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[
"Mathematics and computer science"
] | (-) [[Argument (complex analysis)]], a function which returns the polar angle of a complex number (-) [[Command-line argument]], an item of information provided to a program when it is started (-) [[Parameter (computer programming)]], a piece of data provided as input to a subroutine (-) [[Argument principle]], a theorem in complex analysis (-) An [[argument of a function]], also known as an independent variable | 661 | Argument (disambiguation) | [] | [
"The Argument (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Language and rhetoric"
] | (-) [[Argument (literature)]], a brief summary, often in prose, of a poem or section of a poem or other work (-) [[Argument (linguistics)]], a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause (-) [[Oral argument in the United States]], a spoken presentation to a judge or appellate court by a lawyer (or parties when representing themselves) of the legal reasons why they should prevail (-) [[Closing argument]], in law, the concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important arguments in a court case | 661 | Argument (disambiguation) | [] | [
"The Argument (disambiguation)"
] |
[
"Other uses"
] | (-) [[Musical argument]], a concept in the theory of musical form (-) [[Argument (ship)|''Argument'' (ship)]], an Australian sloop wrecked in 1809 (-) ''[[Das Argument]]'', a German academic journal (-) [[Argument Clinic]], a Monty Python sketch (-) A [[disagreement]] between two or more parties or the discussion of the disagreement (-) [[Argument (horse)]] | 661 | Argument (disambiguation) | [] | [
"The Argument (disambiguation)"
] |
[] | '''Apollo 11''' (July 16–24, 1969) was the [[Human spaceflight|spaceflight]] that first [[Moon landing|landed]] humans on the [[Moon]]. Commander [[Neil Armstrong]] and lunar module pilot [[Buzz Aldrin]] formed the American crew that landed the [[Apollo Lunar Module]] [[Lunar Module Eagle|''Eagle'']] on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] (14:17 [[Central Standard Time|CST]]). Armstrong became the first person to step onto the lunar surface six hours and 39 minutes later on July 21 at 02:56 UTC; Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later. They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the [[spacecraft]], and collected of lunar material to bring back to [[Earth]]. Command module pilot [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] flew the [[Command Module Columbia|Command Module ''Columbia'']] alone in [[lunar orbit]] while they were on the Moon's surface. Armstrong and Aldrin spent 21 hours, 36 minutes on the lunar surface, at a site they had named [[Tranquility Base]] upon landing, before lifting off to rejoin ''Columbia'' in lunar orbit. Apollo 11 was launched by a [[Saturn V]] rocket from [[Kennedy Space Center]] on [[Merritt Island, Florida]], on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of [[NASA]]'s [[Apollo program]]. The Apollo [[Apollo (spacecraft)|spacecraft]] had three parts: a [[Apollo command and service module#Command module (CM)|command module (CM)]] with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a [[Apollo service module|service module (SM)]], which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar module (LM)]] that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After being [[Trans-lunar injection|sent to the Moon]] by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into [[Lunar Module Eagle|''Eagle'']] and landed in the [[Sea of Tranquility]] on July 20. The astronauts used ''Eagle''s ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned ''Eagle'' before they performed the maneuvers that propelled ''Columbia'' out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and [[Splashdown|splashed down]] in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on [[Live television|live TV]] to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Apollo 11 effectively proved US victory in the [[Space Race]] to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]], "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth." | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Background"
] | In the late [[1950s]] and early [[1960s]], the United States was engaged in the [[Cold War]], a geopolitical rivalry with the [[Soviet Union]]. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched [[Sputnik 1]], the first [[Satellite|artificial satellite]]. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic and technological superiority. This precipitated the [[Sputnik crisis]], and triggered the [[Space Race]] to prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability. [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] responded to the Sputnik challenge by creating the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), and initiating [[Project Mercury]], which aimed to launch a man into [[Earth orbit]]. But on April 12, 1961, Soviet [[cosmonaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth. Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961, [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor, [[John F. Kennedy]]. Since the [[Soviet Union]] had higher lift capacity [[launch vehicle]], Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed the [[United States Congress]] on "Urgent National Needs" and declared: On September 12, 1962, Kennedy [[We choose to go to the Moon|delivered another speech]] before a crowd of about 40,000 people in the [[Rice Stadium (Rice University)|Rice University football stadium]] in [[Houston]], [[Texas]]. A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a "[[Boondoggle|moondoggle]]" by [[Norbert Wiener]], a mathematician at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name: [[Project Apollo]]. When Kennedy met with [[Nikita Khrushchev]], the [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] in June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer. Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on September 20, 1963. The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Background"
] | An early and crucial decision was choosing [[lunar orbit rendezvous]] over both [[direct ascent]] and [[Earth orbit rendezvous]]. A [[space rendezvous]] is an [[orbital maneuver]] in which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA head [[James E. Webb|James Webb]] announced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be used and that the [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo spacecraft]] would have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a single [[Saturn V]] rocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by [[Project Gemini]]. The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in [[semiconductor]] [[electronic technology]], including [[metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor]] (MOSFETs) in the [[Interplanetary Monitoring Platform]] (IMP) and [[silicon]] [[integrated circuit]] (IC) chips in the [[Apollo Guidance Computer]] (AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the [[Apollo 1]] fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronauts [[Gus Grissom]], [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]], and [[Roger B. Chaffee]] died, and the subsequent investigation. In October 1968, [[Apollo 7]] evaluated the command module in Earth orbit, and in December [[Apollo 8]] tested it in lunar orbit. In March 1969, [[Apollo 9]] put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit, and in May [[Apollo 10]] conducted a "dress rehearsal" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the US [[Project Gemini|Gemini program]] and Soviet failure to develop the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 launcher]], which would have been comparable to the Saturn V. The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of [[Uncrewed spacecraft|uncrewed probes]]. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launched [[Luna 15]], which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in [[Mare Crisium]] about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. The [[Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories]] radio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Personnel",
"Prime crew"
] | The initial crew assignment of Commander [[Neil Armstrong]], Command Module Pilot (CMP) [[Jim Lovell]], and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) [[Buzz Aldrin]] on the backup crew for Apollo9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of [[Gemini 12]]. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo8 and Apollo9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change. [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]], the CMP on the Apollo8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime, [[Fred Haise]] filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8. Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience, the first being Apollo 10. The next was [[STS-26]] in 1988. [[Deke Slayton]] gave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventually [[Apollo 13]]). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that of [[Apollo 12]]. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal relationship. Aldrin and Collins described the crew as "amiable strangers". Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said "... all the crews I was on worked very well together." | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Personnel",
"Backup crew"
] | The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander, [[William Anders]] as CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo8. In early 1969, he accepted a job with the [[National Space Council|National Aeronautics and Space Council]] effective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time. [[Ken Mattingly]] was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly on [[Apollo 14]] after backing up for Apollo 11. Later, Lovell's crew was forced to switch places with [[Alan Shepard]]'s tentative [[Apollo 13]] crew to give Shepard more training time. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Personnel",
"Support crew"
] | During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them. For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly, [[Ronald Evans (astronaut)|Ronald Evans]] and [[William R. Pogue|Bill Pogue]]. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Personnel",
"Capsule communicators"
] | The [[capsule communicator]] (CAPCOM) was an astronaut at the [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center|Mission Control Center]] in [[Houston, Texas]], who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew. For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were: [[Charles Duke]], Ronald Evans, [[Bruce McCandless II]], James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise, [[Don L. Lind]], [[Owen K. Garriott]] and [[Harrison Schmitt]]. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Personnel",
"Other key personnel"
] | Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Preparations",
"Insignia"
] | The Apollo 11 [[Mission patch|mission emblem]] was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose the [[bald eagle]], the [[national bird]] of the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested an [[olive branch]] in its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that "eleven" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with "Apollo 11", and they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would "be representative of ''everyone'' who had worked toward a lunar landing". An illustrator at the [[Manned Spacecraft Center]] (MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval. The design was rejected. [[Bob Gilruth]], the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked "too warlike". After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons. When the [[Eisenhower dollar|Eisenhower dollar coin]] was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was also used for the smaller [[Susan B. Anthony dollar]] unveiled in 1979. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Preparations",
"Call signs"
] | After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft ''Charlie Brown'' and ''Snoopy'', assistant manager for public affairs [[Julian Scheer]] wrote to [[George M. Low]], the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The name ''Snowcone'' was used for the CM and ''Haystack'' was used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was named ''[[Lunar Module Eagle|Eagle]]'' after the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was named ''[[Command module Columbia|Columbia]]'' after ''[[Columbiad#In fiction|Columbiad]]'', the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) in [[Jules Verne]]'s 1865 novel ''[[From the Earth to the Moon]]''. It also referred to [[Columbia (name)|Columbia]], a historical name of the United States. In Collins' 1976 book, he said ''Columbia'' was in reference to [[Christopher Columbus]]. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Preparations",
"Mementos"
] | The astronauts had [[personal preference kit]] (PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission. Five PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed on ''Columbia'' before launch, and two on ''Eagle''. Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from the [[Wright brothers]]' 1903 ''[[Wright Flyer]]''s left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing, along with a diamond-studded [[astronaut pin]] originally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Preparations",
"Site selection"
] | NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of the [[Lunar Orbiter program]] and information about surface conditions provided by the [[Surveyor program]]. The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required. The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found. Five sites were considered: Sites1 and2 were in the Sea of Tranquility (''[[Mare Tranquillitatis]]''); Site3 was in the Central Bay (''[[Sinus Medii]]''); and Sites4 and5 were in the Ocean of Storms (''[[Oceanus Procellarum]]''). The final site selection was based on seven criteria: (-) The site needed to be smooth, with relatively few craters; (-) with approach paths free of large hills, tall cliffs or deep craters that might confuse the landing radar and cause it to issue incorrect readings; (-) reachable with a minimum amount of propellant; (-) allowing for delays in the launch countdown; (-) providing the Apollo spacecraft with a free-return trajectory, one that would allow it to coast around the Moon and safely return to Earth without requiring any engine firings should a problem arise on the way to the Moon; (-) with good visibility during the landing approach, meaning the Sun would be between 7and 20 degrees behind the LM; and (-) a general slope of less than two degrees in the landing area. The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive, limiting the launch date to one day per month. A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience. The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site2, with Sites 3and5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969, Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within of Site2, and reported it was acceptable. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Preparations",
"First-step decision"
] | During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, "Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?" Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was "not based on individual desire". One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions, where the commander had never performed the spacewalk. Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate Administrator [[George Mueller (NASA)|George Mueller]] told reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring. Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, "Yes, that's the way to do it." The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first. [[Chris Kraft]] revealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be like [[Charles Lindbergh]], a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Preparations",
"Pre-launch"
] | The ascent stage of [[Lunar Module Eagle|LM-5 ''Eagle'']] arrived at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] on January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, and [[Command module Columbia|CSM-107 ''Columbia'']] on January 23. There were several differences between ''Eagle'' and Apollo 10's LM-4 ''Snoopy''; ''Eagle'' had a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as the [[Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package]] (EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch. The CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from the [[Operations and Checkout Building]] to the [[Vehicle Assembly Building]] on April 14. The [[S-IVB]] third stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by the [[S-II]] second stage on February 6, [[S-IC]] first stage on February 20, and the [[Saturn V Instrument Unit]] on February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop the [[crawler-transporter]], bound for Launch Pad 39A, part of [[Launch Complex 39]], while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried the [[service structure|mobile service structure]] back to its parking area. In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled with [[liquid hydrogen]]. Fueling was completed by three hours before launch. Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in the [[ATOLL (programming language)|ATOLL programming language]]. Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39. Haise entered ''Columbia'' about three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch. Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch. The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time. Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in the [[firing room]]. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Launch and flight to lunar orbit"
] | An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]], [[General (United States)|General]] [[William Westmoreland]], four [[Cabinet of the United States|cabinet members]], 19 [[Governor (United States)|state governors]], 40 [[Mayoralty in the United States|mayors]], 60 [[ambassador]] and 200 [[congressmen]]. [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Spiro Agnew]] viewed the launch with former president [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and his wife [[Lady Bird Johnson]]. Around 3,500 media representatives were present. About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts. President [[Richard Nixon]] viewed the launch from his office in the [[White House]] with his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronaut [[Frank Borman]]. Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00 [[UTC]] (9:32:00 [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]). At 13.2 seconds into the flight, the launch vehicle began to [[Roll program|roll]] into its [[flight azimuth]] of 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2minutes and 42 seconds into the mission, followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9minutes and 8seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later. Apollo 11 entered a [[elliptic orbit|near-circular Earth orbit]] at an altitude of by , twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the [[trans-lunar injection]] (TLI) burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and at the controls, the [[transposition, docking, and extraction]] maneuver was performed. This involved separating ''Columbia'' from the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking with ''Eagle'' still attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon. This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. A [[Gravity assist|slingshot effect]] from passing around the Moon threw it into an [[heliocentric orbit|orbit around the Sun]]. On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter [[lunar orbit]]. In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about southwest of the crater [[Collins (crater)|Sabine D]]. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated [[Ranger 8]] and [[Surveyor 5]] landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges. It lay about southeast of the Surveyor5 landing site, and southwest of Ranger8's crash site. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar descent"
] | At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered [[Lunar Module Eagle|''Eagle'']], and began the final preparations for lunar descent. At 17:44:00 ''Eagle'' separated from ''Columbia''. Collins, alone aboard ''Columbia'', inspected ''Eagle'' as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed. Armstrong exclaimed: "The ''Eagle'' has wings!" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were "long"; they would land miles west of their target point. ''Eagle'' was traveling too fast. The problem could have been [[mass concentration (astronomy)|mascons]]—concentrations of high mass that could have altered the trajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel. Or it could have been the result of ''Eagle''s pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into the descent burn, and above the surface of the Moon, the [[Apollo Guidance Computer|LM guidance computer]] (LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineer [[Jack Garman]] told [[Flight controller#GUIDO|Guidance Officer]] [[Steve Bales]] it was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them. [[Margaret Hamilton (scientist)|Margaret Hamilton]], the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at the [[MIT]] [[Charles Stark Draper Laboratory]] later recalled: During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time. Software engineer [[Don Eyles]] concluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM in [[Apollo 5]]. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spurious [[cycle stealing]], as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Landing"
] | When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a crater (later determined to be [[West (lunar crater)|West crater]]), so he took semi-automatic control. Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting ''Eagle''. Now above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site. Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed. A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the probes hanging from ''Eagle'' footpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said: "Contact light!" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later, ''Eagle'' landed and Armstrong shut the engine down. Aldrin immediately said "Okay, engine stop. ACA—out of [[detent]]." Armstrong acknowledged: "Out of detent. Auto." Aldrin continued: "Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in." ACA was the [[Attitude control|Attitude Control Assembly]]—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command the [[reaction control system]] (RCS) jets to fire. "Out of Detent" meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. LGC address 413 contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed. ''Eagle'' landed at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with of usable fuel remaining. Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown would have become unsafe, but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds. Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of greater propellant 'slosh' than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Landing"
] | Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with "Engine arm is off", before responding to the CAPCOM, Charles Duke, with the words, "Houston, [[Tranquility Base]] here. The ''[[Lunar Module Eagle|Eagle]]'' has landed." Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from "Eagle" to "Tranquility Base" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful. Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control: "Roger, Twan—Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot." Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: He then took [[Eucharist|communion]] privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]] (who had objected to the [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|Apollo8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis]]) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at the [[Webster, Texas|Webster]] [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian Church]], and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20. The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar surface operations"
] | Preparations for [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] to walk on the Moon began at 23:43. These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two. During training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as checklists, food packets, and tools. Six hours and thirty-nine minutes after landing Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, and ''Eagle'' was depressurized. ''Eagle''s hatch was opened at 02:39:33. Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his [[primary life support system|portable life support system]] (PLSS). Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress. At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly (MESA) folded against ''Eagle'' side and activate the TV camera. Apollo 11 used [[slow-scan television]] (TV) incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor, and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor, significantly reducing the quality of the picture. The signal was received at [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex|Goldstone]] in the United States, but with better fidelity by [[Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station]] near [[Canberra]] in Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive [[Parkes Observatory|Parkes radio telescope]] in Australia. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth. Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, but [[Apollo 11 missing tapes|recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface]] were likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. After describing the surface dust as "very fine-grained" and "almost like a powder", at 02:56:15, six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped off ''Eagle'' footpad and declared: "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Armstrong intended to say "That's one small step for a man", but the word "a" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said "for a man", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the "a" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words "for a" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the "a" may have been spoken but obscured by static. Other analysis points to the claims of static and slurring as "face-saving fabrication", and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar surface operations"
] | About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM. Twelve minutes after the sample was collected, he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. Still photography was accomplished with a [[Hasselblad]] camera which could be operated hand held or mounted on Armstrong's [[Apollo/Skylab A7L|Apollo space suit]]. Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: "Magnificent desolation." Armstrong said moving in the [[Gravitation of the Moon|lunar gravity]], one-sixth of Earth's, was "even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk around." Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backward, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into ''Eagle'' shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, but the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow. The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits. The astronauts planted the [[Lunar Flag Assembly]] containing a [[flag of the United States]] on the lunar surface, in clear view of the TV camera. Aldrin remembered, "Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising." But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only jam the pole about into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV viewers. But he gave "a crisp West Point salute". Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag, President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission which Nixon called "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House." Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar surface operations"
] | They deployed the [[Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package|EASEP]], which included a passive seismic experiment package used to measure [[moonquake]] and a [[Retroreflector#On the Moon|retroreflector]] array used for the [[lunar laser ranging experiment]]. Then Armstrong walked from the LM to snap photos at the rim of [[Little West (lunar crater)|Little West Crater]] while Aldrin collected two [[core sample]]. He used the [[geologist's hammer]] to pound in the tubes—the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11—but was unable to penetrate more than deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled of soil into the box of rocks in order to pack them in tightly. Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples: [[basalt]] and [[breccia]]. Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts: [[armalcolite]], [[tranquillityite]], and [[pyroxferroite]]. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth. While on the surface, Armstrong uncovered a [[lunar plaque|plaque]] mounted on the LM ladder, bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: At the behest of the [[Nixon administration]] to add a reference to God, NASA included the vague date as a reason to include A.D., which stands for [[Anno Domini]], "in the year of our Lord" (although it should have been placed before the year, not after). Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong his metabolic rates were high, and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension. In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar ascent"
] | Aldrin entered ''Eagle'' first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand. Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung, and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM [[life support]], the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 05:11:13. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep. Presidential speech writer [[William Safire]] had prepared an ''In Event of Moon Disaster'' announcement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon. The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon's [[White House Chief of Staff]] [[H. R. Haldeman]], in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster. According to the plan, Mission Control would "close down communications" with the LM, and a clergyman would "commend their souls to the deepest of the deep" in a public ritual likened to [[burial at sea]]. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to [[Rupert Brooke]]'s First World War poem, "[[The Soldier (poem)|The Soldier]]". While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged the [[circuit breaker]] that would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. A [[Marker pen|felt-tip pen]] was sufficient to activate the switch. After more than hours on the lunar surface, in addition to the scientific instruments, the astronauts left behind: an [[Apollo 1]] mission patch in memory of astronauts [[Roger B. Chaffee|Roger Chaffee]], [[Gus Grissom]], and [[Ed White (astronaut)|Edward White]], who died when their command module caught fire during a test in January 1967; two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonauts [[Vladimir Komarov]] and [[Yuri Gagarin]], who died in 1967 and 1968 respectively; a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace; and a silicon message disk carrying the [[Apollo 11 goodwill messages|goodwill statements]] by Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world. The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar ascent"
] | After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, they lifted off in ''Eagle'' ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard ''Columbia'' in lunar orbit. Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: "The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying the [[attitude indicator]], but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over." Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"''Columbia'' in lunar orbit"
] | During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said "not since [[Adam]] has any human known such solitude", Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote: "this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two". In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth while ''Columbia'' passed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather "awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation". One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by the [[fuel cell]] and preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts of ''Columbia'' might freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature. When ''Columbia'' came back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as "relaxing". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called for ''Eagle'' to meet up with ''Columbia'', Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would fly ''Columbia'' down to meet ''Eagle''. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Return"
] | ''Eagle'' rendezvoused with ''Columbia'' at 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked at 21:35. ''Eagle''s ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at 23:41. Just before the [[Apollo 12]] flight, it was noted that ''Eagle'' was still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned that ''Eagle'' orbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: Aldrin added: Armstrong concluded: On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Splashdown and quarantine"
] | The [[aircraft carrier]] , under the command of [[Captain (United States O-6)|Captain]] [[Carl J. Seiberlich]], was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, the [[Landing platform helicopter|LPH]] , which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26. ''Hornet'' was then at her home port of [[Long Beach, California]]. On reaching [[Pearl Harbor]] on July 5, ''Hornet'' [[Embarkation|embarked]] the [[Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King]] helicopters of [[HS-4]], a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers of [[Underwater Demolition Team|UDT]] Detachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most of ''Hornet''s air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded, including a [[Boilerplate (spaceflight)|boilerplate]] command module used for training. On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad, ''Hornet'' departed Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific, in the vicinity of . A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[William P. Rogers]] and [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]] [[Henry Kissinger]] flew to [[Johnston Atoll]] on [[Air Force One]], then to the [[command ship]] in [[Marine One]]. After a night on board, they would fly to ''Hornet'' in Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival aboard ''Hornet'', the party was greeted by the [[United States Pacific Command|Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC)]], [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[John S. McCain Jr.]], and [[NASA Administrator]] [[Thomas O. Paine]], who flew to ''Hornet'' from [[Pago Pago]] in one of ''Hornet''s [[carrier onboard delivery]] aircraft. Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air Force [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]] Hank Brandli had access to top-secret spy satellite images. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which "would have ripped their parachutes to shreds" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission. Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of the [[Joint Typhoon Warning Center|Fleet Weather Center]] at Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation, [[Rear Admiral (United States)|Rear Admiral]] [[Donald C. Davis]], commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking their careers. A new location was selected northeast. This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used, one never before attempted. In a conventional entry, P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry, P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip. In this case, because they were extending the re-entry but not actually skipping out, P66 was not invoked and instead, P65 led directly to P67. The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift (heads-down) attitude when they entered P67. The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to ; the second, to . | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Splashdown and quarantine"
] | Before dawn on July 24, ''Hornet'' launched four Sea King helicopters and three [[Grumman E-1 Tracer]]. Two of the E-1s were designated as "air boss" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon. At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time) ''Columbia''s [[drogue parachute]] were deployed. This was observed by the helicopters. Seven minutes later ''Columbia'' struck the water forcefully east of [[Wake Island]], south of Johnston Atoll, and from ''Hornet'', at . with seas and winds at from the east were reported under broken clouds at with visibility of at the recovery site. Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted. During [[splashdown]], ''Columbia'' landed upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts. A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a [[sea anchor]] to prevent it from drifting. More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction. The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing back [[pathogen]] from the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with a [[sodium hypochlorite]] solution and ''Columbia'' wiped with [[Betadine]] to remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board ''Hornet''. The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk. After touchdown on ''Hornet'' at 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the to the [[Mobile Quarantine Facility]] (MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine. This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 and [[Apollo 14]], before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped. Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: "[A]s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before." After Nixon departed, ''Hornet'' was brought alongside the ''Columbia'', which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on a [[Dolly (trailer)|dolly]] and moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel, allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be removed. ''Hornet'' returned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto a [[Lockheed C-141 Starlifter]] and airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at the [[Lunar Receiving Laboratory]] at 10:00 UTC on July 28. ''Columbia'' was taken to [[Ford Island]] for deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken to [[Hickham Air Force Base]], from whence it was flown to Houston in a [[Douglas C-133 Cargomaster]], reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Splashdown and quarantine"
] | In accordance with the [[Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law]], a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol, the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer on ''Hornet'', and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health. On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physician [[William Carpentier]] and MQF project engineer [[John Hirasaki]]), and on ''Columbia'' itself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Mission",
"Celebrations"
] | On August 13, the three astronauts rode in [[ticker-tape parade]] in their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees. On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official [[state dinner]] to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, [[Chief Justice of the United States]] [[Warren E. Burger]] and his predecessor, [[Earl Warren]], and ambassadors from 83 nations at the [[Century Plaza Hotel]]. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]. The three astronauts spoke before a [[joint session of the United States Congress|joint session of Congress]] on September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and the other to the [[United States Senate|Senate]], that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon. The [[flag of American Samoa]] on Apollo 11 is on display at the [[Jean P. Haydon Museum]] in Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa. This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 foreign countries and included visits with the leaders of many countries. The crew toured from September 29 to November 5. Many nations honored the first human [[Moon landing]] with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"Cultural significance"
] | Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by the words "TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969". The success of Apollo 11 demonstrated the United States' technological superiority; and with the success of Apollo 11, America had won the [[Space Race]]. New phrases permeated into the English language. "If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they ...?" became a common saying following Apollo 11. Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies. While most people celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters outside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched. This is not to say they were not awed by it. [[Ralph Abernathy]], leading a protest march, was so captivated by the spectacle of the Apollo 11 launch that he forgot what he was going to say. Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem by [[Gil Scott-Heron]] called "[[Whitey on the Moon]]" illustrated the [[racial inequality in the United States]] that was highlighted by the Space Race. The poem starts with: Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for the first time. While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world, the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation. One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand; lunar geology was too abstract for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had already been accomplished. A well-defined objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal, but after it was completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar missions. While most Americans were proud of their nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late 1960s did the [[Gallup Poll]] indicate that a majority of Americans favored "doing more" in space as opposed to "doing less". By 1973, 59 percent of those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space Race had been won, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet Union entered the era of [[détente]]. This was also a time when [[inflation]] was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending. What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warned [[Caspar Weinberger]], the deputy director of the [[Office of Management and Budget]], might send a signal that "our best years are behind us". | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"Cultural significance"
] | After the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated they were not making an attempt. [[Mstislav Keldysh]] said in July 1969, "We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems." It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon, but were unable due to technological difficulties. The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it. The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs "Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins" by [[The Byrds]] on the 1969 album ''[[Ballad of Easy Rider (album)|Ballad of Easy Rider]]'' and "Coon on the Moon" by [[Howlin' Wolf]] on the 1973 album ''The Back Door Wolf''. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"Spacecraft"
] | The [[Command Module Columbia|command module ''Columbia'']] went on a tour of the United States, visiting 49 state capitals, the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], and [[Anchorage, Alaska]]. In 1971, it was transferred to the [[Smithsonian Institution]], and was displayed at the [[National Air and Space Museum]] (NASM) in Washington, DC. It was in the central ''Milestones of Flight'' exhibition hall in front of the Jefferson Drive entrance, sharing the main hall with other pioneering flight vehicles such as the ''[[Wright Flyer]]'', ''[[Spirit of St. Louis]]'', [[Bell X-1]], [[North American X-15]] and ''[[Friendship 7]]''. ''Columbia'' was moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at the [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]] in Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titled ''Destination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission''. This included [[Space Center Houston]] from October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, the [[Saint Louis Science Center]] from April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator John [[Heinz History Center]] in [[Pittsburgh]] from September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location at [[Museum of Flight]] in [[Seattle]] from March 16 to September 2, 2019. Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to the [[Cincinnati Museum Center]]. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019. For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum's ''Apollo to the Moon'' exhibit, until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019. The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian's [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]] annex near [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] in Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module. The descent stage of the LM ''Eagle'' remains on the Moon. In 2009, the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]] (LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface, after being abandoned and impacting the Moon. The location is uncertain because ''Eagle'' ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned, and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make the orbit of the spacecraft unpredictable after a short time. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"Spacecraft"
] | In March 2012 a team of specialists financed by [[Amazon.com|Amazon]] founder [[Jeff Bezos]] located the [[Rocketdyne F-1|F-1 engines]] from the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning. His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11. The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"Moon rocks"
] | The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is the [[Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility]] at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in [[Houston, Texas]]. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller collection stored at [[White Sands Test Facility]] near [[Las Cruces, New Mexico]]. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over 100 research laboratories around the world conduct studies of the samples, and approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year. In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentation [[Apollo 11 lunar sample display]] for 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as a [[Half dollar (United States coin)|United States half dollar coin]]. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. The Apollo 11 lunar sample displays were given out as goodwill gifts by Nixon in 1970. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"Experiment results"
] | The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969. , the [[Lunar Laser Ranging experiment]] remains operational. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"Armstrong's camera"
] | Armstrong's Hasselblad camera was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"LM memorabilia"
] | In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted the [[National Air and Space Museum]] to inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should be left behind in lunar module, including 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing. The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"Anniversary events",
"40th anniversary"
] | On July 15, 2009, [[Life (magazine)|Life.com]] released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by ''Life'' photographer [[Ralph Morse]] prior to the Apollo 11 launch. From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred. It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments. In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time. The [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]] set up an [[Adobe Flash]] website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon. On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with US President [[Barack Obama]] at the White House. "We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin", Obama said. "We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey." On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts a [[Congressional Gold Medal]], the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida Senator [[Bill Nelson (politician)|Bill Nelson]] and Florida Representative [[Alan Grayson]]. A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Legacy",
"Anniversary events",
"50th anniversary"
] | On June 10, 2015, Congressman [[Bill Posey]] introduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of the [[United States House of Representatives]] directing the [[United States Mint]] to design and sell commemorative coins in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released the [[Apollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coins]] to the public on its website. A documentary film, ''[[Apollo 11 (2019 film)|Apollo 11]]'', with restored footage of the 1969 event, premiered in [[IMAX]] on March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March 8. The Smithsonian Institute's [[National Air and Space Museum]] and [[NASA]] sponsored the "Apollo 50 Festival" on the [[National Mall]] in Washington DC. The three day (July 18 to 20, 2019) outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such as [[Adam Savage]] and NASA scientists. As part of the festival, a projection of the tall [[Saturn V]] rocket was displayed on the east face of the tall [[Washington Monument]] from July 16 through the 20th from 9:30pm until 11:30pm (EDT). The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of the [[Saturn V]] rocket. The projection was joined by a wide recreation of the [[Kennedy Space Center]] countdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20, with the last show on Saturday, delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event. On July 19, 2019, the [[Google Doodle]] paid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon Landing, complete with a link to an animated [[YouTube]] video with voiceover by astronaut [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]. Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by President [[Donald Trump]] in the Oval Office. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[
"Films and documentaries"
] | (-) ''[[Footprints on the Moon (1969 film)|Footprints on the Moon]]'', a 1969 documentary film by Bill Gibson and Barry Coe, about the Apollo 11 mission (-) ''[[Moonwalk One]]'', a 1971 documentary film by [[Theo Kamecke]] (-) ''Apollo 11: As it Happened'', a 1994 six-hour documentary on ABC News' coverage of the event (-) ''[[Apollo 11 (2019 film)|Apollo 11]]'', a 2019 documentary film by Todd Douglas Miller with restored footage of the 1969 event (-) ''[[Chasing the Moon (2019 film)|Chasing the Moon]]'', a July 2019 [[PBS]] three-night six-hour documentary, directed by [[Robert Stone (director)|Robert Stone]], examined the events leading up to the Apollo 11 mission. An accompanying book of the same name was also released. (-) ''8 Days: To the Moon and Back'', a [[PBS]] and [[BBC Studios]] 2019 documentary film by Anthony Philipson re-enacting major portions of the Apollo 11 mission using mission audio recordings, new studio footage, NASA and news archives, and computer-generated imagery. | 662 | Apollo 11 | [
"Apollo 11",
"Buzz Aldrin",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Apollo program missions",
"1969 on the Moon",
"Soft landings on the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Articles containing video clips",
"Crewed missions to the Moon"
] | [
"Moon landing conspiracy theories"
] |
[] | '''Apollo 8''' (December 21–27, 1968) was the first crewed [[spacecraft]] to leave [[low Earth orbit]], and also the first [[human spaceflight]] to reach another [[astronomical object]], namely the [[Moon]], which the crew orbited without landing, and then departed safely back to [[Earth]]. These three [[astronaut]]—[[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and [[William Anders]]—were the first humans to witness and photograph an [[Earthrise]]. Apollo 8 launched on December 21, 1968, and was the second [[crewed spaceflight]] mission flown in the United States [[Apollo space program]] after [[Apollo 7|Apollo7]], which stayed in Earth orbit. Apollo8 was the third flight and the first crewed launch of the [[Saturn V]] rocket, and was the first human spaceflight from the [[Kennedy Space Center]], located adjacent to [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Kennedy Air Force Station]] in Florida. Originally planned as the second crewed [[Apollo Lunar Module]] and [[Apollo command and service module|command module]] test, to be flown in an elliptical [[medium Earth orbit]] in early 1969, the mission profile was changed in August 1968 to a more ambitious command-module-only lunar orbital flight to be flown in December, as the lunar module was not yet ready to make its first flight. Astronaut [[Jim McDivitt]]'s crew, who were training to fly the first lunar module flight in low Earth orbit, became the crew for the [[Apollo 9|Apollo9]] mission, and Borman's crew were moved to the Apollo8 mission. This left Borman's crew with two to three months' less training and preparation time than originally planned, and replaced the planned lunar module training with translunar navigation training. Apollo 8 took 68 hours (almost three days) to travel the distance to the Moon. The crew orbited the Moon ten times over the course of twenty hours, during which they made a Christmas Eve [[Apollo TV camera|television broadcast]] in which they [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|read the first ten verses from]] the [[Book of Genesis]]. At the time, the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever. Apollo8's successful mission paved the way for [[Apollo 11|Apollo11]] to fulfill U.S. president [[John F. Kennedy]]'s goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s. The Apollo8 astronauts returned to Earth on December 27, 1968, when their spacecraft splashed down in the northern Pacific Ocean. The crew members were named [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]'s [[Time Person of the Year|"Men of the Year"]] for 1968 upon their return. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Background"
] | In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United States was engaged in the [[Cold War]], a geopolitical rivalry with the [[Soviet Union]]. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched [[Sputnik 1]], the first [[Satellite|artificial satellite]]. This unexpected success stoked fears and imaginations around the world. It not only demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, it challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority. The launch precipitated the [[Sputnik crisis]] and triggered the [[Space Race]]. [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]] believed that not only was it in the national interest of the United States to be superior to other nations, but that the perception of American power was at least as important as the actuality. It was therefore intolerable to him for the Soviet Union to be more advanced in the field of space exploration. He was determined that the United States should compete, and sought a challenge that maximized its chances of winning. The Soviet Union had heavier-lifting [[carrier rocket]], which meant Kennedy needed to choose a goal that was beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, one where the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality—something spectacular, even if it could not be justified on military, economic, or scientific grounds. After consulting with his experts and advisors, he chose such a project: to land a man on the Moon and return him to the Earth. This project already had a name: [[Project Apollo]]. An early and crucial decision was the adoption of [[lunar orbit rendezvous]], under which a specialized spacecraft would land on the lunar surface. The [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo spacecraft]] therefore had three primary components: a [[Apollo command and service module#Command module (CM)|command module]] (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that would return to Earth; a [[service module]] (SM) to provide the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a two-stage [[lunar module]] (LM), which comprised a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to return the astronauts to lunar orbit. This configuration could be launched by the [[Saturn V]] rocket that was then under development. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Framework",
"Prime crew"
] | The initial crew assignment of [[Frank Borman]] as Commander, [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] as Command Module Pilot (CMP) and [[William Anders]] as Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) for the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Collins was replaced by [[Jim Lovell]] in July 1968, after suffering a [[intervertebral disc|cervical]] [[Spinal disc herniation|disc herniation]] that required surgery to repair. This crew was unique among pre-[[Space Shuttle]] era missions in that the commander was not the most experienced member of the crew: Lovell had flown twice before, on [[Gemini 7|Gemini VII]] and [[Gemini 12|Gemini XII]]. This would also be the first case of a commander of a previous mission (Lovell, Gemini XII) flying as a non-commander. This was also the first mission to reunite crewmates from a previous mission (Lovell and Borman, Gemini VII). | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Framework",
"Backup crew"
] | The backup crew assignment of [[Neil Armstrong]] as Commander, Lovell as CMP, and [[Buzz Aldrin]] as LMP for the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced at the same time as the prime crew. When Lovell was reassigned to the prime crew, Aldrin was moved to CMP, and [[Fred Haise]] was brought in as backup LMP. Armstrong would later command Apollo11, with Aldrin as LMP and Collins as CMP. Haise served on the backup crew of Apollo11 as LMP and flew on [[Apollo 13|Apollo13]] as LMP. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Framework",
"Support personnel"
] | During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists, and mission ground rules, and ensured that the prime and backup crews were apprised of any changes. The support crew developed procedures in the simulators, especially those for emergency situations, so that the prime and backup crews could practice and master them in their simulator training. For Apollo8, the support crew consisted of [[Ken Mattingly]], [[Vance Brand]], and [[Gerald P. Carr|Gerald Carr]]. The [[capsule communicator]] (CAPCOM) was an astronaut at the [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center|Mission Control Center]] in [[Houston, Texas]], who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew. For Apollo8, the CAPCOMs were Michael Collins, Gerald Carr, Ken Mattingly, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Vance Brand, and Fred Haise. The mission control teams rotated in three shifts, each led by a flight director. The directors for Apollo8 were [[Clifford E. Charlesworth]] (Green team), [[Glynn Lunney]] (Black team), and [[Milton Windler]] (Maroon team). | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Framework",
"Mission insignia and callsign"
] | The triangular shape of the insignia refers to the shape of the Apollo CM. It shows a red figure8 looping around the Earth and Moon to reflect both the mission number and the circumlunar nature of the mission. On the bottom of the8 are the names of the three astronauts. The initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell, who reportedly sketched it while riding in the back seat of a [[Northrop T-38 Talon|T-38]] flight from [[California]] to [[Houston]] shortly after learning of Apollo8's re-designation as a lunar-orbital mission. The crew wanted to name their spacecraft, but NASA did not allow it. The crew would have likely chosen ''Columbiad'', the name of the giant cannon that launches a space vehicle in [[Jules Verne]]'s 1865 novel ''[[From the Earth to the Moon]]''. The Apollo11 CM was named ''Columbia'' in part for that reason. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Preparations",
"Mission schedule"
] | On September 20, 1967, NASA adopted a seven-step plan for Apollo missions, with the final step being a Moon landing. [[Apollo 4|Apollo4]] and [[Apollo 6|Apollo6]] were "A" missions, tests of the [[Saturn V|SaturnV]] launch vehicle using an uncrewed Block I production model of the command and service module (CSM) in Earth orbit. [[Apollo 5|Apollo5]] was a "B" mission, a test of the LM in Earth orbit. Apollo7, scheduled for October 1968, would be a "C" mission, a crewed Earth-orbit flight of the CSM. Further missions depended on the readiness of the LM. It had been decided as early as May 1967 that there would be at least four additional missions. Apollo8 was planned as the "D" mission, a test of the LM in a low Earth orbit in December 1968 by [[James McDivitt]], [[David Scott]], and [[Rusty Schweickart|Russell Schweickart]], while Borman's crew would fly the "E" mission, a more rigorous LM test in an elliptical medium Earth orbit as Apollo9, in early 1969. The "F" Mission would test the CSM and LM in lunar orbit, and the "G" mission would be the finale, the Moon landing. Production of the LM fell behind schedule, and when Apollo8's LM-3 arrived at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] (KSC) in June 1968, more than a hundred significant defects were discovered, leading [[Bob Gilruth]], the director of the [[Manned Spacecraft Center]] (MSC), and others to conclude that there was no prospect of LM-3 being ready to fly in 1968. Indeed, it was possible that delivery would slip to February or March 1969. Following the original seven-step plan would have meant delaying the "D" and subsequent missions, and endangering the program's goal of a lunar landing before the end of 1969. [[George Low]], the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August 1968 to keep the program on track despite the LM delay. Since the next CSM (designated as "CSM-103") would be ready three months before LM-3, a CSM-only mission could be flown in December 1968. Instead of repeating the "C" mission flight of Apollo7, this CSM could be sent all the way to the Moon, with the possibility of entering a lunar orbit and returning to Earth. The new mission would also allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures that would otherwise have had to wait until [[Apollo 10|Apollo10]], the scheduled "F" mission. This also meant that the medium Earth orbit "E" mission could be dispensed with. The net result was that only the "D" mission had to be delayed, and the plan for lunar landing in mid-1969 could remain on timeline. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Preparations",
"Mission schedule"
] | On August 9, 1968, Low discussed the idea with Gilruth, Flight Director [[Chris Kraft]], and the Director of Flight Crew Operations, [[Donald Slayton]]. They then flew to the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] (MSFC) in [[Huntsville, Alabama]], where they met with KSC Director [[Kurt Debus]], Apollo Program Director [[Samuel C. Phillips]], [[Rocco Petrone]], and [[Wernher von Braun]]. Kraft considered the proposal feasible from a flight control standpoint; Debus and Petrone agreed that the next Saturn V, AS-503, could be made ready by December 1; and von Braun was confident the [[pogo oscillation]] problems that had afflicted Apollo6 had been fixed. Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission, citing confidence in both the hardware and the personnel, along with the potential for a circumlunar flight providing a significant morale boost. The only person who needed some convincing was [[James E. Webb]], the NASA administrator. Backed by the full support of his agency, Webb authorized the mission. Apollo8 was officially changed from a "D" mission to a "C-Prime" lunar-orbit mission. With the change in mission for Apollo 8, Slayton asked McDivitt if he still wanted to fly it. McDivitt turned it down; his crew had spent a great deal of time preparing to test the LM, and that was what he still wanted to do. Slayton then decided to swap the prime and backup crews of the Dand Emissions. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft, requiring Borman's crew to use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104, since CM-104 could not be made ready by December. David Scott was not happy about giving up CM-103, the testing of which he had closely supervised, for CM-104, although the two were almost identical, and Anders was less than enthusiastic about being an LMP on a flight with no LM. Instead, in order that the spacecraft would have the correct weight and balance, Apollo8 would carry LM test article, a boilerplate model of LM-3. Added pressure on the Apollo program to make its 1969 landing goal was provided by the [[Soviet Union]]'s [[Zond 5|Zond5]] mission, which flew some living creatures, including [[Russian tortoise]], in a [[cislunar]] loop around the Moon and returned them to Earth on September 21. There was speculation within NASA and the press that they might be preparing to launch [[astronaut#Russian|cosmonauts]] on a similar [[Zond program#Circumlunar missions|circumlunar mission]] before the end of 1968. The Apollo 8 crew, now living in the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center, received a visit from [[Charles Lindbergh]] and his wife, [[Anne Morrow Lindbergh]], the night before the launch. They talked about how, before his [[Spirit of St. Louis|1927 flight]], Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total he had carried was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second. The next day, the Lindberghs watched the launch of Apollo8 from a nearby dune. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Preparations",
"Saturn V redesign"
] | The Saturn V rocket used by Apollo8 was designated AS-503, or the "03rd" model of the SaturnV ("5") Rocket to be used in the Apollo-Saturn ("AS") program. When it was erected in the [[Vehicle Assembly Building]] on December 20, 1967, it was thought that the rocket would be used for an uncrewed Earth-orbit test flight carrying a [[Boilerplate (spaceflight)|boilerplate]] command and service module. Apollo6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight, including severe [[pogo oscillation]] during its first stage, two second-stage engine failures, and a third stage that failed to reignite in orbit. Without assurances that these problems had been rectified, NASA administrators could not justify risking a crewed mission until additional uncrewed test flights proved the Saturn V was ready. Teams from the MSFC went to work on the problems. Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation, which would not only hamper engine performance, but could exert significant g-forces on a crew. A task force of contractors, NASA agency representatives, and MSFC researchers concluded that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which the spacecraft itself vibrated, causing a resonance effect that induced oscillations in the rocket. A system that used helium gas to absorb some of these vibrations was installed. Of equal importance was the failure of three engines during flight. Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum, causing a loss of fuel pressure in engine two. When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two, it had accidentally shut down engine three's liquid oxygen due to a miswired connection. As a result, engine three failed within one second of engine two's shutdown. Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine—a faulty igniter line. The team modified the igniter lines and fuel conduits, hoping to avoid similar problems on future launches. The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 at the MSFC. A Saturn stage IC was equipped with shock-absorbing devices to demonstrate the team's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation, while a Saturn Stage II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions. Once NASA administrators were convinced that the problems had been solved, they gave their approval for a crewed mission using AS-503. The Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21, and the rocket made the slow journey to the launch pad on October9. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch, including various levels of readiness testing from December5 through 11. Final testing of modifications to address the problems of pogo oscillation, ruptured fuel lines, and bad igniter lines took place on December 18, three days before the scheduled launch. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Parameter summary"
] | As the first crewed spacecraft to orbit more than one celestial body, Apollo8's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters, separated by a translunar injection maneuver. Apollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal circular Earth parking orbit. Apollo8 was launched into an initial orbit with an [[apogee]] of and a [[perigee]] of , with an [[inclination]] of 32.51° to the [[Equator]], and an [[orbital period]] of 88.19 minutes. Propellant venting increased the apogee by over the 2hours, 44 minutes, and 30 seconds spent in the parking orbit. This was followed by a [[trans-lunar injection]] (TLI) burn of the [[S-IVB]] third stage for 318 seconds, accelerating the command and service module and LM test article from an orbital velocity of to the injection velocity of which set a record for the highest speed, relative to Earth, that humans had ever traveled. This speed was slightly less than the Earth's [[escape velocity]] of , but put Apollo8 into an elongated elliptical Earth orbit, close enough to the Moon to be captured by the Moon's gravity. The standard lunar orbit for Apollo missions was planned as a nominal circular orbit above the Moon's surface. Initial lunar orbit insertion was an ellipse with a [[perilune]] of and an [[apolune]] of , at an inclination of 12° from the lunar equator. This was then circularized at by , with an orbital period of 128.7 minutes. The effect of lunar [[mass concentration (astronomy)|mass concentrations]] ("mascons") on the orbit was found to be greater than initially predicted; over the course of the ten lunar orbits lasting twenty hours, the orbital distance was perturbated to by . Apollo 8 achieved a maximum distance from Earth of . | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Launch and trans-lunar injection"
] | Apollo 8 was launched at 12:51:00 [[UTC]] (07:51:00 [[Eastern Time Zone (North America)|Eastern Standard Time]]) on December 21, 1968, using the Saturn V's [[Multistage rocket|three stages]] to achieve Earth orbit. The [[S-IC]] first stage landed in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at , and the [[S-II]] second stage landed at . The [[S-IVB]] third stage injected the craft into Earth orbit and remained attached to perform the TLI burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. Once the [[space vehicle|vehicle]] reached Earth orbit, both the crew and [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center|Houston flight controllers]] spent the next 2hours and 38 minutes checking that the spacecraft was in proper working order and ready for TLI. The proper operation of the S-IVB third stage of the rocket was crucial, and in the last uncrewed test, it had failed to reignite for this burn. Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty, and at 2hours, 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch he radioed, "Apollo8. You are Go for TLI." This communication meant that Mission Control had given official permission for Apollo8 to go to the Moon. The S-IVB engine ignited on time and performed the TLI burn perfectly. Over the next five minutes, the spacecraft's speed increased from . After the S-IVB had placed the mission on course for the Moon, the command and service modules (CSM), the remaining Apollo8 spacecraft, separated from it. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take photographs of the spent stage and then practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft, they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it—this marked the first time humans had viewed the whole Earth at once. Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the CSM and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the small [[Apollo CSM#Reaction control system|reaction control system]] (RCS) thrusters on the [[Apollo command and service module#Service module (SM)|service module]] (SM) to add to their velocity away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After discussion, the crew and Mission Control decided to burn in the Earth direction to increase speed, but at instead. The time needed to prepare and perform the additional burn put the crew an hour behind their onboard tasks. Five hours after launch, Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB to vent its remaining fuel, changing its trajectory. The S-IVB, with the test article attached, posed no further hazard to Apollo8, passing the orbit of the Moon and going into a solar orbit with an [[inclination]] of 23.47° from the [[Ecliptic|plane of the ecliptic]], and an orbital period of 340.80 days. It became a [[:Category:Derelict satellites in heliocentric orbit|derelict object]], and will continue to [[heliocentric orbit|orbit the Sun]] for many years, if not retrieved. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Launch and trans-lunar injection"
] | The Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass through the [[Van Allen radiation belt]], which extend up to from Earth. Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest [[X-ray]], or 1[[Gray (unit)|milligray]] (mGy; during a year, the average human receives a dose of 2to 3mGy). To record the actual radiation dosages, each crew member wore a Personal Radiation [[Dosimeter]] that transmitted data to Earth, as well as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the crew members experienced an average radiation dose of 1.6 mGy. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar trajectory"
] | Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was as [[flight officer|navigator]]. Although Mission Control normally performed all the actual navigation calculations, it was necessary to have a crew member adept at navigation so that the crew could return to Earth in case communication with Mission Control was lost. Lovell navigated by star sightings using a [[sextant]] built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) [[horizon]]. This task was made difficult by a large cloud of debris around the spacecraft, which made it hard to distinguish the stars. By seven hours into the mission, the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan because of the problems in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's obscured star sightings. The crew placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), also called "barbecue roll", in which the spacecraft rotated about once per hour around its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, parts of the spacecraft's outer surface could be heated to over , while the parts in shadow would be . These temperatures could cause the [[atmospheric reentry#Thermal protection systems|heat shield]] to crack and propellant lines to burst. Because it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft swept out a [[Conical surface|cone]] as it rotated. The crew had to make minor adjustments every half hour as the cone pattern got larger and larger. The first mid-course correction came eleven hours into the flight. The crew had been awake for more than 16 hours. Before launch, NASA had decided at least one crew member should be awake at all times to deal with problems that might arise. Borman started the first sleep shift but found sleeping difficult because of the constant radio chatter and mechanical noises. Testing on the ground had shown that the [[Apollo command and service module#Service propulsion system|service propulsion system]] (SPS) engine had a small chance of exploding when burned for long periods unless its [[combustion chamber]] was "coated" first by burning the engine for a short period. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about velocity [[Retrograde and prograde motion|prograde]] (in the direction of travel). This change was less than the planned , because of a bubble of [[helium]] in the [[nitrogen tetroxide|oxidizer]] lines, which caused unexpectedly low propellant pressure. The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned mid-course corrections were canceled because the Apollo8 trajectory was found to be perfect. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar trajectory"
] | About an hour after starting his sleep shift, Borman obtained permission from [[flight controller|ground control]] to take a [[Secobarbital|Seconal]] [[Barbiturate|sleeping pill]]. The pill had little effect. Borman eventually fell asleep, and then awoke feeling ill. He vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea; this left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces, which the crew cleaned up as well as they could. Borman initially did not want everyone to know about his medical problems, but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control. The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could tape voice recordings and telemetry and dump them to Mission Control at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they asked Mission Control to check the recording, stating that they "would like an evaluation of the voice comments". The Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second-floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston, on the second and third floors, only one of which was used during a mission). The conference participants concluded that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a [[Gastroenteritis|24-hour flu]], as Borman thought, or a reaction to the sleeping pill. Researchers now believe that he was suffering from [[space adaptation syndrome]], which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their [[Labyrinth (inner ear)|vestibular system]] adapts to [[weightlessness]]. Space adaptation syndrome had not occurred on previous spacecraft ([[Project Mercury|Mercury]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]), because those astronauts could not move freely in the small cabins of those spacecraft. The increased cabin space in the Apollo command module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut [[Rusty Schweickart]] during Apollo9. The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew's checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch. The Apollo8 crew used a camera that broadcast in [[black-and-white]] only, using a [[Video camera tube|Vidicon]] tube. The camera had two [[lens (optics)|lenses]], a very [[wide-angle lens|wide-angle (160°) lens]], and a [[telephoto lens|telephoto (9°) lens]]. During this first broadcast, the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared from space. However, difficulties aiming the narrow-angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made showing the Earth impossible. Additionally, without proper [[Optical filter|filters]], the Earth image became saturated by any bright source. In the end, all the crew could show the people watching back on Earth was a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes, the rotation of the spacecraft took the [[high-gain antenna]] out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother a happy birthday. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar trajectory"
] | By this time, the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts. Lovell went to sleep 32-and-a-half hours into the flight – three-and-a-half hours before he had planned to. A short while later, Anders also went to sleep after taking a sleeping pill. The crew was unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise. Two factors made the Moon almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft: three of the five windows fogging up due to out-gassed oils from the [[silicone]] [[sealant]], and the [[Orientation (geometry)|attitude]] required for passive thermal control. It was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time. Apollo 8 made a second television broadcast at 55 hours into the flight. This time, the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras so they could acquire images of the Earth through the telephoto lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first television pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth, what was visible, and the colors they could see. The transmission lasted 23 minutes. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar sphere of influence"
] | At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight, and 13 hours before entering lunar orbit, the crew of Apollo8 became the first humans to enter the gravitational [[Sphere of influence (astrodynamics)|sphere of influence]] of another celestial body. In other words, the effect of the Moon's [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|gravitational force]] on Apollo8 became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, Apollo8 was from the Moon and had a speed of relative to the Moon. This historic moment was of little interest to the crew, since they were still calculating their [[trajectory]] with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center. They would continue to do so until they performed their last mid-course correction, switching to a [[Frame of reference|reference frame]] based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI) was a second mid-course correction. It was in [[Retrograde and direct motion|retrograde]] (against the direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by , effectively reducing the closest distance at which the spacecraft would pass the Moon. At exactly 61 hours after launch, about from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds. They would now pass from the [[Geology of the Moon#Lunar landscape|lunar surface]]. At 64 hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to [[orbital mechanics]] had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a "[[Launch status check|go/no go]]" decision, the crew was told at 68 hours that they were Go and "riding the best bird we can find". Lovell replied, "We'll see you on the other side", and for the first time in history, humans travelled behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth. With ten minutes remaining before LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in its correct position. At that time, they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight [[wiktionary:oblique|oblique]] illuminating the lunar surface. The LOI burn was only two minutes away, so the crew had little time to appreciate the view. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar orbit"
] | The SPS was ignited at 69 hours, 8minutes, and 16 seconds after launch and burned for 4minutes and 7seconds, placing the Apollo8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon. The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] lunar orbit or even been flung off into space. If it had lasted too long, they could have struck the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours. On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine, or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time, the crew would have appeared early from behind the Moon. Exactly at the calculated moment, however, the signal was received from the spacecraft, indicating it was in a orbit around the Moon. After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like: Lovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was [[reconnaissance]] of planned future landing sites on the Moon, especially one in [[Mare Tranquillitatis]] that was planned as the Apollo11 landing site. The launch time of Apollo8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for examining the site. A [[film camera]] had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows to record one frame per second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest. By the end of the mission, the crew had taken over eight hundred 70 mm still photographs and of 16 mm movie film. Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a "go/no go" decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit. As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up equipment to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit, they performed an 11-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to . | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Lunar orbit"
] | Throughout the next two orbits, the crew continued to check the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small prayer for his church. He had been scheduled to participate in a service at St. Christopher's [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] near [[Seabrook, Texas]], but due to the Apollo8 flight, he was unable to attend. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer, which could be recorded and then replayed during the service. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Earthrise"
] | When the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front, the crew witnessed an "Earthrise" in person for the first time in human history. NASA's [[Lunar Orbiter 1]] had taken the first picture of an Earthrise from the vicinity of the Moon, on August 23, 1966. Anders saw the Earth emerging from behind the lunar horizon and called in excitement to the others, taking a black-and-white photograph as he did so. Anders asked Lovell for color film and then took ''[[Earthrise]]'', a now famous color photo, later picked by ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine as one of its hundred photos of the century. Due to the [[tidal locking|synchronous rotation]] of the Moon about the Earth, Earthrise is not generally visible from the lunar surface. This is because, as seen from any one place on the Moon's surface, Earth remains in approximately the same position in the lunar sky, either above or below the horizon. Earthrise is generally visible only while orbiting the Moon, and at selected surface locations near the Moon's [[lunar limb|limb]], where [[libration]] carries the Earth slightly above and below the lunar horizon. Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of the spacecraft so that Borman could rest. Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft, Borman was able to sleep for two orbits, awakening periodically to ask questions about their status. Borman awoke fully, however, when he started to hear his fellow crew members make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and had to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired from not having a good night's sleep in over three days. He ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. Anders initially protested, saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. Anders finally agreed under the condition that Borman would set up the camera to continue to take automatic pictures of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching, he wanted the crew to be alert. For the next two orbits, Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Earthrise"
] | As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the astronauts began the second television transmission. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being "a vast, lonely, forbidding expanse of nothing". Then, after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth. Each man on board [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|read a section from the Biblical creation story]] from the [[Book of Genesis]]. Borman finished the broadcast by wishing a Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth. His message appeared to sum up the feelings that all three crewmen had from their vantage point in lunar orbit. Borman said, "And from the crew of Apollo8, we close with good night, good luck, a Merry Christmas and God bless all of you—all of you on the good Earth." The only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the [[trans-Earth injection]] (TEI), which was scheduled for hours after the end of the television transmission. The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight, as any failure of the SPS to ignite would strand the crew in lunar orbit, with little hope of escape. As with the previous burn, the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon, out of contact with Earth. The burn occurred exactly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours, 28 minutes, and 39 seconds, the exact time calculated. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, "Please be informed, there is a [[Santa Claus]]", to which Ken Mattingly, the current CAPCOM, replied, "That's affirmative, you are the best ones to know." The spacecraft began its journey back to Earth on December 25, [[Christmas Day]]. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Unplanned manual realignment"
] | Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the [[Apollo guidance computer|computer]] keyboard. However, he accidentally erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the [[Apollo PGNCS#Inertial measurement unit|inertial measurement unit]] (IMU) to contain data indicating that the module was in the same relative orientation it had been in before lift-off; the IMU then fired the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude. Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized that they would have to reenter data to tell the computer the module's actual orientation. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars [[Rigel]] and [[Sirius]] aligned, and another 15 minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer. Sixteen months later, during the [[Apollo 13|Apollo13]] mission, Lovell would have to perform a similar manual realignment under more critical conditions after the module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Mission",
"Cruise back to Earth and reentry"
] | The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would reenter Earth's atmosphere two-and-a-half days after TEI and [[splashdown (spacecraft landing)|splash down]] in the Pacific. On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast. This time, they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting, they found a small present from Slayton in the food locker: a real turkey dinner with stuffing, in the same kind of pack given to the troops in Vietnam. Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three [[Miniature (alcohol)|miniature bottles]] of [[brandy]], which Borman ordered the crew to leave alone until after they landed. They remained unopened, even years after the flight. There were also small presents to the crew from their wives. The next day, at about 124 hours into the mission, the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the Earth, during a four-minute broadcast. After two uneventful days, the crew prepared for reentry. The computer would control the reentry, and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, with the blunt end forward. In the event of computer failure, Borman was ready to take over. Separation from the service module prepared the command module for reentry by exposing the heat shield and shedding unneeded mass. The service module would burn up in the atmosphere as planned. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been calculated by the trajectory specialists. As the module hit the thin outer atmosphere, the crew noticed that it was becoming hazy outside as glowing [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] formed around the spacecraft. The spacecraft started slowing down, and the deceleration peaked at . With the computer controlling the descent by changing the [[Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)|attitude]] of the spacecraft, Apollo8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At , the drogue parachute deployed, stabilizing the spacecraft, followed at by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was officially reported as in the North Pacific Ocean, southwest of Hawaii at 15:51:42 UTC on December 27, 1968. When the spacecraft hit the water, the parachutes dragged it over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable2 position. As they were buffeted by a swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three flotation balloons to right the spacecraft. About six minutes after splashdown, the command module was righted into a normal apex-up (Stable 1) orientation by its inflatable bag uprighting system. The first [[frogman]] from [[aircraft carrier]] arrived 43 minutes after splashdown. Forty-five minutes later, the crew was safe on the flight deck of the ''Yorktown''. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Legacy",
"Historical importance"
] | Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval in the United States and most of the world. Even though the year saw political assassinations, political unrest in the streets of Europe and America, and the [[Prague Spring]], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine chose the crew of Apollo8 as its [[Time Person of the Year|Men of the Year]] for 1968, recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the preceding year. They had been the first people ever to leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as having only a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of Apollo8 was summed up in a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that stated simply, "Thank you Apollo8. You saved 1968." One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the ''[[Earthrise]]'' picture that the crew took as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture while actually behind the camera, and it has been credited as one of the inspirations of the first [[Earth Day]] in 1970. It was selected as the first of ''Life'' magazine's ''100 Photographs That Changed the World''. Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins said, "Eight's momentous historic significance was foremost"; while space historian Robert K. Poole saw Apollo8 as the most historically significant of all the Apollo missions. The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, [[Mercury-Atlas 6]] by [[John Glenn]], in 1962. There were 1,200 journalists covering the mission, with the [[BBC]]'s coverage broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper ''[[Pravda]]'' featured a quote from Boris Nikolaevich Petrov, Chairman of the Soviet [[Interkosmos]] program, who described the flight as an "outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology". It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon. The Apollo8 broadcasts won an [[Emmy Award]], the highest honor given by the [[Academy of Television Arts & Sciences]]. [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]], an [[Atheism|atheist]], later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from Genesis. O'Hair wanted the courts to ban American astronauts—who were all government employees—from public prayer in space. Though the case was rejected by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], apparently for lack of jurisdiction in outer space, it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. Buzz Aldrin, on Apollo11, self-communicated [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] [[Eucharist|Communion]] on the surface of the Moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years and referred to it only obliquely at the time. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Legacy",
"Historical importance"
] | In 1969, the [[United States Post Office Department]] issued a postage stamp ([[Scott catalogue]] #1371) commemorating the Apollo8 flight around the Moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the Earthrise over the Moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, "In the beginning God...", the first words of the book of Genesis. In January 1969, just 18 days after the crew's return to Earth, they appeared in the [[Super Bowl III]] pre-game show, reciting the [[Pledge of Allegiance (United States)|Pledge of Allegiance]], before the [[The Star-Spangled Banner|national anthem]] was performed by trumpeter Lloyd Geisler of the [[National Symphony Orchestra|Washington National Symphony Orchestra]]. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Legacy",
"Spacecraft location"
] | In January 1970, the spacecraft was delivered to [[Osaka]], Japan, for display in the U.S. pavilion at [[Expo '70]]. It is now displayed at the Chicago [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry]], along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the [[space suit]] worn by Frank Borman. Jim Lovell's Apollo8 space suit is on public display in the Visitor Center at NASA's [[Glenn Research Center]]. Bill Anders's space suit is on display at the [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]] in London, United Kingdom. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[
"Legacy",
"In popular culture"
] | Apollo 8's historic mission has been depicted and referred to in several forms, both documentary and fiction. The various television transmissions and [[16 mm film|16 mm]] footage shot by the crew of Apollo8 were compiled and released by NASA in the 1969 documentary ''Debrief: Apollo8'', hosted by [[Burgess Meredith]]. In addition, Spacecraft Films released, in 2003, a three-disc DVD set containing all of NASA's TV and 16 mm film footage related to the mission, including all TV transmissions from space, training and launch footage, and motion pictures taken in flight. Other documentaries include "Race to the Moon" (2005) as part of [[American Experience (season 18)|season 18 of ''American Experience'']] and ''[[In the Shadow of the Moon (2007 film)|In the Shadow of the Moon]]'' (2007). Apollo's Daring Mission aired on PBS' ''[[List of Nova episodes#Season 46: 2018–2019|Nova]]'' in December 2018, marking the flight's 50th anniversary. Parts of the mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'' episode "[[From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)#Episodes|1968]]". The S-IVB stage of Apollo8 was also portrayed as the location of an alien device in the 1970 ''[[UFO (TV series)|UFO]]'' episode "Conflict". Apollo8's lunar orbit insertion was chronicled with actual recordings in the song "The Other Side", on the 2015 album ''[[The Race for Space (album)|The Race for Space]]'', by the band [[Public Service Broadcasting (band)|Public Service Broadcasting]]. A documentary film, ''[[First to the Moon: The Journey of Apollo 8]]'' was released in 2018. The choral music piece ''Earthrise'' by Luke Byrne commemorates the mission. The piece was premièred on January 19, 2020, by [[Sydney Philharmonia Choirs]] at the [[Sydney Opera House]]. | 663 | Apollo 8 | [
"Apollo 8",
"Apollo program missions",
"Crewed missions to the Moon",
"Spacecraft launched in 1968",
"1968 in the United States",
"Spacecraft which reentered in 1968",
"December 1968 events",
"Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets",
"Jim Lovell",
"William Anders",
"Frank Borman"
] | [] |
[] | An '''astronaut''' (from the Greek "astron" (ἄστρον), meaning "star", and "nautes" (ναύτης), meaning "sailor") is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a [[List of human spaceflight programs|human spaceflight program]] to serve as a commander or crew member aboard a [[spacecraft]]. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists and [[space tourism|tourists]]. "Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality or allegiance; however, astronauts fielded by Russia or the [[Soviet Union]] are typically known instead as '''cosmonauts''' (from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "universe", also borrowed from Greek) in order to distinguish them from American or otherwise [[NATO]]-oriented space travellers. Comparatively recent developments in manned spaceflight made by China and other East Asian nations have also led to the rise of the term '''taikonaut''' (from the [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] "tàikōng" (太空), meaning "space"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded [[SpaceShipOne]] in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the [[commercial astronaut]]. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Definition"
] | The criteria for what constitutes [[human spaceflight]] vary, with some focus on the point where the atmosphere becomes so thin that [[centrifugal force]], rather than [[aerodynamic force]], carries a significant portion of the weight of the flight object. The [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed the [[Kármán line]], at an altitude of . In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of are awarded [[Astronaut Badge|astronaut wings]]. , 552 people from [[Timeline of space travel by nationality|36 countries]] have reached or more in altitude, of whom 549 reached [[low Earth orbit]] or beyond. Of these, [[List of Apollo astronauts|24 people]] have traveled beyond low Earth orbit, either to lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or, in one case, a loop around the [[Moon]]. Three of the 24—[[Jim Lovell]], [[John Watts Young|John Young]] and [[Eugene Cernan]]—did so twice. , under the U.S. definition, 558 people qualify as having reached space, above altitude. Of eight [[X-15]] pilots who exceeded in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62 miles). Space travelers have spent over 41,790 [[Man hour|man-days]] (114.5 man-years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days of [[extravehicular activity|spacewalks]]. , the man with the longest cumulative time in space is [[Gennady Padalka]], who has spent 879 days in space. [[Peggy Whitson|Peggy A. Whitson]] holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, 377 days. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Terminology"
] | In 1959, when both the United States and [[Soviet Union]] were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, [[NASA]] Administrator [[T. Keith Glennan]] and his Deputy Administrator, [[Hugh Latimer Dryden|Hugh Dryden]], discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called ''astronauts'' or ''cosmonauts''. Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in and to the broader ''[[cosmos]]'', while the "astro" prefix suggested flight specifically to the [[star]]. Most NASA [[Space Task Group]] members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term. When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, [[Yuri Gagarin]] in 1961, they chose a term which [[Anglicization|anglicizes]] to "cosmonaut". | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Terminology",
"Astronaut"
] | A professional space traveler is called an ''astronaut''. The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by [[Neil R. Jones]] in his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, in [[Percy Greg]]'s 1880 book ''Across the Zodiac'', "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In ''Les Navigateurs de l'Infini'' (1925) by [[J.-H. Rosny aîné]], the word ''astronautique'' (astronautic) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 to [[balloon (aircraft)|balloon]]. An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication is [[Eric Frank Russell]]'s poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934 ''Bulletin of the [[British Interplanetary Society]]''. The first known formal use of the term [[astronautics]] in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual [[International Astronautical Congress]] in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the [[International Astronautical Federation]] the following year. [[NASA]] applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its [[NASA Astronaut Corps|Astronaut Corps]]. The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its [[European Astronaut Corps|Astronaut Corps]]. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Terminology",
"Cosmonaut"
] | By convention, an astronaut employed by the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] (or its [[Soviet space program|Soviet]] predecessor) is called a ''cosmonaut'' in English texts. The word is an [[Anglicization]] of ''kosmonavt'' ( ). Other countries of the former [[Eastern Bloc]] use variations of the Russian kosmonavt, such as the (although Polish also uses , and the two words are considered synonyms). Coinage of the term has been credited to Soviet aeronautics (or "[[cosmonautics]]") pioneer [[Mikhail Tikhonravov]] (1900–1974). The first cosmonaut was [[Soviet Air Force]] pilot [[Yuri Gagarin]], also the first person in space. He was part of the first six Russians, with [[German Titov]], [[Yevgeny Khrunov]], [[Andriyan Nikolayev]], [[Pavel Popovich]], and [[Grigoriy Nelyubov]], who were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961. [[Valentina Tereshkova]] was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest [[Women in space|woman to have flown in space]] with a solo mission on the [[Vostok 6]] in 1963. On 14 March 1995, [[Norman Thagard]] became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first "American cosmonaut". | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Terminology",
"Taikonaut"
] | In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the term (, "Space-universe navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general, while (, "navigating [[outer space]] personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, () is strictly defined as the navigation of outer space within the local [[star system]], i.e. [[solar system]]. The phrase (, "spaceman") is often used in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Taiwan]]. The term ''taikonaut'' is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional [[Chinese space program|space travelers from China]]. The word has featured in the [[Longman]] and [[Oxford English Dictionary|Oxford English]] dictionaries, and the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut [[Yang Liwei]] into space aboard the ''[[Shenzhou 5]]'' spacecraft. This is the term used by [[Xinhua News Agency]] in the English version of the Chinese ''[[People's Daily]]'' since the advent of the Chinese space program. The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih () from [[Malaysia]], used it in [[newsgroup]]. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Terminology",
"Parastronaut"
] | For its [[2022 European Space Agency Astronaut Group|2022 Astronaut Group]], ESA envisions to recruit an astronaut with a physical disability, a category they called "parastronauts", with the intention but not guarantee of spaceflight. The categories of disability considered for the program were individuals with lower limb deficiency (either through amputation or congenital), leg length difference, or a short stature (less than ). | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Terminology",
"Other terms"
] | With the rise of [[space tourism]], [[NASA]] and the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] agreed to use the term "[[spaceflight participant]]" to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies. While no nation other than Russia (and previously the Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a crewed spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries, e.g. the Soviet-led [[Interkosmos]] program. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term ''spationaut'' () is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the [[Latin]] word for "space"; the [[Malay language|Malay]] term (deriving from ''[[Akasha|angkasa]]'' meaning 'space') was used to describe participants in the [[Angkasawan program]] (note its similarity with the [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] term ''antariksawan''); and, the [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] hope to launch a [[Gaganyaan|spacecraft]] in 2022 that would carry ''vyomanauts'', coined from the [[Sanskrit]] word ( meaning 'sky' or 'space'). In [[Finland]], the NASA astronaut [[Timothy Kopra]], a [[Finnish Americans|Finnish American]], has sometimes been referred to as , from the [[Finnish language|Finnish]] word . Across Germanic languages, "astronaut" is used in conjunction with locally derived words like German's ''Raumfahrer'', Dutch's ''ruimtevaarder'', Swedish's ''rymdfarare'' and Norwegian's ''romfarer''. As of 2020 in the United States, astronaut status is conferred on a person depending on the authorizing agency: (-) one who flies in a vehicle above for NASA or the military is considered an ''astronaut'' (with no qualifier) (-) one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is a ''spaceflight participant'' (-) one who flies above in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember is considered a ''commercial astronaut'' by the Federal Aviation Administration (-) one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission ... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered a ''private astronaut'' by NASA (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status) (-) a generally-accepted but unofficial term for a paying non-crew passenger who flies a private non-NASA or military vehicles above is a ''space tourist'' (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status) | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Space travel milestones"
] | The first human in space was Soviet [[Yuri Gagarin]], who was launched on 12 April 1961, aboard [[Vostok 1]] and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet [[Valentina Tereshkova]], who launched on 16 June 1963, aboard [[Vostok 6]] and orbited Earth for almost three days. [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American and second person in space on 5 May 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight aboard ''[[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom 7]]''. The first American to orbit the Earth was [[John Glenn]], aboard ''[[Friendship 7]]'' on 20 February 1962. The first American woman in space was [[Sally Ride]], during [[Space Shuttle Challenger|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']]'s mission [[STS-7]], on 18 June 1983. In 1992 [[Mae Jemison]] became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard [[STS-47]]. Cosmonaut [[Alexei Leonov]] was the first person to conduct an [[extravehicular activity]] (EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk"), on 18 March 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut [[Ed White (astronaut)|Ed White]] who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission. The first crewed mission to orbit the Moon, [[Apollo 8]], included American [[William Anders]] who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968. The Soviet Union, through its [[Intercosmos]] program, allowed people from other "[[socialism|socialist]]" (i.e. [[Warsaw Pact]] and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions, with the notable exceptions of [[France]] and [[Austria]] participating in [[Soyuz TM-7]] and [[Soyuz TM-13]], respectively. An example is [[Czechoslovak]] [[Vladimír Remek]], the first cosmonaut from a country other than the [[Soviet space program|Soviet Union]] or the [[NASA|United States]], who flew to space in 1978 on a [[Soyuz-U]] rocket. [[Rakesh Sharma]] became the first Indian citizen to travel to space. He was launched aboard [[Soyuz T-11]], on 2 April 1984. On 23 July 1980, [[Pham Tuan]] of [[Vietnam]] became the first [[Asian people|Asian]] in space when he flew aboard [[Soyuz 37]]. Also in 1980, [[Cubans|Cuban]] [[Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez]] became the first person of [[Hispanic]] and black African descent to fly in space, and in 1983, [[Guion Bluford]] became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985, [[Taylor Wang]] became the first ethnic Chinese person in space. The first person born in Africa to fly in space was [[Patrick Baudry]] (France), in 1985. In 1985, [[Saudi Arabia]] [[Sultan Salman al-Saud|Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud]] became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space. In 1988, [[Abdul Ahad Mohmand]] became the first [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] to reach space, spending nine days aboard the ''[[Mir]]'' space station. With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983, [[Ulf Merbold]] of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984, [[Marc Garneau]] became the first of eight [[Canadian astronauts]] to fly in space (through 2010). In 1985, [[Rodolfo Neri Vela]] became the first Mexican-born person in space. In 1991, [[Helen Sharman]] became the first Briton to fly in space. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Space travel milestones"
] | In 2002, [[Mark Shuttleworth]] became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant. In 2003, [[Ilan Ramon]] became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during a [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|re-entry accident]]. On 15 October 2003, [[Yang Liwei]] became China's first astronaut on the [[Shenzhou 5]] spacecraft. On 30 May 2020, [[Doug Hurley]] and [[Bob Behnken]] became the first astronauts to launch on a private crewed spacecraft, [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Crew Dragon]]. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Space travel milestones",
"Age milestones"
] | The youngest person to fly in space is [[Gherman Titov]], who was 25 years old when he flew [[Vostok 2]]. (Titov was also the first person to suffer [[space sickness]]). The oldest person who has flown in space was [[John Glenn]], who was 77 when he flew on [[STS-95]]. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Space travel milestones",
"Duration and distance milestones"
] | 438 days is the longest time spent in space, by Russian [[Valeri Polyakov]]. As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both [[Jerry L. Ross]] and [[Franklin Chang-Diaz]]. The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was , when [[Jim Lovell]], [[Jack Swigert]], and [[Fred Haise]] went around the Moon during the [[Apollo 13]] emergency. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Space travel milestones",
"Civilian and non-government milestones"
] | The first civilian in space was [[Valentina Tereshkova]] aboard [[Vostok 6]] (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, [[Joseph Albert Walker]] became the first American civilian in space when his [[X-15 Flight 90]] crossed the line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight. Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both [[Konstantin Feoktistov]] and [[Boris Yegorov]] aboard [[Voskhod 1]]. The first non-governmental space traveler was [[Byron K. Lichtenberg]], a researcher from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] who flew on [[STS-9]] in 1983. In December 1990, [[Toyohiro Akiyama]] became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space for [[Tokyo Broadcasting System]], a visit to [[Mir]] as part of an estimated $12 million ([[USD]]) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut". Akiyama suffered severe [[space adaptation syndrome|space sickness]] during his mission, which affected his productivity. The first self-funded [[space tourist]] was [[Dennis Tito]] on board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on 28 April 2001. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Space travel milestones",
"Self-funded travelers"
] | The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was [[Mike Melvill]], piloting [[SpaceShipOne flight 15P]] on a suborbital journey, although he was a [[test pilot]] employed by [[Scaled Composites]] and not an actual paying space tourist. Seven others have paid the [[Russian Space Agency]] to fly into space: (1) [[Dennis Tito]] (American): 28 April – 6 May 2001 ([[International Space Station|ISS]]) (2) [[Mark Shuttleworth]] (South African): 25 April – 5 May 2002 (ISS) (3) [[Gregory Olsen]] (American): 1–11 October 2005 (ISS) (4) [[Anousheh Ansari]] (Iranian / American): 18–29 September 2006 (ISS) (5) [[Charles Simonyi]] (Hungarian / American): 7–21 April 2007 (ISS), 26 March – 8 April 2009 (ISS) (6) [[Richard Garriott]] (British / American): 12–24 October 2008 (ISS) (7) [[Guy Laliberté]] (Canadian): 30 September 2009 – 11 October 2009 (ISS) | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Training"
] | The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959. Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the [[Mercury Seven]]) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots. The earliest astronauts for both the US and the USSR tended to be [[fighter aircraft|jet fighter]] pilots, and were often test pilots. Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for [[extravehicular activity]] in a facility such as NASA's [[Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory]]. Astronauts-in-training (astronaut candidates) may also experience short periods of [[weightlessness]] ([[Micro-g environment|microgravity]]) in an aircraft called the "[[Vomit Comet]]," the nickname given to a pair of modified [[KC-135]] (retired in 2000 and 2004, respectively, and replaced in 2005 with a [[McDonnell Douglas C-9|C-9]]) which perform [[Parabola|parabolic]] flights. Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in [[T-38 Talon|T-38 jet aircraft]] out of [[Ellington Field]], due to its proximity to the [[Johnson Space Center]]. Ellington Field is also where the [[Shuttle Training Aircraft]] is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are conducted from [[Edwards Air Force Base]]. Astronauts in training must learn how to control and fly the Space Shuttle and, it is vital that they are familiar with the International Space Station so they know what they must do when they get there. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Training",
"NASA candidacy requirements"
] | (-) The candidate must be a citizen of the United States. (-) The candidate must complete a master's degree in a [[STEM]] field, including [[engineering]], [[biological science]], [[physical science]], [[computer science]] or [[mathematics]]. (-) The candidate must have at least two years of related professional experience obtained after degree completion or at least 1,000 hours [[pilot-in-command]] time on [[jet aircraft]]. (-) The candidate must be able to pass the NASA long-duration flight astronaut physical. (-) The candidate must also have skills in leadership, teamwork and communications. The master's degree requirement can also be met by: (-) Two years of work toward a doctoral program in a related science, technology, engineering or math field. (-) A completed [[Doctor of Medicine]] or [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine]] degree. (-) Completion of a nationally recognized test pilot school program. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Training",
"NASA candidacy requirements",
"Mission Specialist Educator"
] | (-) Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired. [[Educator Astronaut Project|Mission Specialist Educators]], or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004, and as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: [[Joseph M. Acaba]], [[Richard R. Arnold]], and [[Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger]]. [[Barbara Morgan]], selected as back-up teacher to [[Christa McAuliffe]] in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist. The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the [[Teacher in Space]] program from the 1980s. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Health risks of space travel"
] | Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including [[decompression sickness]], [[barotrauma]], [[immunodeficiencies]], loss of [[bone]] and [[muscle]], loss of [[eyesight]], [[orthostatic intolerance]], [[sleep disturbances]], and [[radiation]] injury. A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the [[National Space Biomedical Research Institute]] (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the [[Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity]] Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders [[Leroy Chiao]] and [[Gennady Padalka]]) perform [[ultrasound]] scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] [[sports injuries]] as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in [[emergency]] and [[rural health|rural care]] situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare. A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that ''[[Salmonella typhimurium]]'', a [[bacterium]] that can cause [[food poisoning]], became more virulent when cultivated in space. More recently, in 2017, [[bacteria]] were found to be more resistant to [[antibiotic]] and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. [[Microorganism]] have been observed to survive the [[vacuum]] of outer space. On 31 December 2012, a [[NASA]]-supported study reported that [[human spaceflight]] may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of [[Alzheimer's disease]]. In October 2015, the [[NASA Office of Inspector General]] issued a [[Effect of spaceflight on the human body|health hazards report]] related to [[human space exploration|space exploration]], including a [[human mission to Mars]]. Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as [[Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure|visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP)]], has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS). On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the [[brain]] have been found in astronauts who have taken [[Human spaceflight|trips in space]], based on [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI studies]]. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes. Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the [[otolith]] organs and adaptive capabilities of the [[central nervous system]]. [[Zero gravity]] and [[cosmic rays]] can cause many implications for astronauts. In October 2018, [[NASA]]-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into [[outer space]], including travel to the [[Mars|planet Mars]], may substantially damage the [[Gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal tissues]] of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the [[brain]] of astronauts, and [[ageing|age]] them prematurely. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) of five ''[[Enterobacter|Enterobacter bugandensis]]'' bacterial strains, none [[pathogen]] to humans, that [[microorganism]] on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Health risks of space travel"
] | A study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing space [[radiation]] could face temporary hindrance of their [[memory]] centers. While this does not affect their intellectual capabilities, it temporarily hinders formation of new cells in brain's memory centers. The study conducted by Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) concluded this after they observed that mice exposed to neutron and gamma radiation did not impact the rodents' intellectual capabilities. A 2020 [[clinical trial|study]] conducted on the brains of eight male Russian cosmonauts after they returned from long stays aboard the [[International Space Station]] showed that long-duration [[human spaceflight|spaceflight]] causes many [[physiological]] adaptions, including macro- and [[microstructure|microstructural]] changes. While [[scientists]] still know little about the effects of [[spaceflight]] on [[brain]] structure, this study showed that space travel can lead to new [[fine motor skill|motor skills (dexterity)]], but also slightly weaker [[visual perception|vision]], both of which could possibly be long lasting. It was the first study to provide clear evidence of [[neuroplasticity|sensorimotor neuroplasticity]], which is the brain's ability to change through growth and reorganization. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Food and drink"
] | An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about mass of food per meal each day (inclusive of about packaging mass per meal). Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appealed to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus were selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about per day. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Insignia"
] | In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded [[Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation]] upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of [[Hero of the Russian Federation]]. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title [[Hero of the Soviet Union]]. At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver [[Astronaut Badge#NASA Astronaut Pins|lapel pin]]. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the [[Astronaut Badge]], after participation on a spaceflight. The [[United States Air Force]] also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed in altitude. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[
"Deaths"
] | , eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have lost their lives during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American (including one born in India), four were Russian ([[Soviet Union]]), and one was Israeli. , eleven people (all men) have lost their lives training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments. Astronaut [[David Scott]] left a memorial consisting of a statuette titled ''[[Fallen Astronaut]]'' on the surface of the Moon during his 1971 [[Apollo 15]] mission, along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service. The [[Space Mirror Memorial]], which stands on the grounds of the [[Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex]], is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of an [[X-15]] test pilot, a [[U.S. Air Force]] officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian [[spaceflight participant]]. | 664 | Astronaut | [
"Astronauts",
"Science occupations",
"1959 introductions"
] | [] |
[] | '''''A Modest Proposal For preventing the Children of Poor People From being a Burthen to Their Parents or Country, and For making them Beneficial to the Publick''''', commonly referred to as '''''A Modest Proposal''''', is a [[Juvenalian satire|Juvenalian satirical]] essay written and published anonymously by [[Jonathan Swift]] in 1729. The essay suggests that the impoverished Irish might ease their economic troubles by [[human cannibalism|selling their children as food]] to rich gentlemen and ladies. This satirical [[hyperbole]] mocked heartless attitudes towards the poor, as well as [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] policy toward the Irish in general. In English writing, the phrase "a [[wikt:modest proposal|modest proposal]]" is now conventionally an allusion to this style of straight-faced satire. | 665 | A Modest Proposal | [
"Essays by Jonathan Swift",
"Satirical essays",
"Pamphlets",
"18th-century essays",
"Works published anonymously",
"British satire",
"1729 in Great Britain",
"Cannibalism in fiction",
"1729 books"
] | [] |
[
"Synopsis"
] | Swift's essay is widely held to be one of the greatest examples of sustained [[irony]] in the history of the English language. Much of its shock value derives from the fact that the first portion of the essay describes the plight of starving beggars in Ireland, so that the reader is unprepared for the surprise of Swift's solution when he states: "A young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a [[fricassee]], or a [[ragout]]." Swift goes to great lengths to support his argument, including a list of possible preparation styles for the children, and calculations showing the financial benefits of his suggestion. He uses methods of argument throughout his essay which [[Parody|lampoon]] the then-influential [[William Petty]] and the [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] popular among followers of [[Francis Bacon]]. These lampoons include [[appeal to authority|appealing to the authority]] of "a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London" and "the famous [[George Psalmanazar|Psalmanazar]], a native of the island [[Formosa]]" (who had already confessed to ''not'' being from Formosa in 1706). In the tradition of Roman satire, Swift introduces the reforms he is actually suggesting by [[paralipsis]]: | 665 | A Modest Proposal | [
"Essays by Jonathan Swift",
"Satirical essays",
"Pamphlets",
"18th-century essays",
"Works published anonymously",
"British satire",
"1729 in Great Britain",
"Cannibalism in fiction",
"1729 books"
] | [] |
[
"Population solutions"
] | George Wittkowsky argued that Swift's main target in ''A Modest Proposal'' was not the conditions in Ireland, but rather the can-do spirit of the times that led people to devise a number of illogical schemes that would purportedly solve social and economic ills. Swift was especially attacking projects that tried to fix population and labour issues with a simple cure-all solution. A memorable example of these sorts of schemes "involved the idea of running the poor through a [[joint-stock company]]". In response, Swift's ''Modest Proposal'' was "a burlesque of projects concerning the poor" that were in vogue during the early 18th century. ''A Modest Proposal'' also targets the calculating way people perceived the poor in designing their projects. The pamphlet targets reformers who "regard people as commodities". In the piece, Swift adopts the "technique of a political arithmetician" to show the utter ridiculousness of trying to prove any proposal with dispassionate statistics. Critics differ about Swift's intentions in using this faux-mathematical philosophy. [[Edmund Wilson]] argues that statistically "the logic of the 'Modest proposal' can be compared with defence of crime (arrogated to [[Karl Marx|Marx]]) in which he argues that crime takes care of the superfluous population". Wittkowsky counters that Swift's satiric use of statistical analysis is an effort to enhance his satire that "springs from a spirit of bitter mockery, not from the delight in calculations for their own sake". | 665 | A Modest Proposal | [
"Essays by Jonathan Swift",
"Satirical essays",
"Pamphlets",
"18th-century essays",
"Works published anonymously",
"British satire",
"1729 in Great Britain",
"Cannibalism in fiction",
"1729 books"
] | [] |
[
"Rhetoric"
] | Author Charles K. Smith argues that Swift's rhetorical style persuades the reader to detest the speaker and pity the Irish. Swift's specific strategy is twofold, using a "trap" to create sympathy for the Irish and a dislike of the narrator who, in the span of one sentence, "details vividly and with rhetorical emphasis the grinding poverty" but feels emotion solely for members of his own class. Swift's use of gripping details of poverty and his narrator's cool approach towards them create "two opposing points of view" that "alienate the reader, perhaps unconsciously, from a narrator who can view with 'melancholy' detachment a subject that Swift has directed us, rhetorically, to see in a much less detached way." Swift has his proposer further degrade the Irish by using language ordinarily reserved for animals. Lewis argues that the speaker uses "the vocabulary of animal husbandry" to describe the Irish. Once the children have been commodified, Swift's rhetoric can easily turn "people into animals, then meat, and from meat, logically, into tonnage worth a price per pound". Swift uses the proposer's serious tone to highlight the absurdity of his proposal. In making his argument, the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order of argument from Swift's time (which was derived from the Latin rhetorician [[Quintilian]]). The contrast between the "careful control against the almost inconceivable perversion of his scheme" and "the ridiculousness of the proposal" create a situation in which the reader has "to consider just what perverted values and assumptions would allow such a diligent, thoughtful, and conventional man to propose so perverse a plan". | 665 | A Modest Proposal | [
"Essays by Jonathan Swift",
"Satirical essays",
"Pamphlets",
"18th-century essays",
"Works published anonymously",
"British satire",
"1729 in Great Britain",
"Cannibalism in fiction",
"1729 books"
] | [] |
[
"Influences"
] | Scholars have speculated about which earlier works Swift may have had in mind when he wrote ''A Modest Proposal''. | 665 | A Modest Proposal | [
"Essays by Jonathan Swift",
"Satirical essays",
"Pamphlets",
"18th-century essays",
"Works published anonymously",
"British satire",
"1729 in Great Britain",
"Cannibalism in fiction",
"1729 books"
] | [] |
[
"Influences",
"Tertullian's ''Apology''"
] | James William Johnson argues that ''A Modest Proposal'' was largely influenced and inspired by [[Tertullian]]'s ''[[Apologeticus|Apology]]'': a satirical attack against early Roman persecution of Christianity. Johnson believes that Swift saw major similarities between the two situations. Johnson notes Swift's obvious affinity for Tertullian and the bold stylistic and structural similarities between the works ''A Modest Proposal'' and ''Apology''. In structure, Johnson points out the same central theme, that of cannibalism and the eating of babies as well as the same final argument, that "human depravity is such that men will attempt to justify their own cruelty by accusing their victims of being lower than human". Stylistically, Swift and Tertullian share the same command of sarcasm and language. In agreement with Johnson, Donald C. Baker points out the similarity between both authors' tones and use of irony. Baker notes the uncanny way that both authors imply an ironic "justification by ownership" over the subject of sacrificing children—Tertullian while attacking pagan parents, and Swift while attacking the English mistreatment of the Irish poor. | 665 | A Modest Proposal | [
"Essays by Jonathan Swift",
"Satirical essays",
"Pamphlets",
"18th-century essays",
"Works published anonymously",
"British satire",
"1729 in Great Britain",
"Cannibalism in fiction",
"1729 books"
] | [] |
[
"Influences",
"Defoe's ''The Generous Projector''"
] | It has also been argued that ''A Modest Proposal'' was, at least in part, a response to the 1728 essay ''The Generous Projector or, A Friendly Proposal to Prevent Murder and Other Enormous Abuses, By Erecting an Hospital for Foundlings and Bastard Children'' by Swift's rival [[Daniel Defoe]]. | 665 | A Modest Proposal | [
"Essays by Jonathan Swift",
"Satirical essays",
"Pamphlets",
"18th-century essays",
"Works published anonymously",
"British satire",
"1729 in Great Britain",
"Cannibalism in fiction",
"1729 books"
] | [] |
[
"Influences",
"Mandeville's ''Modest Defence of Publick Stews''"
] | [[Bernard Mandeville]]'s ''Modest Defence of Publick Stews'' asked to introduce public and state controlled [[bordello]]. The 1726 paper acknowledges women's interests andwhile not being a completely satirical texthas also been discussed as an inspiration for Jonathan Swift's title. Mandeville had by 1705 already become famous for the [[The Fable of the Bees|Fable of The Bees]] and deliberations on private vices and public benefits. | 665 | A Modest Proposal | [
"Essays by Jonathan Swift",
"Satirical essays",
"Pamphlets",
"18th-century essays",
"Works published anonymously",
"British satire",
"1729 in Great Britain",
"Cannibalism in fiction",
"1729 books"
] | [] |
[
"Influences",
"John Locke's ''First Treatise of Government''"
] | [[John Locke]] commented: "Be it then as Sir Robert says, that Anciently, it was usual for Men to sell and Castrate their Children. Let it be, that they exposed them; Add to it, if you please, for this is still greater Power, ''that they begat them for their Tables to fat and eat them'': If this proves a right to do so, we may, by the same Argument, justifie Adultery, Incest and Sodomy, for there are examples of these too, both Ancient and Modern; Sins, which I suppose, have the Principle Aggravation from this, that they cross the main intention of Nature, which willeth the increase of Mankind, and the continuation of the Species in the highest perfection, and the distinction of Families, with the Security of the Marriage Bed, as necessary thereunto". (First Treatise, sec. 59). | 665 | A Modest Proposal | [
"Essays by Jonathan Swift",
"Satirical essays",
"Pamphlets",
"18th-century essays",
"Works published anonymously",
"British satire",
"1729 in Great Britain",
"Cannibalism in fiction",
"1729 books"
] | [] |
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