the genuine conditions of our life that we must draw our strength to live and our reason for acting". Other continental philosophers suggest that concepts such as life, nature, and sex are ambiguous. Corey Anton has argued that we cannot be certain what is separate from or unified with something else: language, he asserts, divides what is not, in fact, separate. Following Ernest Becker, he argues that the desire to 'authoritatively disambiguate' the world and existence has led to numerous ideologies and historical events such as genocide. On this basis, he argues that ethics must focus on 'dialectically integrating opposites' and balancing tension, rather than seeking a priori validation or certainty. Like the existentialists and phenomenologists, he sees the ambiguity of life as the basis of creativity. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Literature and rhetoric"
] | In literature and rhetoric, ambiguity can be a useful tool. Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor, for example: "Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I'll never know". Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue" (where "blue" can refer to the color, or to sadness). In the narrative, ambiguity can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel ''The Great Gatsby''. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Mathematical notation"
] | [[Mathematical notation]], widely used in [[physics]] and other [[science]], avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in natural language. However, for various reasons, several [[Lexical (semiotics)|lexical]], [[syntactic]] and [[semantic]] ambiguities remain. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Mathematical notation",
"Names of functions"
] | The '''ambiguity''' in the style of writing a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] should not be confused with a [[multivalued function]], which can (and should) be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. Several [[special function]] still do not have established notations. Usually, the conversion to another notation requires to scale the argument or the resulting value; sometimes, the same name of the function is used, causing confusions. Examples of such underestablished functions: (-) [[Sinc function]] (-) [[Elliptic integral#Complete elliptic integral of the third kind|Elliptic integral of the third kind]]; translating elliptic integral form [[MAPLE]] to [[Mathematica]], one should replace the second argument to its square, see [[Talk:Elliptic integral#List of notations]]; dealing with complex values, this may cause problems. (-) [[Exponential integral]] (-) [[Hermite polynomial]] | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Mathematical notation",
"Expressions"
] | Ambiguous expressions often appear in physical and mathematical texts. It is common practice to omit multiplication signs in mathematical expressions. Also, it is common to give the same name to a variable and a function, for example, formula_1. Then, if one sees formula_2, there is no way to distinguish whether it means formula_1 '''multiplied''' by formula_4, or function formula_5 '''evaluated''' at argument equal to formula_4. In each case of use of such notations, the reader is supposed to be able to perform the deduction and reveal the true meaning. Creators of algorithmic languages try to avoid ambiguities. Many algorithmic languages ([[C++]] and [[Fortran]]) require the character * as symbol of multiplication. The [[Wolfram Language]] used in [[Mathematica]] allows the user to omit the multiplication symbol, but requires square brackets to indicate the argument of a function; square brackets are not allowed for grouping of expressions. Fortran, in addition, does not allow use of the same name (identifier) for different objects, for example, function and variable; in particular, the expression '''f=f(x)''' is qualified as an error. The order of operations may depend on the context. In most [[programming language]], the operations of division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left to right. Until the last century, many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first, for example, formula_7 is interpreted as formula_8; in this case, the insertion of parentheses is required when translating the formulas to an algorithmic language. In addition, it is common to write an argument of a function without parenthesis, which also may lead to ambiguity. In the [[scientific journal]] style, one uses roman letters to denote elementary functions, whereas variables are written using italics. For example, in mathematical journals the expression formula_9 does not denote the [[sine function]], but the product of the three variables formula_10, formula_11, formula_12, although in the informal notation of a slide presentation it may stand for formula_13. Commas in multi-component subscripts and superscripts are sometimes omitted; this is also potentially ambiguous notation. For example, in the notation formula_14, the reader can only infer from the context whether it means a single-index object, taken with the subscript equal to product of variables formula_15, formula_12 and formula_17, or it is an indication to a trivalent [[tensor]]. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Mathematical notation",
"Examples of potentially confusing ambiguous mathematical expressions"
] | An expression such as formula_18 can be understood to mean either formula_19 or formula_20. Often the author's intention can be understood from the context, in cases where only one of the two makes sense, but an ambiguity like this should be avoided, for example by writing formula_21 or formula_22. The expression formula_23 means formula_24 in several texts, though it might be thought to mean formula_25, since formula_26 commonly means formula_27. Conversely, formula_28 might seem to mean formula_29, as this [[exponentiation]] notation usually denotes [[function iteration]]: in general, formula_30 means formula_31. However, for [[trigonometric]] and [[hyperbolic functions]], this notation conventionally means exponentiation of the result of function application. The expression formula_32 can be interpreted as meaning formula_33, in particular if one thinks that the common acronym ''[[PEMDAS]]'' for the order of operations implies that M(ultiplication) takes precedence over D(ivision); however, it is more commonly understood to mean formula_34. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Mathematical notation",
"Notations in quantum optics and quantum mechanics"
] | It is common to define the [[coherent states]] in [[quantum optics]] with formula_35 and states with fixed number of photons with formula_36. Then, there is an "unwritten rule": the state is coherent if there are more Greek characters than Latin characters in the argument, and formula_37photon state if the Latin characters dominate. The ambiguity becomes even worse, if formula_38 is used for the states with certain value of the coordinate, and formula_39 means the state with certain value of the momentum, which may be used in books on [[quantum mechanics]]. Such ambiguities easily lead to confusions, especially if some normalized [[adimensional]], [[dimensionless]] variables are used. Expression formula_40 may mean a state with single photon, or the coherent state with mean amplitude equal to 1, or state with momentum equal to unity, and so on. The reader is supposed to guess from the context. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Mathematical notation",
"Ambiguous terms in physics and mathematics"
] | Some physical quantities do not yet have established notations; their value (and sometimes even [[dimension]], as in the case of the [[Einstein coefficients]]), depends on the system of notations. Many terms are ambiguous. Each use of an ambiguous term should be preceded by the definition, suitable for a specific case. Just like [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] states in [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]: "...Only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning." A highly confusing term is ''gain''. For example, the sentence "the gain of a system should be doubled", without context, means close to nothing. (-) It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled. (-) It may mean that the ratio of the output power of an electric or optical circuit to the input power should be doubled. (-) It may mean that the gain of the laser medium should be doubled, for example, doubling the population of the upper laser level in a quasi-two level system (assuming negligible absorption of the ground-state). The term ''intensity'' is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of [[irradiance]], [[luminous intensity]], [[radiant intensity]], or [[radiance]], depending on the background of the person using the term. Also, confusions may be related with the use of [[atomic percent]] as measure of concentration of a [[dopant]], or [[Optical resolution|resolution]] of an imaging system, as measure of the size of the smallest detail which still can be resolved at the background of statistical noise. See also [[Accuracy and precision]] and its talk. The [[Berry paradox]] arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as "definable" or "nameable". Terms of this kind give rise to [[Virtuous circle and vicious circle|vicious circle]] fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity"
] | In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an instance of the logical concept of [[underdetermination]]—for example, formula_41 leaves open what the value of ''X'' is—while its opposite is a [[self-contradiction]], also called [[inconsistency]], [[paradoxicalness]], or [[oxymoron]], or in mathematics an [[inconsistent system]]—such as formula_42, which has no solution. Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and [[impossible object]], such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of [[M. C. Escher]]. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Constructed language"
] | Some [[Constructed language|languages have been created]] with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially [[Polysemy|lexical ambiguity]]. [[Lojban]] and [[Loglan]] are two related languages which have been created for this, focusing chiefly on syntactic ambiguity as well. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages, although historically, such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to [[syntax]] and [[semantic]] rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Biology"
] | In [[structural biology]], ambiguity has been recognized as a problem for studying [[Protein structure|protein conformations]]. The analysis of a protein three-dimensional structure consists in dividing the macromolecule into subunits called [[Protein domain|domains]]. The difficulty of this task arises from the fact that different definitions of what a domain is can be used (e.g. folding autonomy, function, thermodynamic stability, or domain motions), which sometimes results in a single protein having different—yet equally valid—domain assignments. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Christianity and Judaism"
] | [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] employ the concept of paradox synonymously with "ambiguity". Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery which fascinates humans. The orthodox Catholic writer [[G. K. Chesterton]] regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts which he found ambiguous or to reveal meaning often overlooked or forgotten in common phrases. (The title of one of his most famous books, Orthodoxy, itself employing such a paradox.) | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Music"
] | In [[music]], pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some [[polytonality]], [[polymeter]], other ambiguous [[metre|meters]] or [[rhythm]], and ambiguous [[phrase (music)|phrasing]], or (Stein 2005, p.79) any [[aspect of music]]. The [[music of Africa]] is often purposely ambiguous. To quote [[Donald Francis Tovey|Sir Donald Francis Tovey]] (1935, p.195), "Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value." | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Visual art"
] | In visual art, certain images are visually ambiguous, such as the [[Necker cube]], which can be interpreted in two ways. Perceptions of such objects remain stable for a time, then may flip, a phenomenon called [[multistable perception]]. The opposite of such [[ambiguous image]] are [[impossible object]]. Pictures or photographs may also be ambiguous at the semantic level: the visual image is unambiguous, but the meaning and narrative may be ambiguous: is a certain facial expression one of excitement or fear, for instance? | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Social psychology and the bystander effect"
] | In [[social psychology]], ambiguity is a factor used in determining peoples' responses to various situations. High levels of ambiguity in an emergency (e.g. an unconscious man lying on a park bench) make witnesses less likely to offer any sort of assistance, due to the fear that they may have misinterpreted the situation and acted unnecessarily. Alternately, non-ambiguous emergencies (e.g. an injured person verbally asking for help) illicit more consistent intervention and assistance. With regard to the [[bystander effect]], studies have shown that emergencies deemed ambiguous trigger the appearance of the classic bystander effect (wherein more witnesses decrease the likelihood of any of them helping) far more than non-ambiguous emergencies. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[
"Computer science"
] | In [[computer science]], the [[SI prefix]] [[kilo-]], [[mega-]] and [[giga-]] were historically used in certain contexts to mean either the first three powers of 1024 (1024, 1024 and 1024) contrary to the [[metric system]] in which these units unambiguously mean one thousand, one million, and one billion. This usage is particularly prevalent with electronic memory devices (e.g. [[DRAM]]) addressed directly by a binary machine register where a decimal interpretation makes no practical sense. Subsequently, the Ki, Mi, and Gi prefixes were introduced so that [[metric prefix#Binary prefixes|binary prefixes]] could be written explicitly, also rendering k, M, and G ''unambiguous'' in texts conforming to the new standard—this led to a ''new'' ambiguity in engineering documents lacking outward trace of the binary prefixes (necessarily indicating the new style) as to whether the usage of k, M, and G remains ambiguous (old style) or not (new style). 1 M (where M is ambiguously 1,000,000 or 1,048,576) is ''less'' uncertain than the engineering value 1.0e6 (defined to designate the interval 950,000 to 1,050,000), and that as non-volatile storage devices began to commonly exceed 1 GB in capacity (where the ambiguity begins to routinely impact the second significant digit), GB and TB almost always mean 10 and 10 [[bytes]]. | 677 | Ambiguity | [
"Ambiguity",
"Semantics",
"Mathematical notation",
"Concepts in epistemology",
"Barriers to critical thinking"
] | [] |
[] | '''Abel''' is a Biblical figure in the [[Book of Genesis]] within [[Abrahamic religion]]. He was the younger brother of [[Cain]], and the younger son of [[Adam]] and [[Eve]], the first couple within the Biblical tale. He was a [[shepherd]] who offered his firstborn flock up to God as an offering. God accepted his offering but not his brother's. Cain then killed Abel out of jealousy. According to Genesis, this was the first murder in the history of mankind. | 678 | Abel | [
"Cain and Abel",
"Bereshit (parashah)",
"Biblical murder victims",
"Book of Genesis people",
"Children of Adam and Eve",
"Male murder victims"
] | [] |
[
"Interpretations",
"Jewish and Christian interpretations"
] | According to the narrative in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], '''Abel''' ( ''Hével'', in [[pausa]] ''Hā́ḇel''; ''Hábel''; , ''Hābīl'') is Eve's second son. His name in Hebrew is composed of the same three consonants as a [[Semitic root|root]] meaning "breath". [[Julius Wellhausen]], have proposed that the name is independent of the root. [[Eberhard Schrader]] had previously put forward the [[Akkadian (language)|Akkadian]] (Old Assyrian dialect) ''ablu'' ("son") as a more likely etymology. In [[Christianity]], comparisons are sometimes made between the death of Abel and that of [[Jesus]], the former thus seen as being the first martyr. In Jesus speaks of Abel as "righteous", and the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] states that "The blood of sprinkling ... [speaks] better things than that of Abel" (). The blood of Jesus is interpreted as bringing mercy; but that of Abel as demanding vengeance (hence the curse and mark). Abel is invoked in the [[litany]] for the dying in the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and his sacrifice is mentioned in the [[Canon of the Mass]] along with those of [[Abraham]] and [[Melchizedek]]. The [[Alexandrian Rite]] commemorates him with a [[feast day]] on December 28. According to the Coptic [[Book of Adam and Eve]] (at 2:1–15), and the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] [[Cave of Treasures]], Abel's body, after many days of mourning, was placed in the ''Cave of Treasures'', before which Adam and Eve, and descendants, offered their prayers. In addition, the [[Seth]] line of the [[Generations of Adam]] swear by Abel's blood to segregate themselves from the ''unrighteous''. In the [[Book of Enoch]] (22:7), regarded by most Christian and Jewish traditions as extra-biblical, the soul of Abel is described as having been appointed as the chief of martyrs, crying for vengeance, for the destruction of the seed of Cain. This view is later repeated in the [[Testament of Abraham]] (A:13 / B:11), where Abel has been raised to the position as the judge of the souls. | 678 | Abel | [
"Cain and Abel",
"Bereshit (parashah)",
"Biblical murder victims",
"Book of Genesis people",
"Children of Adam and Eve",
"Male murder victims"
] | [] |
[
"Interpretations",
"Islamic interpretation"
] | According to [[Shia Islam|Shi'a Muslim]] belief, Abel (''"Habeel"'') is buried in the [[Nabi Habeel Mosque]], located on the west mountains of [[Damascus]], near the [[Zabadani]] Valley, overlooking the villages of the [[Barada]] river (Wadi Barada), in [[Syria]]. Shi'a are frequent visitors of this mosque for [[ziyarat]]. The mosque was built by [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Wali]] Ahmad Pasha in 1599. | 678 | Abel | [
"Cain and Abel",
"Bereshit (parashah)",
"Biblical murder victims",
"Book of Genesis people",
"Children of Adam and Eve",
"Male murder victims"
] | [] |
[] | An '''[[animal]]''' is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. '''Animal''', '''Animals''', or '''The Animal''' may also refer to: | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"People"
] | (-) [[The Animal (nickname)]], a set index of people nicknamed "The Animal" or "Animal" | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"People",
"Professional wrestlers"
] | (-) [[Road Warrior Animal]], commonly shortened to "Animal", the best-known ring persona of Joe Laurinaitis (1960–2020) (-) [[Animal Hamaguchi]], ring name of Japanese retired wrestler Heigo Hamaguchi (born 1947) (-) [[George Steele]] (1937–2017), American professional wrestler, author and actor known as "The Animal" (-) [[Dave Bautista]] (born 1969), American retired professional wrestler whose nickname is "The Animal" | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Books and publications"
] | (-) [[Animal (book)|''Animal'' (book)]], full title ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to The World's WildLife'', a 2003 non-fiction book by David Burnie and several co-authors (-) ''Animal'', 2012 novel by [[K'wan Foye]] (-) [[Animal (journal)|''Animal'' (journal)]], full title: ''Animal: An International Journal of Animal Bioscience'', British academic journal (-) [[Animals (novel)|''Animals'' (novel)]], a 2014 novel by Emma Jane Unsworth | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Film and television",
"Film"
] | (-) [[Animal (1977 film)|''Animal'' (1977 film)]], French film (''L'Animal'') starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Raquel Welch (-) [[Animal (2001 film)|''Animal'' (2001 film)]], Argentine comedy film by Sergio Bizzio with Carlos Roffé (-) [[Animal (2005 film)|''Animal'' (2005 film)]], US direct-to-video action drama film starring Ving Rhames and Terrance Howard (-) [[Animal (2014 film)|''Animal'' (2014 film)]], US horror film starring Keke Palmer (-) [[Animals (2003 film)|''Animals'' (2003 film)]], stand-up show written and performed by Ricky Gervais (-) [[Animals (2012 film)|''Animals'' (2012 film)]], Spanish film (-) [[Animals (2014 film)|''Animals'' (2014 film)]], UK drama film written by and starring David Dastmalchian (-) [[Animals (2017 film)|''Animals'' (2017 film)]], German film (-) [[Animals (2019 film)|''Animals'' (2019 film)]], Australian film (-) ''[[The Animal]]'', 2001 US comedy film featuring Rob Schneider (-) [[The Animals (film)|''The Animals'' (film)]], 2012 Filipino coming-of-age film by Gino M. Santos | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Film and television",
"Television"
] | (-) [[Animals (U.S. TV series)|''Animals'' (U.S. TV series)]], a 2016 American animated television series (-) [[Animals (South Korean TV series)|''Animals'' (South Korean TV series)]], a South Korean TV series (-) [[Animals (The Goodies)|"Animals" (''The Goodies'')]], television series episode (-) "Animals", an [[List of Men Behaving Badly episodes#ep4|episode of ''Men Behaving Badly'']] (-) "Animals", an episode of ''[[Off the Air (TV series)#ep1|Off the Air]]'' (-) "Animals", an [[List of The Vicar of Dibley episodes#ep6|episode of ''The Vicar of Dibley'']] (-) [[Animal (audio drama)|''Animal'' (audio drama)]], an audio drama based on the television series ''Doctor Who'' | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Film and television",
"Characters"
] | (-) [[Animal (Muppet)]], a character from the television series ''The Muppet Show'' (-) Animal, a character in the television series ''[[Takeshi's Castle]]'' (-) Animal, played by Ken Hudson Campbell, a character on the TV sitcom ''[[Herman's Head]]'' | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Music"
] | (-) [[The Animals]], a British rock band (-) [[A.N.I.M.A.L.]], an Argentinian heavy metal band (-) Animal (Nick Culmer) lead singer of the [[Anti-Nowhere League]] | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Music",
"Albums"
] | (-) [[Animal (Animosity album)|''Animal'' (Animosity album)]], 2007 (-) [[Animal (Big Scary album)|''Animal'' (Big Scary album)]], 2016 (-) [[Animal (Kesha album)|''Animal'' (Kesha album)]], 2010 (-) [[Animal (Motor Ace album)|''Animal'' (Motor Ace album)]], 2005 (-) [[Animals (Pink Floyd album)|''Animals'' (Pink Floyd album)]], 1977 (-) [[Animals (This Town Needs Guns album)|''Animals'' (This Town Needs Guns album)]], 2008 (-) [[Animals (EP)|''Animals'' (EP)]] by Ryan Starx, 2013 (-) [[The Animals (American album)|''The Animals'' (American album)]], by The Animals, 1964 (-) [[The Animals (British album)|''The Animals'' (British album)]], by The Animals, 1964 (-) ''Animal'', a 2009 album by [[AutoKratz]] (-) ''Animal'', a 1988 album by [[the Bar-Kays]] (-) ''Animal'', a 2013 album by [[Berlin (band)|Berlin]] (-) ''Animal'', a 2008 album by [[Far East Movement]] (-) ''Animal!'', a 2008 album by [[Margot & the Nuclear So and So's]] | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Music",
"Songs"
] | (-) [[Animal (Álvaro Soler song)|"Animal" (Álvaro Soler song)]], 2017 (-) [[Animal (Conor Maynard song)|"Animal" (Conor Maynard song)]], 2013 (-) [[Animal (Def Leppard song)|"Animal" (Def Leppard song)]], 1987 (-) [[Animal (Jebediah song)|"Animal" (Jebediah song)]], 1999 (-) [[Animal (Juvenile song)|"Animal" (Juvenile song)]], 2006 (-) [[Animal (Kesha song)|"Animal" (Kesha song)]], 2010 (-) [[Animal (Miike Snow song)|"Animal" (Miike Snow song)]], 2009 (-) [[Animal (Neon Trees song)|"Animal" (Neon Trees song)]], 2010 (-) [[Animal (Pearl Jam song)|"Animal" (Pearl Jam song)]], 1994 (-) [[Animal (R.E.M. song)|"Animal" (R.E.M. song)]], 2004 (-) [[Animal (Troye Sivan song)|"Animal" (Troye Sivan song)]], 2018 (-) [[Animal (R.I.O. song)|"Animal" (R.I.O. song)]], 2011 (-) [[Animals (Architects song)|"Animals" (Architects song)]], 2020 (-) [[Animals (Kevin Ayers song)|"Animals" (Kevin Ayers song)]], 1980 (-) "[[Animal (F**k Like a Beast)]]", by W.A.S.P., 1984 (-) [[Animals (Maroon 5 song)|"Animals" (Maroon 5 song)]], 2014 (-) [[Animals (Martin Garrix song)|"Animals" (Martin Garrix song)]], 2013 (-) [[Animals (Muse song)|"Animals" (Muse song)]], 2012 (-) [[Animals (Nickelback song)|"Animals" (Nickelback song)]], 2005 (-) [[The Animal (Disturbed song)|"The Animal" (Disturbed song)]], 2010 (-) "Animal", by Against Me! from ''[[New Wave (Against Me! album)|New Wave]]'' (-) "Animal", by Ani DiFranco from ''[[Educated Guess]]'' (-) "Animal", by Aurora from ''[[A Different Kind of Human (Step 2)]]'' (-) "Animal", by Black Light Burns from ''[[Cruel Melody]]'' (-) "Animal", by Ellie Goulding from ''[[Lights (Ellie Goulding album)|Lights]]'' (-) "Animal", by Karen O and the Kids from ''[[Where the Wild Things Are (soundtrack)|Where the Wild Things Are]]'' (-) "Animal", by Kat DeLuna from ''[[9 Lives (Kat DeLuna album)|9 Lives]]'' (-) "Animal", by Mindless Self Indulgence from ''[[If (Mindless Self Indulgence album)|If]]'' (-) "Animal", by [[Mudmen]] from ''Overrated'' (-) "Animal" by Subhumans from ''[[Demolition War]]'' (-) "Animal", by [[Sunhouse (band)|Sunhouse]] from ''Crazy On The Weekend'' (-) "Animal", by the Kinks from ''[[To the Bone (The Kinks album)|To the Bone]]'' (-) "Animal", by Toto from ''[[Past to Present 1977–1990]]'' (-) "Animals", by CocoRosie from ''[[The Adventures of Ghosthorse and Stillborn]]'' (-) "Animals", by Coldplay as one of the B-sides for "[[Clocks (song)|Clocks]]" (-) "Animals", by Dead Poetic from ''[[Vices (Dead Poetic album)|Vices]]'' (-) "Animals", by Talking Heads from ''[[Fear of Music]]'' (-) "Animals", by the End from ''[[Elementary (The End album)|Elementary]]'' (-) "Animals", by Todrick Hall featuring Matt Bloyd from ''[[Forbidden (Todrick Hall album)|Forbidden]]'' (-) "The Animal", by Steve Vai from ''[[Passion and Warfare]]'' | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Other"
] | (-) [[ANIMAL (computer worm)]], an early self-replicating computer program (-) [[ANIMAL (image processing)]], an interactive software environment for image processing (-) [[Animal (clothing)]], a sportswear retailer and brand based in the United Kingdom (-) [[Animals (Israeli organization)]], an animal rights group based in Israel | 679 | Animal (disambiguation) | [] | [
"Animalia (disambiguation)",
"Animals, Animals, Animals",
"Animalism (disambiguation)"
] |
[] | The '''aardvark''' ( ; ''Orycteropus afer'') is a medium-sized, burrowing, [[nocturnal]] [[mammal]] native to [[Africa]]. It is the only living [[species]] of the order [[Tubulidentata]], although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike most other [[insectivore]], it has a long [[pig]]-like snout, which is used to sniff out food. It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young. It receives a "least concern" rating from the [[IUCN]], although its numbers seem to be decreasing. Aardvarks are [[afrothere]], a [[clade]] which also includes [[elephants]], [[manatees]], and [[hyraxes]]. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Name and taxonomy",
"Name"
] | The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called the "African ant bear", "anteater" (not to be confused with the [[anteater|South American anteater]]), or the "Cape anteater" after the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. The name "aardvark" is [[Afrikaans]] (), comes from earlier Afrikaans (erdvark) and means "earth [[pig]]" or "ground pig" (''aarde'': earth/ground, ''vark'': pig), because of its burrowing habits; it is also the first [[Syllable|polysyllabic]] word in many [[English language|English]] dictionaries. The name ''Orycteropus'' means burrowing foot, and the name ''afer'' refers to Africa. The name of the aardvarks's order, ''Tubulidentata,'' comes from the tubule-style teeth. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Name and taxonomy",
"Taxonomy"
] | The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian [[order (biology)|order]] [[Tubulidentata]], in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus ''[[Orycteropus]]'', the sole surviving genus in the family [[Orycteropodidae]]. The aardvark is not closely related to the [[South America]] [[anteater]], despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The similarities are based on [[convergent evolution]]. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the [[elephant shrew]], [[tenrecidae|tenrec]] and [[golden mole]]. Along with the [[sirenian]], [[hyrax]], [[elephant]], and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder [[Afrotheria]]. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with [[Condylarthra]], and given the clade's status as a [[wastebasket taxon]] it may mean some species traditionally classified as "condylarths" are actually stem-aardvarks. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Name and taxonomy",
"Evolutionary history"
] | Based on fossils, [[Bryan Patterson]] has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in [[Africa]] around the end of the [[Paleocene]]. The [[ptolemaiida]], a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to [[Tubulidentata]] or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates. The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably ''[[Myorycteropus africanus]]'' from [[Kenya]] [[Miocene]] deposits. The earliest example from the genus ''[[Orycteropus]]'' was ''[[Orycteropus mauritanicus]]'', found in [[Algeria]] in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally old version found in Kenya. Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout [[Europe]] and the [[Near East]]. The mysterious Pleistocene ''[[Plesiorycteropus]]'' from [[Madagascar]] was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the [[Eocene]]. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that ''Plesiorycteropus'' is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Name and taxonomy",
"Subspecies"
] | The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed: (-) ''[[Orycteropus afer afer]]'' (-) ''O. a. adametzi'' (-) ''O. a. aethiopicus'' (-) ''O. a. angolensis'' (-) ''O. a. erikssoni'' (-) ''O. a. faradjius'' (-) ''O. a. haussanus'' (-) ''O. a. kordofanicus'' (-) ''O. a. lademanni'' (-) ''O. a. leptodon'' (-) ''O. a. matschiei'' (-) ''O. a. observandus'' (-) ''O. a. ruvanensis'' (-) ''O. a. senegalensis'' (-) ''O. a. somalicus'' (-) ''O. a. wardi'' (-) ''O. a. wertheri'' The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica also mentions ''O. a. capensis'' or Cape ant-bear from South Africa. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Description"
] | The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust [[Nail (anatomy)|nail]] which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a [[claw]] and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered [[digitigrade]], it appears at time to be [[plantigrade]]. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles. A contributing characteristic to the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone (CCCB). The stress and strain resistance provided by CCCB allows aardvarks to create their burrows, ultimately leading to a favorable environment for plants and a variety of animals. An aardvark's weight is typically between . An aardvark's length is usually between , and can reach lengths of when its tail (which can be up to ) is taken into account. It is tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about . It is the [[Largest organisms|largest]] member of the proposed clade [[Afroinsectiphilia]]. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by [[soil]]. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3-4 hairs. The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Description",
"Head"
] | The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete [[zygomatic arch]]. The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their [[Tooth|teeth]]. Instead of having a [[pulp (tooth)|pulp cavity]], each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of [[dentine]]), with individual pulp canals, held together by [[cementum]]. The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500. The teeth have no [[Tooth enamel|enamel]] coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and [[canine tooth|canines]] at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the [[jaw]], and have a [[dentition|dental formula]] of: These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition. The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars. The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains ten [[nasal concha]], more than any other placental mammal. The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair. The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified [[mimetic muscles]]. The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions, but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature. Its nose is made up of more [[turbinate]] bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5. With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist [[epithelium]], which is the location of the olfactory bulb. The nose contains nine [[olfactory bulb]], more than any other mammal. Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its [[Olfactory bulb|olfactory lobe]] is very developed. The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on [[ant]] and [[termite]]. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as long) and elaborate structures supporting a keen [[olfaction|sense of smell]]. The ears, which are very effective, are disproportionately long, about long. The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of [[rod cell|rods]]. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Description",
"Digestive system"
] | The aardvark's stomach has a muscular [[pyloric]] area that acts as a [[gizzard]] to grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary. Its [[cecum]] is large. Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland. Its [[salivary gland]] are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck; their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness. The female has two pairs of [[teat]] in the inguinal region. [[Gene]] speaking, the aardvark is a [[living fossil]], as its [[chromosome]] are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early [[eutherian]] arrangement before the divergence of the major modern [[taxon|taxa]]. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Habitat and range"
] | Aardvarks are found in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], where suitable [[habitat]] ([[savanna]], [[grassland]], [[woodland]] and [[bushland]]) and food (i.e., [[ants]] and [[termites]]) is available. They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day. The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth. They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging. They have been documented as high as in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions. These exceptions include the coastal areas of [[Namibia]], [[Ivory Coast]], and [[Ghana]]. They are not found in Madagascar. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Ecology and behaviour"
] | Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in [[captivity (animal)|captivity]]. Its keen hearing warns it of predators: [[lion]], [[leopard]], cheetahs, [[African wild dog]], [[hyena]], and [[pythonidae|pythons]]. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet. They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker. They will also dig to escape as they can, when pressed, dig extremely quickly. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Ecology and behaviour",
"Feeding"
] | The aardvark is [[nocturnal]] and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on [[ant]] and [[termite]] ([[myrmecophagy]]); the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the [[aardvark cucumber]]. In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark. They avoid eating the African [[driver ant]] and red ants. Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive. An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing . While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again. During a foraging period, they will stop and dig a "V" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location. When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of [[insect]] with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils. When successful, the aardvark's long (up to ) tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers. Termite mounds alone don't provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals. The trampled grass and dung attract termites from the ''[[Odontotermes]]'', ''[[Microtermes]]'', and ''[[Pseudacanthotermes]]'' genera. On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of night (roughly the four hours between 8:00p.m. and 12:00a.m.); however, they don't seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as in a night. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Ecology and behaviour",
"Vocalization"
] | The aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance. It makes a bleating sound if frightened. When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Ecology and behaviour",
"Movement"
] | The aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents. It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes, but otherwise moves fairly slowly. When leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging. Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also [[fossorial|excavates]] burrows in which to live, which generally fall into one of three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes. Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the main [[burrow]] is also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as . These burrows can be large enough for a man to enter. The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like the [[African Wild Dog|African wild dog]], [[ant-eating chat]], ''[[Nycteris thebaica]]'' and [[warthog]]. Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season. Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature. If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws. The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated [[ant]] nest, which also serves as protection from its [[predator]]. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Ecology and behaviour",
"Reproduction"
] | Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after a [[gestation]] period of seven months, one cub weighing around is born during May–July. When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession. After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright. After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing. It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9 weeks, and is weaned between three months and 16 weeks. At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next [[mating season]], and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Conservation"
] | Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers, however, this is possibly because they are not readily seen. There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It receives an official designation from the IUCN as [[least concern]]. However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically. Aardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one was [[London Zoo]] in 1869, which had an animal from [[South Africa]]. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[
"Mythology and popular culture"
] | In [[African folklore]], the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to [[army ant|soldier ants]]. [[Hausa people|Hausa]] magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission. Also, some tribes, such as the [[Mangbetu people|Margbetu]], [[Ayanda]], and [[Logo people|Logo]], will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms. The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures. The ancient [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian god]] [[Set (mythology)|Set]] is usually depicted with the head of an [[Set animal|unidentified animal]], whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship. The [[Arthur Read|titular character]] of ''[[Arthur (TV series)|Arthur]]'', an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by [[WGBH-TV|WGBH]], shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark. In the first book of the series, ''Arthur's Nose'' (1976), he has a long, aardvark-like nose, but in later books, his face becomes more rounded. [[Otis the Aardvark]] was a puppet character used on [[Children's BBC]] programming. An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon ''[[The Ant and the Aardvark]]'' as well as in the Canadian animated series ''[[The Raccoons]]''. The supersonic fighter-bomber [[General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark|F-111/FB-111]] was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadron [[VF-114]] was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flying [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4]] and then [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat|F-14]]. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic strip ''[[B.C. (comic strip)#Animals and other non-human characters|B.C.]]'', which the F-4 was said to resemble. ''[[Cerebus the Aardvark]]'' is a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim. | 680 | Aardvark | [
"Orycteropus",
"Mammals of Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Mammals described in 1766",
"Extant Zanclean first appearances",
"Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas"
] | [] |
[] | The '''aardwolf''' (''Proteles cristata'') is an [[insectivore|insectivorous]] [[mammal]], native to [[East Africa|East]] and [[Southern Africa]]. Its name means "earth-wolf" in [[Afrikaans]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. It is also called "maanhaar-jackal" (Afrikaans for "[[:wikt:mane#English|mane]]-jackal"), "termite-eating hyena" and "civet hyena", based on its habit of secreting substances from its [[anal gland]], a characteristic shared with the [[African civet]]. The aardwolf is in the same family as the [[hyena]]. Unlike many of its relatives in the order [[Carnivora]], the aardwolf does not hunt large [[animal]]. It eats [[insect]] and their [[larva]], mainly [[termite]]; one aardwolf can lap up as many as 250,000 termites during a single night using its long, sticky tongue. The aardwolf's tongue has adapted to be tough enough to withstand the strong bite of termites. The aardwolf lives in the [[shrubland]] of eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. It is [[nocturnal]], resting in [[burrow]] during the day and emerging at night to seek food. | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[
"Taxonomy"
] | The aardwolf is generally classified with the hyena family [[Hyaenidae]], though it was formerly placed in its own family Protelidae. Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the [[striped hyena]], which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae. Recent studies have suggested that the aardwolf probably diverged from other hyaenids early on; how early is still unclear, as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years. The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the [[subfamily]] Protelinae. There is disagreement as to whether the species is [[Monotypic taxon|monotypic]]. or can be divided into [[subspecies]] ''P. c. cristatus'' of [[Southern Africa]] and ''P. c. septentrionalis'' of [[East Africa]]. | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[
"Etymology"
] | The [[genus|generic]] name ''proteles'' comes from two words both of [[Greek language|Greek]] origin, ''protos'' and ''teleos'' which combined means "complete in front" based on the fact that they have five toes on their front feet and four on the rear. The specific name, ''cristatus'', comes from [[Latin]] and means "provided with a comb", relating to their mane. | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[
"Description"
] | [[Image:Aardwolf02.jpg|thumb|left|Detail of head – taken at the [[Cincinnati Zoo]]]] The aardwolf resembles a very thin [[striped hyena]], but with a more slender [[snout|muzzle]], black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct [[wikt:mane|mane]] down the midline of the neck and back. It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore- and hind-quarters, along with several stripes on its legs. The mane is raised during confrontations to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have. Its lower leg (from the knee down) is all black, and its tail is bushy with a black tip. The aardwolf is about long, excluding its bushy tail, which is about long, and stands about tall at the shoulders. An adult aardwolf weighs approximately , sometimes reaching . The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be smaller (about )than the eastern version (around ). This makes the aardwolf, the smallest extant member of the Hyaenidae family. The front feet have five toes each, unlike the four-toed hyena. The teeth and skull are similar to those of other hyenas, though smaller, and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects. It does still have canines, but, unlike other hyenas, these teeth are used primarily for fighting and defense. Its ears, which are large, are very similar to those of the striped hyena. As an aardwolf ages, it will normally lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on its feeding habits due to the softness of the insects that it eats. | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[
"Distribution and habitat"
] | Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and [[bushland]], avoiding mountainous areas. Due to their specific food requirements, they are only found in regions where termites of the family [[Hodotermitidae]] occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed [[grassland]] and [[savannah]], including [[arable land|farmland]]. For most of the year, aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens, which are occupied for six weeks at a time. There are two distinct populations: one in Southern Africa, and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary [[miombo]] forests. An adult pair, along with their most-recent offspring, occupies a territory of . | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[
"Behavior"
] | [[Image:Aardwolf.jpg|thumb|left|Aardwolf at the [[San Antonio Zoo and Aquarium|San Antonio Zoo]]]] Aardwolves are shy and [[nocturnal animal|nocturnal]], sleeping in burrows by day. They will, on occasion during the winter, become diurnal feeders. This happens during the coldest periods as they then stay in at night to conserve heat. They have often been mistaken for solitary animals. In fact, they live as [[monogamous pairing in animals|monogamous pairs]] with their young. If their territory is infringed upon, they will chase the intruder up to or to the border. If the intruder is caught, which rarely happens, a fight will occur, which is accompanied by soft clucking, hoarse barking, and a type of roar. The majority of incursions occur during mating season, when they can occur once or twice per week. When food is scarce, the stringent territorial system may be abandoned and as many as three pairs may occupy a single territory. The territory is marked by both sexes, as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared on rocks or grass stalks in -long streaks. Aardwolves also have scent glands on the forefoot and penile pad. They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries, the marking frequency increases drastically, to once every . At this rate, an individual may mark 60 marks per hour, and upwards of 200 per night. An aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens, and numerous feces [[Midden#Other definitions|midden]], within their territory. When they deposit excreta at their middens, they dig a small hole and cover it with sand. Their dens are usually abandoned [[aardvark]], [[springhare]], or [[Old World porcupine|porcupine]] dens, or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by [[springhare]]. They typically will only use one or two dens at a time, rotating through all of their dens every six months. During the summer, they may rest outside their den during the night, and sleep underground during the heat of the day. Aardwolves are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at fighting off predators. Therefore, when threatened, the aardwolf may attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on its tracks. If confronted, it may raise its mane in an attempt to appear more menacing. It also emits a foul-smelling liquid from its anal glands. | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[
"Behavior",
"Feeding"
] | The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites and more specifically on ''[[Trinervitermes]]''. This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolf's range. In East Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes bettonianus]]'', in central Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes rhodesiensis]]'', and in southern Africa, they eat ''[[Trinervitermes trinervoides|T. trinervoides]]''. Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the [[aardvark]], which digs into the mound. They locate their food by sound and also from the scent secreted by the soldier termites. An aardwolf may consume up to 250,000 [[termites]] per night using its long, sticky tongue. They do not destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony, thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They often memorize the location of such nests and return to them every few months. During certain seasonal events, such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of midwinter, the primary termites become scarce, so the need for other foods becomes pronounced. During these times, the southern aardwolf will seek out ''[[Hodotermes]] mossambicus'', a type of [[harvester termite]] active in the afternoon, which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter. The eastern aardwolf, during the rainy season, subsists on termites from the genera ''[[Odontotermes]]'' and ''[[Macrotermes]]''. They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, eggs, and, some sources say, occasionally small mammals and birds, but these constitute a very small percentage of their total diet. Unlike other [[hyena]], aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals. Contrary to popular myths, aardwolves do not eat carrion, and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass, they are actually eating larvae and beetles. Also, contrary to some sources, they do not like meat, unless it is finely ground or cooked for them. The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups, but more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers, necessary because of the scarcity of their insect prey. Their primary source, ''Trinervitermes'', forages in small but dense patches of . While foraging, the aardwolf can cover about per hour, which translates to per summer night and per winter night. | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[
"Behavior",
"Breeding"
] | The [[breeding season]] varies depending on location, but normally takes place during autumn or spring. In South Africa, breeding occurs in early July. During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory, as well as others, for a female to mate with. Dominant males also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves, which can result in conflict between rival males. Dominant males even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches, they make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories. As the female comes into [[oestrus]], they add pasting to their tricks inside of the other territories, sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own. Females will also, when given the opportunity, mate with the dominant male, which increases the chances of the dominant male guarding "his" cubs with her. [[Copulation (zoology)|Copulation]] lasts between 1 and 4.5 hours. [[Gestation]] lasts between 89 and 92 days, producing two to five [[List of animal names|cubs]] (most often two or three) during the rainy season (November–December), when termites are more active. They are born with their eyes open, but initially are helpless, and weigh around . The first six to eight weeks are spent in the [[Burrow|den]] with their parents. The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food. After three months, they begin supervised foraging, and by four months are normally independent, though they often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season. By the time the next set of cubs is born, the older cubs have moved on. Aardwolves generally achieve [[sexual maturity]] at one and a half to two years of age. | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[
"Conservation"
] | The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and is relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if food is abundant. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as [[least concern]]. In some areas, they are persecuted because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental. In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides are also common killers of the aardwolf. | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[
"Interaction with humans"
] | Aardwolves are rare sights at zoos. [[Frankfurt Zoo]] in [[Germany]] was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months. [[Image:Aardwolf.png|thumb|Illustration of ''Proteles cristatus'']] | 681 | Aardwolf | [
"Mammals described in 1783",
"Carnivorans of Africa",
"Hyenas",
"Mammals of Southern Africa",
"Fauna of East Africa",
"Myrmecophagous mammals",
"Taxa named by Anders Sparrman"
] | [] |
[] | '''Adobe''' (; ) is a [[building material]] made from earth and organic materials. is Spanish for '[[mudbrick]]', but in some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage the term is used to refer to any kind of earthen construction. Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to [[cob (material)|cob]] and [[rammed earth]] buildings. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world. | 682 | Adobe | [
"Soil-based building materials",
"Masonry",
"Adobe buildings and structures",
"Appropriate technology",
"Vernacular architecture",
"Sustainable building",
"Buildings and structures by construction material"
] | [] |
[
"Description"
] | Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking. They can be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure. There is no standard size, with substantial variations over the years and in different regions. In some areas a popular size measured weighing about ; in other contexts the size is weighing about . The maximum sizes can reach up to ; above this weight it becomes difficult to move the pieces, and it is preferred to ram the mud ''in situ'', resulting in a different typology known as [[rammed earth]]. | 682 | Adobe | [
"Soil-based building materials",
"Masonry",
"Adobe buildings and structures",
"Appropriate technology",
"Vernacular architecture",
"Sustainable building",
"Buildings and structures by construction material"
] | [] |
[
"Strength"
] | In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater [[thermal mass]], but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not reinforced. Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the [[1976 Guatemala earthquake]], the [[2003 Bam earthquake]], and the [[2010 Chile earthquake]]. | 682 | Adobe | [
"Soil-based building materials",
"Masonry",
"Adobe buildings and structures",
"Appropriate technology",
"Vernacular architecture",
"Sustainable building",
"Buildings and structures by construction material"
] | [] |
[
"Distribution"
] | Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world (Middle East, Western Asia, North Africa, West Africa, South America, southwestern North America, Spain, and Eastern Europe.) Adobe had been in use by [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] in the Southwestern United States, [[Mesoamerica]], and the [[Andes]] for several thousand years. [[Puebloan peoples]] built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the [[Bronze Age#Age sub-divisions|Late Bronze]] and [[Iron Age]] (eighth century BCE onwards). Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is sometimes made between the smaller ''adobes'', which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ''adobines'', some of which may be one to two yards (1–2 m) long. | 682 | Adobe | [
"Soil-based building materials",
"Masonry",
"Adobe buildings and structures",
"Appropriate technology",
"Vernacular architecture",
"Sustainable building",
"Buildings and structures by construction material"
] | [] |
[
"Etymology"
] | The word ''adobe'' has existed for around 4000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the [[Middle Egyptian language|Middle Egyptian]] (c. 2000 BC) word ''ɟbt'' "mud brick". Middle Egyptian evolved into [[Late Egyptian language|Late Egyptian]], [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]] or "pre-Coptic", and finally to Coptic (c. 600 BC), where it appeared as τωωβε . This was adopted into Arabic as ''aṭ-ṭawbu'' or ''aṭ-ṭūbu'', with the [[Article (grammar)#Definite article|definite article]] ''al-'' attached. ''tuba'', This was assimilated into the [[Old Spanish language]] as ''adobe'' , probably via [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic]]. English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century, still referring to [[mudbrick]] construction. In more modern English usage, the term "adobe" has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in [[New Mexico]], regardless of the construction method. | 682 | Adobe | [
"Soil-based building materials",
"Masonry",
"Adobe buildings and structures",
"Appropriate technology",
"Vernacular architecture",
"Sustainable building",
"Buildings and structures by construction material"
] | [] |
[
"Composition"
] | An adobe brick is a [[composite material]] made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as [[straw]] or [[Dung (matter)|dung]]. The [[soil]] composition typically contains [[sand]], [[silt]] and [[clay]]. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, and 55–75% fine sand. Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles , with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight. No more than half the clay content should be [[expansive clay]], with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick, resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction has been widely used, are an adequate composition. | 682 | Adobe | [
"Soil-based building materials",
"Masonry",
"Adobe buildings and structures",
"Appropriate technology",
"Vernacular architecture",
"Sustainable building",
"Buildings and structures by construction material"
] | [] |
[
"Material properties"
] | Adobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of 300 lbf/in (2.07 newton/mm) for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least 50 lbf/in (0.345 newton/mm) for the finished block. In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the temperature of the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun ([[radiation]]) and from the surrounding air ([[convection]]) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material. Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature. Some experiments suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity is not adequate for this material, as its main thermodynamic property is inertia, and conclude that experimental tests should be performed over a longer period of time than usual - preferably with changing thermal jumps. There is an effective [[R-value (insulation)|R-value]] for a north facing 10-in wall of R0=10 hr ft °F/Btu, which corresponds to thermal conductivity k=10 in x 1 ft/12 in /R0=0.33 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.57 W/(m K) in agreement with the thermal conductivity reported from another source. To determine the total R-value of a wall, scale R by the thickness of the wall in inches. The thermal resistance of adobe is also stated as an [[R-value (insulation)|R-value]] for a 10-inch wall R=4.1 hr ft °F/Btu. Another source provides the following properties: conductivity=0.30 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.52 W/(m K); specific heat capacity=0.24 Btu/(lb °F) or 1 kJ/(kg K) and density=106 lb/ft or 1700 kg/m, giving heat capacity=25.4 Btu/(ft °F) or 1700 kJ/(m K). Using the average value of the thermal conductivity as k = 32 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.55 W/(m K), the thermal diffusivity is calculated to be 0.013 ft/h or 3.3x10 m/s. | 682 | Adobe | [
"Soil-based building materials",
"Masonry",
"Adobe buildings and structures",
"Appropriate technology",
"Vernacular architecture",
"Sustainable building",
"Buildings and structures by construction material"
] | [] |
[
"Uses",
"Poured and puddled adobe walls"
] | Poured and [[Puddling (engineering)|puddled]] adobe (puddled clay, piled earth), today called ''cob'', is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than by making individual dried bricks or using a form. "Puddle" is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state. These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in the ground were used as forms, and later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish. | 682 | Adobe | [
"Soil-based building materials",
"Masonry",
"Adobe buildings and structures",
"Appropriate technology",
"Vernacular architecture",
"Sustainable building",
"Buildings and structures by construction material"
] | [] |
[
"Uses",
"Adobe bricks"
] | Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is removed after initial setting. After drying for a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking. The same mixture, without straw, is used to make [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] and often [[plaster]] on interior and exterior walls. Some cultures used [[Lime (material)|lime]]-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage. Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, [[rebar]], or wooden posts. Straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick. A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that, and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The [[Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service]] at New Mexico State University recommends a mix of not more than ⅓ clay, not less than ½ sand, and never more than ⅓ silt. | 682 | Adobe | [
"Soil-based building materials",
"Masonry",
"Adobe buildings and structures",
"Appropriate technology",
"Vernacular architecture",
"Sustainable building",
"Buildings and structures by construction material"
] | [] |
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