uid
stringlengths 4
7
| premise
stringlengths 19
9.21k
| hypothesis
stringlengths 13
488
| label
stringclasses 3
values |
|---|---|---|---|
id_3800 | Less Television, Less Violence and Aggression Cutting back on television, videos, and video games reduces acts of aggression among schoolchildren, according to a study by Dr. Thomas Robinson and others from the Stanford University School of Medicine. The study, published in the January 2001 issue of the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, found that third- and fourth-grade students who took part in a curriculum to reduce their TV video, and video game use engaged in fewer acts of verbal and physical aggression than their peers. The study took place in two similar San Jose, California, elementary schools. Students in one school underwent an 18-lesson, 6-month program designed to limit their media usage, while the others did not. Both groups of students had similar reports of aggressive behavior at the beginning of the study. After the six-month program, however, the two groups had very real differences. The students who cut back on their TV time engaged in six fewer acts of verbal aggression per hour and rated 2.4 percent fewer of their classmates as aggressive after the program. Physical acts of violence, parental reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world also decreased, but the authors suggest further study to solidify these results. Although many studies have shown that children who watch a lot of TV are more likely to act violently, this report further verifies that television, videos, and video games actually cause the violent behavior, and it is among the first to evaluate a solution to the problem. Teachers at the intervention school included the program in their existing curriculum. Early lessons encouraged students to keep track of and report on the time they spent watching TV or videos, or playing video games, to motivate them to limit those activities on their own. The initial lessons were followed by TV-Turn off, an organization that encourages less TV viewing. For ten days, students were challenged to go without television, videos, or video games. After that, teachers encouraged the students to stay within a media allowance of seven hours per week. Almost all students participated in the Turnoff, and most stayed under their budget for the following weeks. Additional lessons encouraged children to use their time more selectively, and many of the final lessons had students themselves advocate reducing screen activities. This study is by no means the first to find a link between television and violence. Virtually all of 3,500 research studies on the subject in the past 40 years have shown the same relationship, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Among the most noteworthy studies is Dr. Leonard D. Erons, which found that exposure to television violence in childhood is the strongest predictor of aggressive behavior later in lifestronger even than violent behavior as children. The more violent television the subjects watched at age eight, the more serious was their aggressive behavior even 22 years later. Another study by Dr. Brandon S. Centerwall found that murder rates climb after the introduction of television. In the United States and Canada, murder rates doubled 10 to 15 years after the introduction of television, after the first TV generation grew up. Centerwall tested this pattern in South Africa, where television broadcasts were banned until 1975. Murder rates in South Africa remained relatively steady from the mid-1940s through the mid-1970s. By 1987, however, the murder rate had increased 130 percent from its 1974 level. The murder rates in the United States and Canada had leveled1 off in the meantime. Centerwalls study implies that the medium of television, not just the con-tent, promotes violence, and the current study by Dr Robinson supports that conclusion. The Turnoff did not specifically target violent television, nor did the following allowance period. Reducing television in general reduces aggressive behavior. Even television that is not violent is more violent than real life and may lead viewers to believe that violence is funny, inconsequential, and a viable solution to problems. Also, watching television of any content robs us of the time to interact with real people. Watching too much TV may inhibit the skills and patience we need to get along with others without resorting to aggression. TV, as a medium, pro-motes aggression and violence. The best solution is to turn it off. | TV was introduced in South Africa in the 1940s. | n |
id_3801 | Less Television, Less Violence and Aggression Cutting back on television, videos, and video games reduces acts of aggression among schoolchildren, according to a study by Dr. Thomas Robinson and others from the Stanford University School of Medicine. The study, published in the January 2001 issue of the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, found that third- and fourth-grade students who took part in a curriculum to reduce their TV video, and video game use engaged in fewer acts of verbal and physical aggression than their peers. The study took place in two similar San Jose, California, elementary schools. Students in one school underwent an 18-lesson, 6-month program designed to limit their media usage, while the others did not. Both groups of students had similar reports of aggressive behavior at the beginning of the study. After the six-month program, however, the two groups had very real differences. The students who cut back on their TV time engaged in six fewer acts of verbal aggression per hour and rated 2.4 percent fewer of their classmates as aggressive after the program. Physical acts of violence, parental reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world also decreased, but the authors suggest further study to solidify these results. Although many studies have shown that children who watch a lot of TV are more likely to act violently, this report further verifies that television, videos, and video games actually cause the violent behavior, and it is among the first to evaluate a solution to the problem. Teachers at the intervention school included the program in their existing curriculum. Early lessons encouraged students to keep track of and report on the time they spent watching TV or videos, or playing video games, to motivate them to limit those activities on their own. The initial lessons were followed by TV-Turn off, an organization that encourages less TV viewing. For ten days, students were challenged to go without television, videos, or video games. After that, teachers encouraged the students to stay within a media allowance of seven hours per week. Almost all students participated in the Turnoff, and most stayed under their budget for the following weeks. Additional lessons encouraged children to use their time more selectively, and many of the final lessons had students themselves advocate reducing screen activities. This study is by no means the first to find a link between television and violence. Virtually all of 3,500 research studies on the subject in the past 40 years have shown the same relationship, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Among the most noteworthy studies is Dr. Leonard D. Erons, which found that exposure to television violence in childhood is the strongest predictor of aggressive behavior later in lifestronger even than violent behavior as children. The more violent television the subjects watched at age eight, the more serious was their aggressive behavior even 22 years later. Another study by Dr. Brandon S. Centerwall found that murder rates climb after the introduction of television. In the United States and Canada, murder rates doubled 10 to 15 years after the introduction of television, after the first TV generation grew up. Centerwall tested this pattern in South Africa, where television broadcasts were banned until 1975. Murder rates in South Africa remained relatively steady from the mid-1940s through the mid-1970s. By 1987, however, the murder rate had increased 130 percent from its 1974 level. The murder rates in the United States and Canada had leveled1 off in the meantime. Centerwalls study implies that the medium of television, not just the con-tent, promotes violence, and the current study by Dr Robinson supports that conclusion. The Turnoff did not specifically target violent television, nor did the following allowance period. Reducing television in general reduces aggressive behavior. Even television that is not violent is more violent than real life and may lead viewers to believe that violence is funny, inconsequential, and a viable solution to problems. Also, watching television of any content robs us of the time to interact with real people. Watching too much TV may inhibit the skills and patience we need to get along with others without resorting to aggression. TV, as a medium, pro-motes aggression and violence. The best solution is to turn it off. | The United States has more violence on TV than other countries. | n |
id_3802 | Less Television, Less Violence and Aggression Cutting back on television, videos, and video games reduces acts of aggression among schoolchildren, according to a study by Dr. Thomas Robinson and others from the Stanford University School of Medicine. The study, published in the January 2001 issue of the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, found that third- and fourth-grade students who took part in a curriculum to reduce their TV video, and video game use engaged in fewer acts of verbal and physical aggression than their peers. The study took place in two similar San Jose, California, elementary schools. Students in one school underwent an 18-lesson, 6-month program designed to limit their media usage, while the others did not. Both groups of students had similar reports of aggressive behavior at the beginning of the study. After the six-month program, however, the two groups had very real differences. The students who cut back on their TV time engaged in six fewer acts of verbal aggression per hour and rated 2.4 percent fewer of their classmates as aggressive after the program. Physical acts of violence, parental reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world also decreased, but the authors suggest further study to solidify these results. Although many studies have shown that children who watch a lot of TV are more likely to act violently, this report further verifies that television, videos, and video games actually cause the violent behavior, and it is among the first to evaluate a solution to the problem. Teachers at the intervention school included the program in their existing curriculum. Early lessons encouraged students to keep track of and report on the time they spent watching TV or videos, or playing video games, to motivate them to limit those activities on their own. The initial lessons were followed by TV-Turn off, an organization that encourages less TV viewing. For ten days, students were challenged to go without television, videos, or video games. After that, teachers encouraged the students to stay within a media allowance of seven hours per week. Almost all students participated in the Turnoff, and most stayed under their budget for the following weeks. Additional lessons encouraged children to use their time more selectively, and many of the final lessons had students themselves advocate reducing screen activities. This study is by no means the first to find a link between television and violence. Virtually all of 3,500 research studies on the subject in the past 40 years have shown the same relationship, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Among the most noteworthy studies is Dr. Leonard D. Erons, which found that exposure to television violence in childhood is the strongest predictor of aggressive behavior later in lifestronger even than violent behavior as children. The more violent television the subjects watched at age eight, the more serious was their aggressive behavior even 22 years later. Another study by Dr. Brandon S. Centerwall found that murder rates climb after the introduction of television. In the United States and Canada, murder rates doubled 10 to 15 years after the introduction of television, after the first TV generation grew up. Centerwall tested this pattern in South Africa, where television broadcasts were banned until 1975. Murder rates in South Africa remained relatively steady from the mid-1940s through the mid-1970s. By 1987, however, the murder rate had increased 130 percent from its 1974 level. The murder rates in the United States and Canada had leveled1 off in the meantime. Centerwalls study implies that the medium of television, not just the con-tent, promotes violence, and the current study by Dr Robinson supports that conclusion. The Turnoff did not specifically target violent television, nor did the following allowance period. Reducing television in general reduces aggressive behavior. Even television that is not violent is more violent than real life and may lead viewers to believe that violence is funny, inconsequential, and a viable solution to problems. Also, watching television of any content robs us of the time to interact with real people. Watching too much TV may inhibit the skills and patience we need to get along with others without resorting to aggression. TV, as a medium, pro-motes aggression and violence. The best solution is to turn it off. | There were more murders in Canada after people began watching TV. | e |
id_3803 | Less Television, Less Violence and Aggression Cutting back on television, videos, and video games reduces acts of aggression among schoolchildren, according to a study by Dr. Thomas Robinson and others from the Stanford University School of Medicine. The study, published in the January 2001 issue of the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, found that third- and fourth-grade students who took part in a curriculum to reduce their TV video, and video game use engaged in fewer acts of verbal and physical aggression than their peers. The study took place in two similar San Jose, California, elementary schools. Students in one school underwent an 18-lesson, 6-month program designed to limit their media usage, while the others did not. Both groups of students had similar reports of aggressive behavior at the beginning of the study. After the six-month program, however, the two groups had very real differences. The students who cut back on their TV time engaged in six fewer acts of verbal aggression per hour and rated 2.4 percent fewer of their classmates as aggressive after the program. Physical acts of violence, parental reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world also decreased, but the authors suggest further study to solidify these results. Although many studies have shown that children who watch a lot of TV are more likely to act violently, this report further verifies that television, videos, and video games actually cause the violent behavior, and it is among the first to evaluate a solution to the problem. Teachers at the intervention school included the program in their existing curriculum. Early lessons encouraged students to keep track of and report on the time they spent watching TV or videos, or playing video games, to motivate them to limit those activities on their own. The initial lessons were followed by TV-Turn off, an organization that encourages less TV viewing. For ten days, students were challenged to go without television, videos, or video games. After that, teachers encouraged the students to stay within a media allowance of seven hours per week. Almost all students participated in the Turnoff, and most stayed under their budget for the following weeks. Additional lessons encouraged children to use their time more selectively, and many of the final lessons had students themselves advocate reducing screen activities. This study is by no means the first to find a link between television and violence. Virtually all of 3,500 research studies on the subject in the past 40 years have shown the same relationship, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Among the most noteworthy studies is Dr. Leonard D. Erons, which found that exposure to television violence in childhood is the strongest predictor of aggressive behavior later in lifestronger even than violent behavior as children. The more violent television the subjects watched at age eight, the more serious was their aggressive behavior even 22 years later. Another study by Dr. Brandon S. Centerwall found that murder rates climb after the introduction of television. In the United States and Canada, murder rates doubled 10 to 15 years after the introduction of television, after the first TV generation grew up. Centerwall tested this pattern in South Africa, where television broadcasts were banned until 1975. Murder rates in South Africa remained relatively steady from the mid-1940s through the mid-1970s. By 1987, however, the murder rate had increased 130 percent from its 1974 level. The murder rates in the United States and Canada had leveled1 off in the meantime. Centerwalls study implies that the medium of television, not just the con-tent, promotes violence, and the current study by Dr Robinson supports that conclusion. The Turnoff did not specifically target violent television, nor did the following allowance period. Reducing television in general reduces aggressive behavior. Even television that is not violent is more violent than real life and may lead viewers to believe that violence is funny, inconsequential, and a viable solution to problems. Also, watching television of any content robs us of the time to interact with real people. Watching too much TV may inhibit the skills and patience we need to get along with others without resorting to aggression. TV, as a medium, pro-motes aggression and violence. The best solution is to turn it off. | Only one study has found a connection between TV and violent behavior. | c |
id_3804 | Let these be a Signboard also indicating the directions and instruction. | Signboard is the only effective tool to indicate directions. Central Bank of India (PO) | n |
id_3805 | Let these be a Signboard also indicating the directions and instruction. | Signboard can be prepared without using any language. | n |
id_3806 | Leu Televition, Leu Violence and Aggrenion Cutting back on television, videos, and video games reduces acts of aggression among schoolchildren, according to a study by Dr. Thomas Robinson and others from the Stanford University School of Medicine. The study, published in the January 2001 issue of the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, found that third- and fourth-grade students who took part in a curriculum to reduce their TV, video, and video game use engaged in fewer acts of verbal and physical aggression than their peers. The study took place in two similar San Jose, California, elementary schools. Students in one school underwent an 18-lesson, 6-month program designed to limit their media usage, while the others did not. Both groups of students had similar reports of aggressive behavior at the beginning of the study. After the six-month program, however, the two groups had very real differences. The students who cut bach on their TV time engaged in six fewer acts of verbal aggression per hour and rated 2.4 percent fewer of their classmates as aggressive after the program. Physical acts of violence, parental reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world also decreased, but the authors suggest further study to solidify these results. Although many studies have shown that children who watch a lot of TV are more likely to act violently, this report further verifies that television, videos, and video games actually cause the violent behavior, and it is among the first to evaluate a solution to the problem. Teachers at the intervention school included the program in their existing curriculum. Early lessons encouraged students to keep track of and report on the time they spent watching TV or videos, or playing Video games, to motivate them to limit those activities on their own. The initial lessons were followed by TV-Turnoff, an organization that encourages less TV viewing. For ten days, students were challenged to go without television, videos, or video games. After that, teachers encouraged the students to stay within a media allowance of seven hours per week. Almost all students participated in the Turnoff, and most stayed under their budget for the following weeks. Additional lessons encodtaged children to use their time more selectively, and many of the final lessons had students themselves advociate reducing screen activities. This study is by no means the first to find a link between television and violence. Virtually all of 3,500 research studies on the subject in the past 40 years have shown the same relationship, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Among the most noteworthy studies is Dr. Leonard D. Eron's, which found that exposure to television violence in childhood is the strongest predictor of aggressive behavior later in lifestronger even than violent behavior as children. The more violent television the subjects watched at age eight, the more serious was their aggressive behavior even 22 years later. Another study by Dr. Brandon S. Centerwall found that murder rates climb after the introduction of television. In the United States and Canada, murder rates doubled 10 to 15 years after the introduction of television, after the first TV generation grew up. Centerwall tested this pattern in South Africa, where television broadcasts were banned until 1975. Murder rates in South Africa remained relatively steady from the mid-1940s through the mid- 1970s. By 1987, however, the murder rate had increased 130 percent from its 1974 level. The murder rates in the United States and Canada had leveled1 off in the meantime. CenterwalPs study implies that the medium of television, not just the content, promotes violence and the current study by Dr. Robinson supports that conclusion. The Turnoff did not specifically target violent television, nor did the following allowance period. Reducing television in general reduces aggressive behavior. Even television that is not "violent" is more violent than real life and may lead viewers to believe that violence is funny, inconsequential, and a viable solution to problems. Also, watching television of any content robs us of the time to interact with real people. Watching too much TV may inhibit the skills and patience we need to get along with others without resorting to aggression. TV, as a medium, promotes aggression and violence. The best solution is to turn it off. | The United States has more violence on TV than other countries. | n |
id_3807 | Leu Televition, Leu Violence and Aggrenion Cutting back on television, videos, and video games reduces acts of aggression among schoolchildren, according to a study by Dr. Thomas Robinson and others from the Stanford University School of Medicine. The study, published in the January 2001 issue of the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, found that third- and fourth-grade students who took part in a curriculum to reduce their TV, video, and video game use engaged in fewer acts of verbal and physical aggression than their peers. The study took place in two similar San Jose, California, elementary schools. Students in one school underwent an 18-lesson, 6-month program designed to limit their media usage, while the others did not. Both groups of students had similar reports of aggressive behavior at the beginning of the study. After the six-month program, however, the two groups had very real differences. The students who cut bach on their TV time engaged in six fewer acts of verbal aggression per hour and rated 2.4 percent fewer of their classmates as aggressive after the program. Physical acts of violence, parental reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world also decreased, but the authors suggest further study to solidify these results. Although many studies have shown that children who watch a lot of TV are more likely to act violently, this report further verifies that television, videos, and video games actually cause the violent behavior, and it is among the first to evaluate a solution to the problem. Teachers at the intervention school included the program in their existing curriculum. Early lessons encouraged students to keep track of and report on the time they spent watching TV or videos, or playing Video games, to motivate them to limit those activities on their own. The initial lessons were followed by TV-Turnoff, an organization that encourages less TV viewing. For ten days, students were challenged to go without television, videos, or video games. After that, teachers encouraged the students to stay within a media allowance of seven hours per week. Almost all students participated in the Turnoff, and most stayed under their budget for the following weeks. Additional lessons encodtaged children to use their time more selectively, and many of the final lessons had students themselves advociate reducing screen activities. This study is by no means the first to find a link between television and violence. Virtually all of 3,500 research studies on the subject in the past 40 years have shown the same relationship, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Among the most noteworthy studies is Dr. Leonard D. Eron's, which found that exposure to television violence in childhood is the strongest predictor of aggressive behavior later in lifestronger even than violent behavior as children. The more violent television the subjects watched at age eight, the more serious was their aggressive behavior even 22 years later. Another study by Dr. Brandon S. Centerwall found that murder rates climb after the introduction of television. In the United States and Canada, murder rates doubled 10 to 15 years after the introduction of television, after the first TV generation grew up. Centerwall tested this pattern in South Africa, where television broadcasts were banned until 1975. Murder rates in South Africa remained relatively steady from the mid-1940s through the mid- 1970s. By 1987, however, the murder rate had increased 130 percent from its 1974 level. The murder rates in the United States and Canada had leveled1 off in the meantime. CenterwalPs study implies that the medium of television, not just the content, promotes violence and the current study by Dr. Robinson supports that conclusion. The Turnoff did not specifically target violent television, nor did the following allowance period. Reducing television in general reduces aggressive behavior. Even television that is not "violent" is more violent than real life and may lead viewers to believe that violence is funny, inconsequential, and a viable solution to problems. Also, watching television of any content robs us of the time to interact with real people. Watching too much TV may inhibit the skills and patience we need to get along with others without resorting to aggression. TV, as a medium, promotes aggression and violence. The best solution is to turn it off. | TV was introduced in South Africa in the 1940s | n |
id_3808 | Leu Televition, Leu Violence and Aggrenion Cutting back on television, videos, and video games reduces acts of aggression among schoolchildren, according to a study by Dr. Thomas Robinson and others from the Stanford University School of Medicine. The study, published in the January 2001 issue of the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, found that third- and fourth-grade students who took part in a curriculum to reduce their TV, video, and video game use engaged in fewer acts of verbal and physical aggression than their peers. The study took place in two similar San Jose, California, elementary schools. Students in one school underwent an 18-lesson, 6-month program designed to limit their media usage, while the others did not. Both groups of students had similar reports of aggressive behavior at the beginning of the study. After the six-month program, however, the two groups had very real differences. The students who cut bach on their TV time engaged in six fewer acts of verbal aggression per hour and rated 2.4 percent fewer of their classmates as aggressive after the program. Physical acts of violence, parental reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world also decreased, but the authors suggest further study to solidify these results. Although many studies have shown that children who watch a lot of TV are more likely to act violently, this report further verifies that television, videos, and video games actually cause the violent behavior, and it is among the first to evaluate a solution to the problem. Teachers at the intervention school included the program in their existing curriculum. Early lessons encouraged students to keep track of and report on the time they spent watching TV or videos, or playing Video games, to motivate them to limit those activities on their own. The initial lessons were followed by TV-Turnoff, an organization that encourages less TV viewing. For ten days, students were challenged to go without television, videos, or video games. After that, teachers encouraged the students to stay within a media allowance of seven hours per week. Almost all students participated in the Turnoff, and most stayed under their budget for the following weeks. Additional lessons encodtaged children to use their time more selectively, and many of the final lessons had students themselves advociate reducing screen activities. This study is by no means the first to find a link between television and violence. Virtually all of 3,500 research studies on the subject in the past 40 years have shown the same relationship, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Among the most noteworthy studies is Dr. Leonard D. Eron's, which found that exposure to television violence in childhood is the strongest predictor of aggressive behavior later in lifestronger even than violent behavior as children. The more violent television the subjects watched at age eight, the more serious was their aggressive behavior even 22 years later. Another study by Dr. Brandon S. Centerwall found that murder rates climb after the introduction of television. In the United States and Canada, murder rates doubled 10 to 15 years after the introduction of television, after the first TV generation grew up. Centerwall tested this pattern in South Africa, where television broadcasts were banned until 1975. Murder rates in South Africa remained relatively steady from the mid-1940s through the mid- 1970s. By 1987, however, the murder rate had increased 130 percent from its 1974 level. The murder rates in the United States and Canada had leveled1 off in the meantime. CenterwalPs study implies that the medium of television, not just the content, promotes violence and the current study by Dr. Robinson supports that conclusion. The Turnoff did not specifically target violent television, nor did the following allowance period. Reducing television in general reduces aggressive behavior. Even television that is not "violent" is more violent than real life and may lead viewers to believe that violence is funny, inconsequential, and a viable solution to problems. Also, watching television of any content robs us of the time to interact with real people. Watching too much TV may inhibit the skills and patience we need to get along with others without resorting to aggression. TV, as a medium, promotes aggression and violence. The best solution is to turn it off. | Only one study has found a connection between TV and violent behavior. | c |
id_3809 | Leu Televition, Leu Violence and Aggrenion Cutting back on television, videos, and video games reduces acts of aggression among schoolchildren, according to a study by Dr. Thomas Robinson and others from the Stanford University School of Medicine. The study, published in the January 2001 issue of the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, found that third- and fourth-grade students who took part in a curriculum to reduce their TV, video, and video game use engaged in fewer acts of verbal and physical aggression than their peers. The study took place in two similar San Jose, California, elementary schools. Students in one school underwent an 18-lesson, 6-month program designed to limit their media usage, while the others did not. Both groups of students had similar reports of aggressive behavior at the beginning of the study. After the six-month program, however, the two groups had very real differences. The students who cut bach on their TV time engaged in six fewer acts of verbal aggression per hour and rated 2.4 percent fewer of their classmates as aggressive after the program. Physical acts of violence, parental reports of aggressive behavior, and perceptions of a mean and scary world also decreased, but the authors suggest further study to solidify these results. Although many studies have shown that children who watch a lot of TV are more likely to act violently, this report further verifies that television, videos, and video games actually cause the violent behavior, and it is among the first to evaluate a solution to the problem. Teachers at the intervention school included the program in their existing curriculum. Early lessons encouraged students to keep track of and report on the time they spent watching TV or videos, or playing Video games, to motivate them to limit those activities on their own. The initial lessons were followed by TV-Turnoff, an organization that encourages less TV viewing. For ten days, students were challenged to go without television, videos, or video games. After that, teachers encouraged the students to stay within a media allowance of seven hours per week. Almost all students participated in the Turnoff, and most stayed under their budget for the following weeks. Additional lessons encodtaged children to use their time more selectively, and many of the final lessons had students themselves advociate reducing screen activities. This study is by no means the first to find a link between television and violence. Virtually all of 3,500 research studies on the subject in the past 40 years have shown the same relationship, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Among the most noteworthy studies is Dr. Leonard D. Eron's, which found that exposure to television violence in childhood is the strongest predictor of aggressive behavior later in lifestronger even than violent behavior as children. The more violent television the subjects watched at age eight, the more serious was their aggressive behavior even 22 years later. Another study by Dr. Brandon S. Centerwall found that murder rates climb after the introduction of television. In the United States and Canada, murder rates doubled 10 to 15 years after the introduction of television, after the first TV generation grew up. Centerwall tested this pattern in South Africa, where television broadcasts were banned until 1975. Murder rates in South Africa remained relatively steady from the mid-1940s through the mid- 1970s. By 1987, however, the murder rate had increased 130 percent from its 1974 level. The murder rates in the United States and Canada had leveled1 off in the meantime. CenterwalPs study implies that the medium of television, not just the content, promotes violence and the current study by Dr. Robinson supports that conclusion. The Turnoff did not specifically target violent television, nor did the following allowance period. Reducing television in general reduces aggressive behavior. Even television that is not "violent" is more violent than real life and may lead viewers to believe that violence is funny, inconsequential, and a viable solution to problems. Also, watching television of any content robs us of the time to interact with real people. Watching too much TV may inhibit the skills and patience we need to get along with others without resorting to aggression. TV, as a medium, promotes aggression and violence. The best solution is to turn it off. | There were more murders in Canada after people began watching TV. | e |
id_3810 | Levels of passive surveillance have increased recently. For example, many companies monitor their employees use of the Internet or of any campaign group activities that may have operational implications. State surveillance now processes huge amounts of information that is collected from a variety of sources to produce profiles of individuals and groups. There are now reportedly more closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras per head of the UK population than any other country in the world. Such a rapid expansion of CCTV surveillance in particular has raised questions about whether this is economically justifiable, whether ones right to confidentiality is compromised and whether the public are in support of it. In public places it is harder to argue that video surveillance is an invasion of privacy. The sheer presence of CCTV cameras should deter some criminals when they know that police officers are surveying their actions. However, some criminologists claim that criminal activity is simply diverted elsewhere. CCTV footage may offer unbiased court evidence and so contribute towards keeping many criminals off the streets, but footage needs to be stored securely even if most of what is filmed does not get to be seen. | It is difficult to justify CCTV surveillance if most of the footage remains unseen. | n |
id_3811 | Levels of passive surveillance have increased recently. For example, many companies monitor their employees use of the Internet or of any campaign group activities that may have operational implications. State surveillance now processes huge amounts of information that is collected from a variety of sources to produce profiles of individuals and groups. There are now reportedly more closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras per head of the UK population than any other country in the world. Such a rapid expansion of CCTV surveillance in particular has raised questions about whether this is economically justifiable, whether ones right to confidentiality is compromised and whether the public are in support of it. In public places it is harder to argue that video surveillance is an invasion of privacy. The sheer presence of CCTV cameras should deter some criminals when they know that police officers are surveying their actions. However, some criminologists claim that criminal activity is simply diverted elsewhere. CCTV footage may offer unbiased court evidence and so contribute towards keeping many criminals off the streets, but footage needs to be stored securely even if most of what is filmed does not get to be seen. | The publics main concerns about increases in surveillance have been around CCTV. | e |
id_3812 | Levels of passive surveillance have increased recently. For example, many companies monitor their employees use of the Internet or of any campaign group activities that may have operational implications. State surveillance now processes huge amounts of information that is collected from a variety of sources to produce profiles of individuals and groups. There are now reportedly more closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras per head of the UK population than any other country in the world. Such a rapid expansion of CCTV surveillance in particular has raised questions about whether this is economically justifiable, whether ones right to confidentiality is compromised and whether the public are in support of it. In public places it is harder to argue that video surveillance is an invasion of privacy. The sheer presence of CCTV cameras should deter some criminals when they know that police officers are surveying their actions. However, some criminologists claim that criminal activity is simply diverted elsewhere. CCTV footage may offer unbiased court evidence and so contribute towards keeping many criminals off the streets, but footage needs to be stored securely even if most of what is filmed does not get to be seen. | Passive surveillance refers only to company monitoring of Internet usage. | c |
id_3813 | Levels of passive surveillance have increased recently. For example, many companies monitor their employees use of the Internet or of any campaign group activities that may have operational implications. State surveillance now processes huge amounts of information that is collected from a variety of sources to produce profiles of individuals and groups. There are now reportedly more closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras per head of the UK population than any other country in the world. Such a rapid expansion of CCTV surveillance in particular has raised questions about whether this is economically justifiable, whether ones right to confidentiality is compromised and whether the public are in support of it. In public places it is harder to argue that video surveillance is an invasion of privacy. The sheer presence of CCTV cameras should deter some criminals when they know that police officers are surveying their actions. However, some criminologists claim that criminal activity is simply diverted elsewhere. CCTV footage may offer unbiased court evidence and so contribute towards keeping many criminals off the streets, but footage needs to be stored securely even if most of what is filmed does not get to be seen. | CCTV surveillance is an invasion of privacy. | n |
id_3814 | Levels of passive surveillance have increased recently. For example, many companies monitor their employees use of the Internet or of any campaign group activities that may have operational implications. State surveillance now processes huge amounts of information that is collected from a variety of sources to produce profiles of individuals and groups. There are now reportedly more closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras per head of the UK population than any other country in the world. Such a rapid expansion of CCTV surveillance in particular has raised questions about whether this is economically justifiable, whether ones right to confidentiality is compromised and whether the public are in support of it. In public places it is harder to argue that video surveillance is an invasion of privacy. The sheer presence of CCTV cameras should deter some criminals when they know that police officers are surveying their actions. However, some criminologists claim that criminal activity is simply diverted elsewhere. CCTV footage may offer unbiased court evidence and so contribute towards keeping many criminals off the streets, but footage needs to be stored securely even if most of what is filmed does not get to be seen. | Public security, CCTV costs and an individuals right to privacy are three factors raised within the passage. | e |
id_3815 | Lie Detection How to spot a liar Native English speakers all have their own style of speech influenced by factors such as where they list and their socioeconomic status. Yet Pamela Myer reveals in her book Liespotting that when people tell lies, their verbal and non-verbal behaviours are nearly universal. Liars reveal themselves through various verbal tactics. They will use statement structure to avoid answering questions or to deflect suspicion. A parrot statement, repeating a question verbatim is used to stall for time in order to think up a suitable response. If someone genuinely wants to clarify a question, she might choose to repeat a key word or two but rarely the entire question. Beware also the dodgeball statesman the suspect ignores the question just asked and instead tosses one straight back at you Then there is what Myer calls the guilt-trip statement a device that puts the enquirer on the defensive. The liar feigns offence and hopes that you will forget the question while you defend yourself against his accusation of unfairness or prejudices. Another tactic for deception is the protest statement. This is when the suspect avoids a direct response to a question by listing his favourable assets and deeds, so that you will think he is incapable of wrongdoing. The too link or too much statement is just that. The culprit will attempt to skirt the question by offering too little information or by being effusive offering a wordy explanation but managing to avoid answering the question. A bolstering statement contains a phrase that adds emphasis in an attempt to sound more credible and sincere To be honest I have no idea how the stem got damaged. - Listen also for the qualifying phrase that people use to protect themselves from reproach or responsibility: As far as I recall..... If a religious phrase is used to bolster a statement for instance: Honest to God. I didnt touch her purse, the speaker is most likely a hypocrite, because an honest person does not need to appeal to God or religion for support. Distancing statements are highly characteristic of deceptive speech. A deceiver will avoid using first person pronouns (I, me, myself) in order to literally keep himself completely out of the statement. He will also avoid using first names and, whet penult, use language that depersonalises another person, for example I dont know what that woman said. Euphemism substituting a mild or vague term for a harsher one, is another means of distancing the speaker from the action. I did not pocket the money instead of I didnt steal the money. Verbal leaks are said to occur when the mental burden of sustaining a lie becomes too much. The liar may um and ah too much or make grammar mistakes and other errors. A slip of the tongue is an unintentional mistake, often trivial, but occasionally revealing an unconscious thought or wish (the so-called Freudian slip). Consider Id like to spank all teachers- George W Bush. A non-contracted denial is another verbal leak. It is usually uttered slowly with emphasis on not, as in: I did not leave the door open. A fibber who cannot express himself in a straightforward manner because he needs time to think may pause frequently and speech disfluencies meaningless words, sighs and throat clearing will populate his dialogue. It was -ugh late, when I, uh, got home, like, around midnight. However, you would need to have a normal conversational baseline for the speaker in order to make an objective conversation as some people use fillers such as like and you know constantly. Vocal quality is another indicator of deception. Listen for higher pitch, a slower rate of speech and strain or tension in the voice. These are very subjective criteria, however, so take into account other facial, body language and verbal indicators. Vocal quality alone is the least reliable indicator unless you are very familiar with the speakers standard mode of speech. In an effort to stay in control of the lie, the liar may control his body, becoming rigid and upright while his voice may assume a matching lifeless monotone. Sometimes actions do not correspond to words an emphatic no accompanied by a slight nod of the head is a sure giveaway. The manner of articulation and delivery combined with facial expressions, body language and verbal clues will suggest an overall attitude: and attitude is a crucial indicator of both truthfulness and deceit. Weigh up all the factors including whether the subject has been cooperative or unhelpful. Another weapon in the arsenal of lie detection is story analysis. Most stories have a beginning, a middle and an end, but real memories are not usually related in chronological order. Our emotions cause us to recall the most dramatic event first and in a lot of sensory detail, whereas the liar will remember his story in chronological sequence. A false story often has a prolonged and detailed prologue setting the scene (with many truthful features such as time and place). Then the main event (the lie) is passed over quite quickly whereas, for the truthful person, this is the most important part of the action and it is recounted at length. The truth teller will also deliver an epilogue, at times becoming very emotional, as she describes the impact and after effects of the main event. Rarely does the false narrative conclude with an epilogue as the narrator was unaffected by the main event because it did not happen or, if it did not in the way he related it. Lie detection is more than jug picking up on the occasional verbal clue: rather, it is recognising a cluster of clues and appraising them in the light of the subjects nonverbal behaviour. By watching and listening carefully and for long enough, you will discern deception if it is there. | Truthful people are less likely to bolster their statements with religious phrases. | e |
id_3816 | Lie Detection How to spot a liar Native English speakers all have their own style of speech influenced by factors such as where they list and their socioeconomic status. Yet Pamela Myer reveals in her book Liespotting that when people tell lies, their verbal and non-verbal behaviours are nearly universal. Liars reveal themselves through various verbal tactics. They will use statement structure to avoid answering questions or to deflect suspicion. A parrot statement, repeating a question verbatim is used to stall for time in order to think up a suitable response. If someone genuinely wants to clarify a question, she might choose to repeat a key word or two but rarely the entire question. Beware also the dodgeball statesman the suspect ignores the question just asked and instead tosses one straight back at you Then there is what Myer calls the guilt-trip statement a device that puts the enquirer on the defensive. The liar feigns offence and hopes that you will forget the question while you defend yourself against his accusation of unfairness or prejudices. Another tactic for deception is the protest statement. This is when the suspect avoids a direct response to a question by listing his favourable assets and deeds, so that you will think he is incapable of wrongdoing. The too link or too much statement is just that. The culprit will attempt to skirt the question by offering too little information or by being effusive offering a wordy explanation but managing to avoid answering the question. A bolstering statement contains a phrase that adds emphasis in an attempt to sound more credible and sincere To be honest I have no idea how the stem got damaged. - Listen also for the qualifying phrase that people use to protect themselves from reproach or responsibility: As far as I recall..... If a religious phrase is used to bolster a statement for instance: Honest to God. I didnt touch her purse, the speaker is most likely a hypocrite, because an honest person does not need to appeal to God or religion for support. Distancing statements are highly characteristic of deceptive speech. A deceiver will avoid using first person pronouns (I, me, myself) in order to literally keep himself completely out of the statement. He will also avoid using first names and, whet penult, use language that depersonalises another person, for example I dont know what that woman said. Euphemism substituting a mild or vague term for a harsher one, is another means of distancing the speaker from the action. I did not pocket the money instead of I didnt steal the money. Verbal leaks are said to occur when the mental burden of sustaining a lie becomes too much. The liar may um and ah too much or make grammar mistakes and other errors. A slip of the tongue is an unintentional mistake, often trivial, but occasionally revealing an unconscious thought or wish (the so-called Freudian slip). Consider Id like to spank all teachers- George W Bush. A non-contracted denial is another verbal leak. It is usually uttered slowly with emphasis on not, as in: I did not leave the door open. A fibber who cannot express himself in a straightforward manner because he needs time to think may pause frequently and speech disfluencies meaningless words, sighs and throat clearing will populate his dialogue. It was -ugh late, when I, uh, got home, like, around midnight. However, you would need to have a normal conversational baseline for the speaker in order to make an objective conversation as some people use fillers such as like and you know constantly. Vocal quality is another indicator of deception. Listen for higher pitch, a slower rate of speech and strain or tension in the voice. These are very subjective criteria, however, so take into account other facial, body language and verbal indicators. Vocal quality alone is the least reliable indicator unless you are very familiar with the speakers standard mode of speech. In an effort to stay in control of the lie, the liar may control his body, becoming rigid and upright while his voice may assume a matching lifeless monotone. Sometimes actions do not correspond to words an emphatic no accompanied by a slight nod of the head is a sure giveaway. The manner of articulation and delivery combined with facial expressions, body language and verbal clues will suggest an overall attitude: and attitude is a crucial indicator of both truthfulness and deceit. Weigh up all the factors including whether the subject has been cooperative or unhelpful. Another weapon in the arsenal of lie detection is story analysis. Most stories have a beginning, a middle and an end, but real memories are not usually related in chronological order. Our emotions cause us to recall the most dramatic event first and in a lot of sensory detail, whereas the liar will remember his story in chronological sequence. A false story often has a prolonged and detailed prologue setting the scene (with many truthful features such as time and place). Then the main event (the lie) is passed over quite quickly whereas, for the truthful person, this is the most important part of the action and it is recounted at length. The truth teller will also deliver an epilogue, at times becoming very emotional, as she describes the impact and after effects of the main event. Rarely does the false narrative conclude with an epilogue as the narrator was unaffected by the main event because it did not happen or, if it did not in the way he related it. Lie detection is more than jug picking up on the occasional verbal clue: rather, it is recognising a cluster of clues and appraising them in the light of the subjects nonverbal behaviour. By watching and listening carefully and for long enough, you will discern deception if it is there. | A slip of the tongue is an accidental error that could expose a hidden belief. | e |
id_3817 | Lie Detection How to spot a liar Native English speakers all have their own style of speech influenced by factors such as where they list and their socioeconomic status. Yet Pamela Myer reveals in her book Liespotting that when people tell lies, their verbal and non-verbal behaviours are nearly universal. Liars reveal themselves through various verbal tactics. They will use statement structure to avoid answering questions or to deflect suspicion. A parrot statement, repeating a question verbatim is used to stall for time in order to think up a suitable response. If someone genuinely wants to clarify a question, she might choose to repeat a key word or two but rarely the entire question. Beware also the dodgeball statesman the suspect ignores the question just asked and instead tosses one straight back at you Then there is what Myer calls the guilt-trip statement a device that puts the enquirer on the defensive. The liar feigns offence and hopes that you will forget the question while you defend yourself against his accusation of unfairness or prejudices. Another tactic for deception is the protest statement. This is when the suspect avoids a direct response to a question by listing his favourable assets and deeds, so that you will think he is incapable of wrongdoing. The too link or too much statement is just that. The culprit will attempt to skirt the question by offering too little information or by being effusive offering a wordy explanation but managing to avoid answering the question. A bolstering statement contains a phrase that adds emphasis in an attempt to sound more credible and sincere To be honest I have no idea how the stem got damaged. - Listen also for the qualifying phrase that people use to protect themselves from reproach or responsibility: As far as I recall..... If a religious phrase is used to bolster a statement for instance: Honest to God. I didnt touch her purse, the speaker is most likely a hypocrite, because an honest person does not need to appeal to God or religion for support. Distancing statements are highly characteristic of deceptive speech. A deceiver will avoid using first person pronouns (I, me, myself) in order to literally keep himself completely out of the statement. He will also avoid using first names and, whet penult, use language that depersonalises another person, for example I dont know what that woman said. Euphemism substituting a mild or vague term for a harsher one, is another means of distancing the speaker from the action. I did not pocket the money instead of I didnt steal the money. Verbal leaks are said to occur when the mental burden of sustaining a lie becomes too much. The liar may um and ah too much or make grammar mistakes and other errors. A slip of the tongue is an unintentional mistake, often trivial, but occasionally revealing an unconscious thought or wish (the so-called Freudian slip). Consider Id like to spank all teachers- George W Bush. A non-contracted denial is another verbal leak. It is usually uttered slowly with emphasis on not, as in: I did not leave the door open. A fibber who cannot express himself in a straightforward manner because he needs time to think may pause frequently and speech disfluencies meaningless words, sighs and throat clearing will populate his dialogue. It was -ugh late, when I, uh, got home, like, around midnight. However, you would need to have a normal conversational baseline for the speaker in order to make an objective conversation as some people use fillers such as like and you know constantly. Vocal quality is another indicator of deception. Listen for higher pitch, a slower rate of speech and strain or tension in the voice. These are very subjective criteria, however, so take into account other facial, body language and verbal indicators. Vocal quality alone is the least reliable indicator unless you are very familiar with the speakers standard mode of speech. In an effort to stay in control of the lie, the liar may control his body, becoming rigid and upright while his voice may assume a matching lifeless monotone. Sometimes actions do not correspond to words an emphatic no accompanied by a slight nod of the head is a sure giveaway. The manner of articulation and delivery combined with facial expressions, body language and verbal clues will suggest an overall attitude: and attitude is a crucial indicator of both truthfulness and deceit. Weigh up all the factors including whether the subject has been cooperative or unhelpful. Another weapon in the arsenal of lie detection is story analysis. Most stories have a beginning, a middle and an end, but real memories are not usually related in chronological order. Our emotions cause us to recall the most dramatic event first and in a lot of sensory detail, whereas the liar will remember his story in chronological sequence. A false story often has a prolonged and detailed prologue setting the scene (with many truthful features such as time and place). Then the main event (the lie) is passed over quite quickly whereas, for the truthful person, this is the most important part of the action and it is recounted at length. The truth teller will also deliver an epilogue, at times becoming very emotional, as she describes the impact and after effects of the main event. Rarely does the false narrative conclude with an epilogue as the narrator was unaffected by the main event because it did not happen or, if it did not in the way he related it. Lie detection is more than jug picking up on the occasional verbal clue: rather, it is recognising a cluster of clues and appraising them in the light of the subjects nonverbal behaviour. By watching and listening carefully and for long enough, you will discern deception if it is there. | Liars use qualifying statements if they need to take responsibility for their mistakes. | c |
id_3818 | Lie Detection How to spot a liar Native English speakers all have their own style of speech influenced by factors such as where they list and their socioeconomic status. Yet Pamela Myer reveals in her book Liespotting that when people tell lies, their verbal and non-verbal behaviours are nearly universal. Liars reveal themselves through various verbal tactics. They will use statement structure to avoid answering questions or to deflect suspicion. A parrot statement, repeating a question verbatim is used to stall for time in order to think up a suitable response. If someone genuinely wants to clarify a question, she might choose to repeat a key word or two but rarely the entire question. Beware also the dodgeball statesman the suspect ignores the question just asked and instead tosses one straight back at you Then there is what Myer calls the guilt-trip statement a device that puts the enquirer on the defensive. The liar feigns offence and hopes that you will forget the question while you defend yourself against his accusation of unfairness or prejudices. Another tactic for deception is the protest statement. This is when the suspect avoids a direct response to a question by listing his favourable assets and deeds, so that you will think he is incapable of wrongdoing. The too link or too much statement is just that. The culprit will attempt to skirt the question by offering too little information or by being effusive offering a wordy explanation but managing to avoid answering the question. A bolstering statement contains a phrase that adds emphasis in an attempt to sound more credible and sincere To be honest I have no idea how the stem got damaged. - Listen also for the qualifying phrase that people use to protect themselves from reproach or responsibility: As far as I recall..... If a religious phrase is used to bolster a statement for instance: Honest to God. I didnt touch her purse, the speaker is most likely a hypocrite, because an honest person does not need to appeal to God or religion for support. Distancing statements are highly characteristic of deceptive speech. A deceiver will avoid using first person pronouns (I, me, myself) in order to literally keep himself completely out of the statement. He will also avoid using first names and, whet penult, use language that depersonalises another person, for example I dont know what that woman said. Euphemism substituting a mild or vague term for a harsher one, is another means of distancing the speaker from the action. I did not pocket the money instead of I didnt steal the money. Verbal leaks are said to occur when the mental burden of sustaining a lie becomes too much. The liar may um and ah too much or make grammar mistakes and other errors. A slip of the tongue is an unintentional mistake, often trivial, but occasionally revealing an unconscious thought or wish (the so-called Freudian slip). Consider Id like to spank all teachers- George W Bush. A non-contracted denial is another verbal leak. It is usually uttered slowly with emphasis on not, as in: I did not leave the door open. A fibber who cannot express himself in a straightforward manner because he needs time to think may pause frequently and speech disfluencies meaningless words, sighs and throat clearing will populate his dialogue. It was -ugh late, when I, uh, got home, like, around midnight. However, you would need to have a normal conversational baseline for the speaker in order to make an objective conversation as some people use fillers such as like and you know constantly. Vocal quality is another indicator of deception. Listen for higher pitch, a slower rate of speech and strain or tension in the voice. These are very subjective criteria, however, so take into account other facial, body language and verbal indicators. Vocal quality alone is the least reliable indicator unless you are very familiar with the speakers standard mode of speech. In an effort to stay in control of the lie, the liar may control his body, becoming rigid and upright while his voice may assume a matching lifeless monotone. Sometimes actions do not correspond to words an emphatic no accompanied by a slight nod of the head is a sure giveaway. The manner of articulation and delivery combined with facial expressions, body language and verbal clues will suggest an overall attitude: and attitude is a crucial indicator of both truthfulness and deceit. Weigh up all the factors including whether the subject has been cooperative or unhelpful. Another weapon in the arsenal of lie detection is story analysis. Most stories have a beginning, a middle and an end, but real memories are not usually related in chronological order. Our emotions cause us to recall the most dramatic event first and in a lot of sensory detail, whereas the liar will remember his story in chronological sequence. A false story often has a prolonged and detailed prologue setting the scene (with many truthful features such as time and place). Then the main event (the lie) is passed over quite quickly whereas, for the truthful person, this is the most important part of the action and it is recounted at length. The truth teller will also deliver an epilogue, at times becoming very emotional, as she describes the impact and after effects of the main event. Rarely does the false narrative conclude with an epilogue as the narrator was unaffected by the main event because it did not happen or, if it did not in the way he related it. Lie detection is more than jug picking up on the occasional verbal clue: rather, it is recognising a cluster of clues and appraising them in the light of the subjects nonverbal behaviour. By watching and listening carefully and for long enough, you will discern deception if it is there. | Liars would rather give too little than too much information. | n |
id_3819 | Lie Detector. However much we may abhor it, deception comes naturally to all living things. Birds do it by feigning injury to lead hungry predators away from nesting young. Spider crabs do it by disguise: adorning themselves with strips of kelp and other debris, they pretend to be something they are not-and so escape their enemies. Nature amply rewards successful deceivers by allowing them to survive long enough to mate and reproduce. So it may come as no surprise to learn that human beings-who, according to psychologist Gerald Jellison of the University of South California, are lied to about 200 times a day, roughly one untruth every five minutesoften deceive for exactly the same reasons: to save their own skins or to get something they can't get by other means. But knowing how to catch deceit can be just as important a survival skill as knowing how to tell a lie and get away with it. A person able to spot falsehood quickly is unlikely to be swindled by an unscrupulous business associate or hoodwinked by a devious spouse. Luckily, nature provides more than enough clues to trap dissemblers in then own tangled webs-if you know where to look. By closely observing facial expressions, body language and tone of voice, practically anyone can recognize the telltale signs of lying. Researchers are even programming computers-like those used on Lie Detector-to get at the truth by analyzing the same physical cues available to the naked eye and ear. "With the proper training, many people can learn to reliably detect lies, " says Paul Ekman, professor of psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, who has spent the past 15 years studying the secret art of deception. In order to know what kind of lies work best, successful liars need to accurately assess other people's emotional states. Ekman's research shows that this same emotional intelligence is essential for good lie detectors, too. The emotional state to watch out for is stress, the conflict most liars feel between thetruth and what they actually say and do. Even high-tech lie detectors don't detect lies as such; they merely detect the physical cues of emotions, which may or may not correspond to what the person being tested is saying. Polygraphs, for instance, measure respiration, heart rate and skin conductivity, which tend to increase when people are nervous as they usually are when lying. Nervous people typically perspire, and the salts contained in perspiration conduct electricity. That's why a sudden leap in skin conductivity indicates nervousness about getting caught, perhaps? -- which might, in turn, suggest that someone is being economical with the truth. On the other hand, it might also mean that the lights in the television studio are too hot-which is one reason polygraph tests are inadmissible in court. "Good lie detectors don't rely on a single sign, " Ekman says, "but interpret clusters of verbal and nonverbal clues that suggest someone might be lying. " Those clues are written all over the face. Because the musculature of the face is directly connected to the areas of the brain that process emotion, the countenance can be a window to the soul. Neurological studies even suggest that genuine emotions travel different pathways through the brain than insincere ones. If a patient paralyzed by stroke on one side of the face, for example, is asked to smile deliberately, only the mobile side of the mouth is raised. But tell that same person a funny joke, and the patient breaks into a full and spontaneous smile. Very few people-most notably, actors and politicians-are able to consciously control all of their facial expressions. Lies can often be caught when the liar's true feelings briefly leak through the mask of deception. "We don't think before we feel, " Ekman says. "Expressions tend to show up on the face before we're even conscious of experiencing an emotion. " F. One of the most difficult facial expressions to fakeor conceal, if it is genuinely feltis sadness. When someone is truly sad, the forehead wrinkles with grief and the inner comers of the eyebrows are pulled up. Fewer than 15% of the people Ekman tested were able to produce this eyebrow movement voluntarily. By contrast, the lowering of the eyebrows associated with an angry scowl can be replicated at will by almost everybody. "If someoneclaims they are sad and the inner comers of their eyebrows don't go up, " Ekman says, "the sadness is probably false. " G. The smile, on the other hand, is one of the easiest facial expressions to counterfeit. It takes just two muscles-the zygomaticus major muscles that extend from the cheekbones to the comers of the lips-to produce a grin. But there's a catch. A genuine smile affects not only the comers of the lips but also the orbicularis oculi, the muscle around the eye that produces the distinctive "crow's-feet" associated with people who laugh a lot. A counterfeit grin can be unmasked if the lip comers go up, the eyes crinkle but the inner comers of the eyebrows are not lowered, a movement controlled by the orbicularis oculi that is difficult to fake. The absence of lowered eyebrows is one reason why false smiles look so strained and stiff. | Researchers are using equipment to study which part of the brain is responsible for telling lies. | n |
id_3820 | Lie Detector. However much we may abhor it, deception comes naturally to all living things. Birds do it by feigning injury to lead hungry predators away from nesting young. Spider crabs do it by disguise: adorning themselves with strips of kelp and other debris, they pretend to be something they are not-and so escape their enemies. Nature amply rewards successful deceivers by allowing them to survive long enough to mate and reproduce. So it may come as no surprise to learn that human beings-who, according to psychologist Gerald Jellison of the University of South California, are lied to about 200 times a day, roughly one untruth every five minutesoften deceive for exactly the same reasons: to save their own skins or to get something they can't get by other means. But knowing how to catch deceit can be just as important a survival skill as knowing how to tell a lie and get away with it. A person able to spot falsehood quickly is unlikely to be swindled by an unscrupulous business associate or hoodwinked by a devious spouse. Luckily, nature provides more than enough clues to trap dissemblers in then own tangled webs-if you know where to look. By closely observing facial expressions, body language and tone of voice, practically anyone can recognize the telltale signs of lying. Researchers are even programming computers-like those used on Lie Detector-to get at the truth by analyzing the same physical cues available to the naked eye and ear. "With the proper training, many people can learn to reliably detect lies, " says Paul Ekman, professor of psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, who has spent the past 15 years studying the secret art of deception. In order to know what kind of lies work best, successful liars need to accurately assess other people's emotional states. Ekman's research shows that this same emotional intelligence is essential for good lie detectors, too. The emotional state to watch out for is stress, the conflict most liars feel between thetruth and what they actually say and do. Even high-tech lie detectors don't detect lies as such; they merely detect the physical cues of emotions, which may or may not correspond to what the person being tested is saying. Polygraphs, for instance, measure respiration, heart rate and skin conductivity, which tend to increase when people are nervous as they usually are when lying. Nervous people typically perspire, and the salts contained in perspiration conduct electricity. That's why a sudden leap in skin conductivity indicates nervousness about getting caught, perhaps? -- which might, in turn, suggest that someone is being economical with the truth. On the other hand, it might also mean that the lights in the television studio are too hot-which is one reason polygraph tests are inadmissible in court. "Good lie detectors don't rely on a single sign, " Ekman says, "but interpret clusters of verbal and nonverbal clues that suggest someone might be lying. " Those clues are written all over the face. Because the musculature of the face is directly connected to the areas of the brain that process emotion, the countenance can be a window to the soul. Neurological studies even suggest that genuine emotions travel different pathways through the brain than insincere ones. If a patient paralyzed by stroke on one side of the face, for example, is asked to smile deliberately, only the mobile side of the mouth is raised. But tell that same person a funny joke, and the patient breaks into a full and spontaneous smile. Very few people-most notably, actors and politicians-are able to consciously control all of their facial expressions. Lies can often be caught when the liar's true feelings briefly leak through the mask of deception. "We don't think before we feel, " Ekman says. "Expressions tend to show up on the face before we're even conscious of experiencing an emotion. " F. One of the most difficult facial expressions to fakeor conceal, if it is genuinely feltis sadness. When someone is truly sad, the forehead wrinkles with grief and the inner comers of the eyebrows are pulled up. Fewer than 15% of the people Ekman tested were able to produce this eyebrow movement voluntarily. By contrast, the lowering of the eyebrows associated with an angry scowl can be replicated at will by almost everybody. "If someoneclaims they are sad and the inner comers of their eyebrows don't go up, " Ekman says, "the sadness is probably false. " G. The smile, on the other hand, is one of the easiest facial expressions to counterfeit. It takes just two muscles-the zygomaticus major muscles that extend from the cheekbones to the comers of the lips-to produce a grin. But there's a catch. A genuine smile affects not only the comers of the lips but also the orbicularis oculi, the muscle around the eye that produces the distinctive "crow's-feet" associated with people who laugh a lot. A counterfeit grin can be unmasked if the lip comers go up, the eyes crinkle but the inner comers of the eyebrows are not lowered, a movement controlled by the orbicularis oculi that is difficult to fake. The absence of lowered eyebrows is one reason why false smiles look so strained and stiff. | To be a good liar, one has to understand other peoples emotions. | e |
id_3821 | Lie Detector. However much we may abhor it, deception comes naturally to all living things. Birds do it by feigning injury to lead hungry predators away from nesting young. Spider crabs do it by disguise: adorning themselves with strips of kelp and other debris, they pretend to be something they are not-and so escape their enemies. Nature amply rewards successful deceivers by allowing them to survive long enough to mate and reproduce. So it may come as no surprise to learn that human beings-who, according to psychologist Gerald Jellison of the University of South California, are lied to about 200 times a day, roughly one untruth every five minutesoften deceive for exactly the same reasons: to save their own skins or to get something they can't get by other means. But knowing how to catch deceit can be just as important a survival skill as knowing how to tell a lie and get away with it. A person able to spot falsehood quickly is unlikely to be swindled by an unscrupulous business associate or hoodwinked by a devious spouse. Luckily, nature provides more than enough clues to trap dissemblers in then own tangled webs-if you know where to look. By closely observing facial expressions, body language and tone of voice, practically anyone can recognize the telltale signs of lying. Researchers are even programming computers-like those used on Lie Detector-to get at the truth by analyzing the same physical cues available to the naked eye and ear. "With the proper training, many people can learn to reliably detect lies, " says Paul Ekman, professor of psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, who has spent the past 15 years studying the secret art of deception. In order to know what kind of lies work best, successful liars need to accurately assess other people's emotional states. Ekman's research shows that this same emotional intelligence is essential for good lie detectors, too. The emotional state to watch out for is stress, the conflict most liars feel between thetruth and what they actually say and do. Even high-tech lie detectors don't detect lies as such; they merely detect the physical cues of emotions, which may or may not correspond to what the person being tested is saying. Polygraphs, for instance, measure respiration, heart rate and skin conductivity, which tend to increase when people are nervous as they usually are when lying. Nervous people typically perspire, and the salts contained in perspiration conduct electricity. That's why a sudden leap in skin conductivity indicates nervousness about getting caught, perhaps? -- which might, in turn, suggest that someone is being economical with the truth. On the other hand, it might also mean that the lights in the television studio are too hot-which is one reason polygraph tests are inadmissible in court. "Good lie detectors don't rely on a single sign, " Ekman says, "but interpret clusters of verbal and nonverbal clues that suggest someone might be lying. " Those clues are written all over the face. Because the musculature of the face is directly connected to the areas of the brain that process emotion, the countenance can be a window to the soul. Neurological studies even suggest that genuine emotions travel different pathways through the brain than insincere ones. If a patient paralyzed by stroke on one side of the face, for example, is asked to smile deliberately, only the mobile side of the mouth is raised. But tell that same person a funny joke, and the patient breaks into a full and spontaneous smile. Very few people-most notably, actors and politicians-are able to consciously control all of their facial expressions. Lies can often be caught when the liar's true feelings briefly leak through the mask of deception. "We don't think before we feel, " Ekman says. "Expressions tend to show up on the face before we're even conscious of experiencing an emotion. " F. One of the most difficult facial expressions to fakeor conceal, if it is genuinely feltis sadness. When someone is truly sad, the forehead wrinkles with grief and the inner comers of the eyebrows are pulled up. Fewer than 15% of the people Ekman tested were able to produce this eyebrow movement voluntarily. By contrast, the lowering of the eyebrows associated with an angry scowl can be replicated at will by almost everybody. "If someoneclaims they are sad and the inner comers of their eyebrows don't go up, " Ekman says, "the sadness is probably false. " G. The smile, on the other hand, is one of the easiest facial expressions to counterfeit. It takes just two muscles-the zygomaticus major muscles that extend from the cheekbones to the comers of the lips-to produce a grin. But there's a catch. A genuine smile affects not only the comers of the lips but also the orbicularis oculi, the muscle around the eye that produces the distinctive "crow's-feet" associated with people who laugh a lot. A counterfeit grin can be unmasked if the lip comers go up, the eyes crinkle but the inner comers of the eyebrows are not lowered, a movement controlled by the orbicularis oculi that is difficult to fake. The absence of lowered eyebrows is one reason why false smiles look so strained and stiff. | Some people tell lies for self-preservation. | e |
id_3822 | Lie Detector. However much we may abhor it, deception comes naturally to all living things. Birds do it by feigning injury to lead hungry predators away from nesting young. Spider crabs do it by disguise: adorning themselves with strips of kelp and other debris, they pretend to be something they are not-and so escape their enemies. Nature amply rewards successful deceivers by allowing them to survive long enough to mate and reproduce. So it may come as no surprise to learn that human beings-who, according to psychologist Gerald Jellison of the University of South California, are lied to about 200 times a day, roughly one untruth every five minutesoften deceive for exactly the same reasons: to save their own skins or to get something they can't get by other means. But knowing how to catch deceit can be just as important a survival skill as knowing how to tell a lie and get away with it. A person able to spot falsehood quickly is unlikely to be swindled by an unscrupulous business associate or hoodwinked by a devious spouse. Luckily, nature provides more than enough clues to trap dissemblers in then own tangled webs-if you know where to look. By closely observing facial expressions, body language and tone of voice, practically anyone can recognize the telltale signs of lying. Researchers are even programming computers-like those used on Lie Detector-to get at the truth by analyzing the same physical cues available to the naked eye and ear. "With the proper training, many people can learn to reliably detect lies, " says Paul Ekman, professor of psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, who has spent the past 15 years studying the secret art of deception. In order to know what kind of lies work best, successful liars need to accurately assess other people's emotional states. Ekman's research shows that this same emotional intelligence is essential for good lie detectors, too. The emotional state to watch out for is stress, the conflict most liars feel between thetruth and what they actually say and do. Even high-tech lie detectors don't detect lies as such; they merely detect the physical cues of emotions, which may or may not correspond to what the person being tested is saying. Polygraphs, for instance, measure respiration, heart rate and skin conductivity, which tend to increase when people are nervous as they usually are when lying. Nervous people typically perspire, and the salts contained in perspiration conduct electricity. That's why a sudden leap in skin conductivity indicates nervousness about getting caught, perhaps? -- which might, in turn, suggest that someone is being economical with the truth. On the other hand, it might also mean that the lights in the television studio are too hot-which is one reason polygraph tests are inadmissible in court. "Good lie detectors don't rely on a single sign, " Ekman says, "but interpret clusters of verbal and nonverbal clues that suggest someone might be lying. " Those clues are written all over the face. Because the musculature of the face is directly connected to the areas of the brain that process emotion, the countenance can be a window to the soul. Neurological studies even suggest that genuine emotions travel different pathways through the brain than insincere ones. If a patient paralyzed by stroke on one side of the face, for example, is asked to smile deliberately, only the mobile side of the mouth is raised. But tell that same person a funny joke, and the patient breaks into a full and spontaneous smile. Very few people-most notably, actors and politicians-are able to consciously control all of their facial expressions. Lies can often be caught when the liar's true feelings briefly leak through the mask of deception. "We don't think before we feel, " Ekman says. "Expressions tend to show up on the face before we're even conscious of experiencing an emotion. " F. One of the most difficult facial expressions to fakeor conceal, if it is genuinely feltis sadness. When someone is truly sad, the forehead wrinkles with grief and the inner comers of the eyebrows are pulled up. Fewer than 15% of the people Ekman tested were able to produce this eyebrow movement voluntarily. By contrast, the lowering of the eyebrows associated with an angry scowl can be replicated at will by almost everybody. "If someoneclaims they are sad and the inner comers of their eyebrows don't go up, " Ekman says, "the sadness is probably false. " G. The smile, on the other hand, is one of the easiest facial expressions to counterfeit. It takes just two muscles-the zygomaticus major muscles that extend from the cheekbones to the comers of the lips-to produce a grin. But there's a catch. A genuine smile affects not only the comers of the lips but also the orbicularis oculi, the muscle around the eye that produces the distinctive "crow's-feet" associated with people who laugh a lot. A counterfeit grin can be unmasked if the lip comers go up, the eyes crinkle but the inner comers of the eyebrows are not lowered, a movement controlled by the orbicularis oculi that is difficult to fake. The absence of lowered eyebrows is one reason why false smiles look so strained and stiff. | The fact of lying is more important than detecting one. | c |
id_3823 | Lie Detector. However much we may abhor it, deception comes naturally to all living things. Birds do it by feigning injury to lead hungry predators away from nesting young. Spider crabs do it by disguise: adorning themselves with strips of kelp and other debris, they pretend to be something they are not-and so escape their enemies. Nature amply rewards successful deceivers by allowing them to survive long enough to mate and reproduce. So it may come as no surprise to learn that human beings-who, according to psychologist Gerald Jellison of the University of South California, are lied to about 200 times a day, roughly one untruth every five minutesoften deceive for exactly the same reasons: to save their own skins or to get something they can't get by other means. But knowing how to catch deceit can be just as important a survival skill as knowing how to tell a lie and get away with it. A person able to spot falsehood quickly is unlikely to be swindled by an unscrupulous business associate or hoodwinked by a devious spouse. Luckily, nature provides more than enough clues to trap dissemblers in then own tangled webs-if you know where to look. By closely observing facial expressions, body language and tone of voice, practically anyone can recognize the telltale signs of lying. Researchers are even programming computers-like those used on Lie Detector-to get at the truth by analyzing the same physical cues available to the naked eye and ear. "With the proper training, many people can learn to reliably detect lies, " says Paul Ekman, professor of psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, who has spent the past 15 years studying the secret art of deception. In order to know what kind of lies work best, successful liars need to accurately assess other people's emotional states. Ekman's research shows that this same emotional intelligence is essential for good lie detectors, too. The emotional state to watch out for is stress, the conflict most liars feel between thetruth and what they actually say and do. Even high-tech lie detectors don't detect lies as such; they merely detect the physical cues of emotions, which may or may not correspond to what the person being tested is saying. Polygraphs, for instance, measure respiration, heart rate and skin conductivity, which tend to increase when people are nervous as they usually are when lying. Nervous people typically perspire, and the salts contained in perspiration conduct electricity. That's why a sudden leap in skin conductivity indicates nervousness about getting caught, perhaps? -- which might, in turn, suggest that someone is being economical with the truth. On the other hand, it might also mean that the lights in the television studio are too hot-which is one reason polygraph tests are inadmissible in court. "Good lie detectors don't rely on a single sign, " Ekman says, "but interpret clusters of verbal and nonverbal clues that suggest someone might be lying. " Those clues are written all over the face. Because the musculature of the face is directly connected to the areas of the brain that process emotion, the countenance can be a window to the soul. Neurological studies even suggest that genuine emotions travel different pathways through the brain than insincere ones. If a patient paralyzed by stroke on one side of the face, for example, is asked to smile deliberately, only the mobile side of the mouth is raised. But tell that same person a funny joke, and the patient breaks into a full and spontaneous smile. Very few people-most notably, actors and politicians-are able to consciously control all of their facial expressions. Lies can often be caught when the liar's true feelings briefly leak through the mask of deception. "We don't think before we feel, " Ekman says. "Expressions tend to show up on the face before we're even conscious of experiencing an emotion. " F. One of the most difficult facial expressions to fakeor conceal, if it is genuinely feltis sadness. When someone is truly sad, the forehead wrinkles with grief and the inner comers of the eyebrows are pulled up. Fewer than 15% of the people Ekman tested were able to produce this eyebrow movement voluntarily. By contrast, the lowering of the eyebrows associated with an angry scowl can be replicated at will by almost everybody. "If someoneclaims they are sad and the inner comers of their eyebrows don't go up, " Ekman says, "the sadness is probably false. " G. The smile, on the other hand, is one of the easiest facial expressions to counterfeit. It takes just two muscles-the zygomaticus major muscles that extend from the cheekbones to the comers of the lips-to produce a grin. But there's a catch. A genuine smile affects not only the comers of the lips but also the orbicularis oculi, the muscle around the eye that produces the distinctive "crow's-feet" associated with people who laugh a lot. A counterfeit grin can be unmasked if the lip comers go up, the eyes crinkle but the inner comers of the eyebrows are not lowered, a movement controlled by the orbicularis oculi that is difficult to fake. The absence of lowered eyebrows is one reason why false smiles look so strained and stiff. | All living animals can lie. | e |
id_3824 | Life has been short for the one- and two-cent euro coins launched only three years ago. Faced with chronic shortages, the central banks of Denmark and Belgium have decided they have no alternative but to withdraw them and order retailers to round prices up or down to the nearest five cents, depending which is closest. The French have no such plans; they fear that the rounding of prices might lead to an overall increase in price levels. | If there were not such a chronic shortage of the coins the Danish and Belgian central banks would not be withdrawing them. | e |
id_3825 | Life has been short for the one- and two-cent euro coins launched only three years ago. Faced with chronic shortages, the central banks of Denmark and Belgium have decided they have no alternative but to withdraw them and order retailers to round prices up or down to the nearest five cents, depending which is closest. The French have no such plans; they fear that the rounding of prices might lead to an overall increase in price levels. | The five-cent coin will shortly be the lowest-value euro coin in circulation. | c |
id_3826 | Life has been short for the one- and two-cent euro coins launched only three years ago. Faced with chronic shortages, the central banks of Denmark and Belgium have decided they have no alternative but to withdraw them and order retailers to round prices up or down to the nearest five cents, depending which is closest. The French have no such plans; they fear that the rounding of prices might lead to an overall increase in price levels. | The shortage of these coins in France is less chronic. | n |
id_3827 | Light is made up of electromagnetic waves. These vary in length and it is these differences that we perceive as different colours. White light has all the wavelengths of the light spectrum mixed up together. An object looks coloured because light falls on it and it reflects only certain parts of the spectrum. The rest of the spectrum is absorbed by the object. An object that looks white reflects all the light that falls on it. An object that looks red reflects the red part of the spectrum and absorbs the rest. Our eyes detect these different reflected waves and we see them as different colours. | Without colours we would consider the world a dull and less beautiful place | n |
id_3828 | Light is made up of electromagnetic waves. These vary in length and it is these differences that we perceive as different colours. White light has all the wavelengths of the light spectrum mixed up together. An object looks coloured because light falls on it and it reflects only certain parts of the spectrum. The rest of the spectrum is absorbed by the object. An object that looks white reflects all the light that falls on it. An object that looks red reflects the red part of the spectrum and absorbs the rest. Our eyes detect these different reflected waves and we see them as different colours. | White light is an amalgam of all the wavelengths of light. | e |
id_3829 | Light is made up of electromagnetic waves. These vary in length and it is these differences that we perceive as different colours. White light has all the wavelengths of the light spectrum mixed up together. An object looks coloured because light falls on it and it reflects only certain parts of the spectrum. The rest of the spectrum is absorbed by the object. An object that looks white reflects all the light that falls on it. An object that looks red reflects the red part of the spectrum and absorbs the rest. Our eyes detect these different reflected waves and we see them as different colours. | The passage states that an object that looks blue absorbs all but the blue wavelengths of light. | c |
id_3830 | Light is made up of electromagnetic waves. These vary in length and it is these differences that we perceive as different colours. White light has all the wavelengths of the light spectrum mixed up together. An object looks coloured because light falls on it and it reflects only certain parts of the spectrum. The rest of the spectrum is absorbed by the object. An object that looks white reflects all the light that falls on it. An object that looks red reflects the red part of the spectrum and absorbs the rest. Our eyes detect these different reflected waves and we see them as different colours. | The colour we perceive an object to be is determined by the electromagnetic waves that it absorbs or reflects. | e |
id_3831 | Light is made up of electromagnetic waves. These vary in length and it is these differences that we perceive as different colours. White light has all the wavelengths of the light spectrum mixed up together. An object looks coloured because light falls on it and it reflects only certain parts of the spectrum. The rest of the spectrum is absorbed by the object. An object that looks white reflects all the light that falls on it. An object that looks red reflects the red part of the spectrum and absorbs the rest. Our eyes detect these different reflected waves and we see them as different colours. | White paint reflects more light than red paint. | e |
id_3832 | Lost for words. Many minority languages are on the danger list In the Native American Navajo nation, which sprawls across four states in the American south-west, the native language is dying. Most of its speakers are middle-aged or elderly. Although many students take classes in Navajo, the schools are run in English. Street signs, supermarket goods and even their own newspaper are all in English. Not surprisingly, linguists doubt that any native speakers of Navajo will remain in a hundred years' time. Navajo is far from alone. Half the world's 6,800 languages are likely to vanish within two generations that's one language lost every ten days. Never before has the planet's linguistic diversity shrunk at such a pace. 'At the moment, we are heading for about three or four languages dominating the world, ' says Mark Pagel, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Reading. 'It's a mass extinction, and whether we will ever rebound from the loss is difficult to know. ' Isolation breeds linguistic diversity: as a result, the world is peppered with languages spoken by only a few people. Only 250 languages have more than a million speakers, and at least 3,000 have fewer than 2,500. It is not necessarily these small languages that are about to disappear. Navajo is considered endangered despite having 150,000 speakers. What makes a language endangered is not just the number of speakers, but how old they are. If it is spoken by children it is relatively safe. The critically endangered languages are those that are only spoken by the elderly, according to Michael Krauss, director of the Alassk Native Language Center, in Fairbanks. Why do people reject the language of their parents? It begins with a crisis of confidence, when a small community finds itself alongside a larger, wealthier society, says Nicholas Ostler, of Britain's Foundation for Endangered Languages, in Bath. 'People lose faith in their culture, ' he says. 'When the next generation reaches their teens, they might not want to be induced into the old traditions. ' The change is not always voluntary. Quite often, governments try to kill off a minority language by banning its use in public or discouraging its use in schools, all to promote national unity. The former US policy of running Indian reservation schools in English, for example, effectively put languages such as Navajo on the danger list. But Salikoko Mufwene, who chairs the Linguistics department at the University of Chicago, argues that the deadliest weapon is not government policy but economic globalisation. 'Native Americans have not lost pride in their language, but they have had to adapt to socio-economic pressures, ' he says. 'They cannot refuse to speak English if most commercial activity is in English. ' But are languages worth saving? At the very least, there is a loss of data for the study of languages and their evolution, which relies on comparisons between languages, both living and dead. When an unwritten and unrecorded language disappears, it is lost to science. Language is also intimately bound up with culture, so it may be difficult to preserve one without the other. 'If a person shifts from Navajo to English, they lose something, ' Mufwene says. 'Moreover, the loss of diversity may also deprive us of different ways of looking at the world, ' says Pagel. There is mounting evidence that learning a language produces physiological changes in the brain. 'Your brain and mine are different from the brain of someone who speaks French, for instance, ' Pagel says, and this could affect our thoughts and perceptions. 'The patterns and connections we make among various concepts may be structured by the linguistic habits of our community. ' So despite linguists' best efforts, many languages will disappear over the next century. But a growing interest in cultural identity may prevent the direst predictions from coming true. 'The key to fostering diversity is for people to learn their ancestral tongue, as well as the dominant language, ' says Doug Whalen, founder and president of the Endangered Language Fund in New Haven, Connecticut. 'Most of these languages will not survive without a large degree of bilingualism, ' he says. In New Zealand, classes for children have slowed the erosion of Maori and rekindled interest in the language. A similar approach in Hawaii has produced about 8,000 new speakers of Polynesian languages in the past few years. In California, 'apprentice' programmes have provided life support to several indigenous languages. Volunteer 'apprentices' pair up with one of the last living speakers of a Native American tongue to learn a traditional skill such as basket weaving, with instruction exclusively in the endangered language. After about 300 hours of training they are generally sufficiently fluent to transmit the language to the next generation. But Mufwene says that preventing a language dying out is not the same as giving it new life by using it every day. 'Preserving a language is more like preserving fruits in a jar, ' he says. However, preservation can bring a language back from the dead. There are examples of languages that have survived in written form and then been revived by later generations. But a written form is essential for this, so the mere possibility of revival has led many speakers of endangered languages to develop systems of writing where none existed before. | National governments could do more to protect endangered languages. | n |
id_3833 | Lost for words. Many minority languages are on the danger list In the Native American Navajo nation, which sprawls across four states in the American south-west, the native language is dying. Most of its speakers are middle-aged or elderly. Although many students take classes in Navajo, the schools are run in English. Street signs, supermarket goods and even their own newspaper are all in English. Not surprisingly, linguists doubt that any native speakers of Navajo will remain in a hundred years' time. Navajo is far from alone. Half the world's 6,800 languages are likely to vanish within two generations that's one language lost every ten days. Never before has the planet's linguistic diversity shrunk at such a pace. 'At the moment, we are heading for about three or four languages dominating the world, ' says Mark Pagel, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Reading. 'It's a mass extinction, and whether we will ever rebound from the loss is difficult to know. ' Isolation breeds linguistic diversity: as a result, the world is peppered with languages spoken by only a few people. Only 250 languages have more than a million speakers, and at least 3,000 have fewer than 2,500. It is not necessarily these small languages that are about to disappear. Navajo is considered endangered despite having 150,000 speakers. What makes a language endangered is not just the number of speakers, but how old they are. If it is spoken by children it is relatively safe. The critically endangered languages are those that are only spoken by the elderly, according to Michael Krauss, director of the Alassk Native Language Center, in Fairbanks. Why do people reject the language of their parents? It begins with a crisis of confidence, when a small community finds itself alongside a larger, wealthier society, says Nicholas Ostler, of Britain's Foundation for Endangered Languages, in Bath. 'People lose faith in their culture, ' he says. 'When the next generation reaches their teens, they might not want to be induced into the old traditions. ' The change is not always voluntary. Quite often, governments try to kill off a minority language by banning its use in public or discouraging its use in schools, all to promote national unity. The former US policy of running Indian reservation schools in English, for example, effectively put languages such as Navajo on the danger list. But Salikoko Mufwene, who chairs the Linguistics department at the University of Chicago, argues that the deadliest weapon is not government policy but economic globalisation. 'Native Americans have not lost pride in their language, but they have had to adapt to socio-economic pressures, ' he says. 'They cannot refuse to speak English if most commercial activity is in English. ' But are languages worth saving? At the very least, there is a loss of data for the study of languages and their evolution, which relies on comparisons between languages, both living and dead. When an unwritten and unrecorded language disappears, it is lost to science. Language is also intimately bound up with culture, so it may be difficult to preserve one without the other. 'If a person shifts from Navajo to English, they lose something, ' Mufwene says. 'Moreover, the loss of diversity may also deprive us of different ways of looking at the world, ' says Pagel. There is mounting evidence that learning a language produces physiological changes in the brain. 'Your brain and mine are different from the brain of someone who speaks French, for instance, ' Pagel says, and this could affect our thoughts and perceptions. 'The patterns and connections we make among various concepts may be structured by the linguistic habits of our community. ' So despite linguists' best efforts, many languages will disappear over the next century. But a growing interest in cultural identity may prevent the direst predictions from coming true. 'The key to fostering diversity is for people to learn their ancestral tongue, as well as the dominant language, ' says Doug Whalen, founder and president of the Endangered Language Fund in New Haven, Connecticut. 'Most of these languages will not survive without a large degree of bilingualism, ' he says. In New Zealand, classes for children have slowed the erosion of Maori and rekindled interest in the language. A similar approach in Hawaii has produced about 8,000 new speakers of Polynesian languages in the past few years. In California, 'apprentice' programmes have provided life support to several indigenous languages. Volunteer 'apprentices' pair up with one of the last living speakers of a Native American tongue to learn a traditional skill such as basket weaving, with instruction exclusively in the endangered language. After about 300 hours of training they are generally sufficiently fluent to transmit the language to the next generation. But Mufwene says that preventing a language dying out is not the same as giving it new life by using it every day. 'Preserving a language is more like preserving fruits in a jar, ' he says. However, preservation can bring a language back from the dead. There are examples of languages that have survived in written form and then been revived by later generations. But a written form is essential for this, so the mere possibility of revival has led many speakers of endangered languages to develop systems of writing where none existed before. | The loss of linguistic diversity is inevitable. | e |
id_3834 | Lost for words. Many minority languages are on the danger list In the Native American Navajo nation, which sprawls across four states in the American south-west, the native language is dying. Most of its speakers are middle-aged or elderly. Although many students take classes in Navajo, the schools are run in English. Street signs, supermarket goods and even their own newspaper are all in English. Not surprisingly, linguists doubt that any native speakers of Navajo will remain in a hundred years' time. Navajo is far from alone. Half the world's 6,800 languages are likely to vanish within two generations that's one language lost every ten days. Never before has the planet's linguistic diversity shrunk at such a pace. 'At the moment, we are heading for about three or four languages dominating the world, ' says Mark Pagel, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Reading. 'It's a mass extinction, and whether we will ever rebound from the loss is difficult to know. ' Isolation breeds linguistic diversity: as a result, the world is peppered with languages spoken by only a few people. Only 250 languages have more than a million speakers, and at least 3,000 have fewer than 2,500. It is not necessarily these small languages that are about to disappear. Navajo is considered endangered despite having 150,000 speakers. What makes a language endangered is not just the number of speakers, but how old they are. If it is spoken by children it is relatively safe. The critically endangered languages are those that are only spoken by the elderly, according to Michael Krauss, director of the Alassk Native Language Center, in Fairbanks. Why do people reject the language of their parents? It begins with a crisis of confidence, when a small community finds itself alongside a larger, wealthier society, says Nicholas Ostler, of Britain's Foundation for Endangered Languages, in Bath. 'People lose faith in their culture, ' he says. 'When the next generation reaches their teens, they might not want to be induced into the old traditions. ' The change is not always voluntary. Quite often, governments try to kill off a minority language by banning its use in public or discouraging its use in schools, all to promote national unity. The former US policy of running Indian reservation schools in English, for example, effectively put languages such as Navajo on the danger list. But Salikoko Mufwene, who chairs the Linguistics department at the University of Chicago, argues that the deadliest weapon is not government policy but economic globalisation. 'Native Americans have not lost pride in their language, but they have had to adapt to socio-economic pressures, ' he says. 'They cannot refuse to speak English if most commercial activity is in English. ' But are languages worth saving? At the very least, there is a loss of data for the study of languages and their evolution, which relies on comparisons between languages, both living and dead. When an unwritten and unrecorded language disappears, it is lost to science. Language is also intimately bound up with culture, so it may be difficult to preserve one without the other. 'If a person shifts from Navajo to English, they lose something, ' Mufwene says. 'Moreover, the loss of diversity may also deprive us of different ways of looking at the world, ' says Pagel. There is mounting evidence that learning a language produces physiological changes in the brain. 'Your brain and mine are different from the brain of someone who speaks French, for instance, ' Pagel says, and this could affect our thoughts and perceptions. 'The patterns and connections we make among various concepts may be structured by the linguistic habits of our community. ' So despite linguists' best efforts, many languages will disappear over the next century. But a growing interest in cultural identity may prevent the direst predictions from coming true. 'The key to fostering diversity is for people to learn their ancestral tongue, as well as the dominant language, ' says Doug Whalen, founder and president of the Endangered Language Fund in New Haven, Connecticut. 'Most of these languages will not survive without a large degree of bilingualism, ' he says. In New Zealand, classes for children have slowed the erosion of Maori and rekindled interest in the language. A similar approach in Hawaii has produced about 8,000 new speakers of Polynesian languages in the past few years. In California, 'apprentice' programmes have provided life support to several indigenous languages. Volunteer 'apprentices' pair up with one of the last living speakers of a Native American tongue to learn a traditional skill such as basket weaving, with instruction exclusively in the endangered language. After about 300 hours of training they are generally sufficiently fluent to transmit the language to the next generation. But Mufwene says that preventing a language dying out is not the same as giving it new life by using it every day. 'Preserving a language is more like preserving fruits in a jar, ' he says. However, preservation can bring a language back from the dead. There are examples of languages that have survived in written form and then been revived by later generations. But a written form is essential for this, so the mere possibility of revival has led many speakers of endangered languages to develop systems of writing where none existed before. | The Navajo Language will die out because it currently has too few speakers. | c |
id_3835 | Lost for words. Many minority languages are on the danger list In the Native American Navajo nation, which sprawls across four states in the American south-west, the native language is dying. Most of its speakers are middle-aged or elderly. Although many students take classes in Navajo, the schools are run in English. Street signs, supermarket goods and even their own newspaper are all in English. Not surprisingly, linguists doubt that any native speakers of Navajo will remain in a hundred years' time. Navajo is far from alone. Half the world's 6,800 languages are likely to vanish within two generations that's one language lost every ten days. Never before has the planet's linguistic diversity shrunk at such a pace. 'At the moment, we are heading for about three or four languages dominating the world, ' says Mark Pagel, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Reading. 'It's a mass extinction, and whether we will ever rebound from the loss is difficult to know. ' Isolation breeds linguistic diversity: as a result, the world is peppered with languages spoken by only a few people. Only 250 languages have more than a million speakers, and at least 3,000 have fewer than 2,500. It is not necessarily these small languages that are about to disappear. Navajo is considered endangered despite having 150,000 speakers. What makes a language endangered is not just the number of speakers, but how old they are. If it is spoken by children it is relatively safe. The critically endangered languages are those that are only spoken by the elderly, according to Michael Krauss, director of the Alassk Native Language Center, in Fairbanks. Why do people reject the language of their parents? It begins with a crisis of confidence, when a small community finds itself alongside a larger, wealthier society, says Nicholas Ostler, of Britain's Foundation for Endangered Languages, in Bath. 'People lose faith in their culture, ' he says. 'When the next generation reaches their teens, they might not want to be induced into the old traditions. ' The change is not always voluntary. Quite often, governments try to kill off a minority language by banning its use in public or discouraging its use in schools, all to promote national unity. The former US policy of running Indian reservation schools in English, for example, effectively put languages such as Navajo on the danger list. But Salikoko Mufwene, who chairs the Linguistics department at the University of Chicago, argues that the deadliest weapon is not government policy but economic globalisation. 'Native Americans have not lost pride in their language, but they have had to adapt to socio-economic pressures, ' he says. 'They cannot refuse to speak English if most commercial activity is in English. ' But are languages worth saving? At the very least, there is a loss of data for the study of languages and their evolution, which relies on comparisons between languages, both living and dead. When an unwritten and unrecorded language disappears, it is lost to science. Language is also intimately bound up with culture, so it may be difficult to preserve one without the other. 'If a person shifts from Navajo to English, they lose something, ' Mufwene says. 'Moreover, the loss of diversity may also deprive us of different ways of looking at the world, ' says Pagel. There is mounting evidence that learning a language produces physiological changes in the brain. 'Your brain and mine are different from the brain of someone who speaks French, for instance, ' Pagel says, and this could affect our thoughts and perceptions. 'The patterns and connections we make among various concepts may be structured by the linguistic habits of our community. ' So despite linguists' best efforts, many languages will disappear over the next century. But a growing interest in cultural identity may prevent the direst predictions from coming true. 'The key to fostering diversity is for people to learn their ancestral tongue, as well as the dominant language, ' says Doug Whalen, founder and president of the Endangered Language Fund in New Haven, Connecticut. 'Most of these languages will not survive without a large degree of bilingualism, ' he says. In New Zealand, classes for children have slowed the erosion of Maori and rekindled interest in the language. A similar approach in Hawaii has produced about 8,000 new speakers of Polynesian languages in the past few years. In California, 'apprentice' programmes have provided life support to several indigenous languages. Volunteer 'apprentices' pair up with one of the last living speakers of a Native American tongue to learn a traditional skill such as basket weaving, with instruction exclusively in the endangered language. After about 300 hours of training they are generally sufficiently fluent to transmit the language to the next generation. But Mufwene says that preventing a language dying out is not the same as giving it new life by using it every day. 'Preserving a language is more like preserving fruits in a jar, ' he says. However, preservation can bring a language back from the dead. There are examples of languages that have survived in written form and then been revived by later generations. But a written form is essential for this, so the mere possibility of revival has led many speakers of endangered languages to develop systems of writing where none existed before. | A large number of native speakers fails to guarantee the survival of a language. | e |
id_3836 | Low-Cost Lamps Light Rural India Until three months ago, life in this humble village without electricity would come to a halt after sunset. Inside his mud-and-clay home, Ganpat Jadhavs three children used to study in the dim, smoky glow of a kerosene lamp, when their monthly fuel quota of four litres dried up in just a fortnight, they had to strain their eyes using the light from a cooking fire. That all changed with the installation of low-cost, energy-efficient lamps that are powered entirely by the sun. The lights were installed by the Grameen Surya Bijli Foundation (GSBF), an Indian non-governmental organisation focused on bringing light to rural India. Some 100,000 Indian villages do not yet have electricity. The GSBF lamps use LEDs light emitting diodes that are four times more efficient than a normal bulb. After a $55 installation cost, solar energy lights the lamp free of charge. LED lighting, like cell phones, is another example of a technology whose low cost could allow the rural poor to leap into the 21st century. As many as 1.5 billion people nearly 80 million in India alone light their houses using kerosene as the primary lighting media. The fuel is dangerous, dirty, and despite being subsidised consumes nearly four per cent of a typical rural Indian households budget. A recent report by the Intermediate Technology Development Group suggests that indoor air pollution from such lighting media results in 1.6 million deaths worldwide every year. LED lamps, or more specifically white LEDs, are believed to produce nearly 200 times more useful light than a kerosene lamp and almost 50 times the amount of useful light of a conventional bulb. This technology can light an entire rural village with less energy than that used by a single conventional 100-watt light bulb, says Dave Irvine-Halliday, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Calgary, Canada and the founder of Light up the World Foundation (LUTW). Founded in 1997, LUTW has used LED technology to bring light to nearly 10,000 homes in remote and disadvantaged corners of some 27 countries like India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bolivia, and the Philippines. The technology, which is not yet widely known in India, faces some scepticism here. LED systems are revolutionising rural lighting, but this isnt a magic solution to the worlds energy problems, says Ashok Jhunjhunwala, head of the electrical engineering department at the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. In a scenario in which nearly 60 per cent of Indias rural population uses 180 million tons of biomass per year for cooking via primitive wood stoves which are smoky and provide only 10-15 per cent efficiency in cooking -Jhunjhunwala emphasises the need for a clean energy source, not just for lighting but for other domestic purposes as well. The Indian government in April launched an ambitious project to bring electricity to 112,000 rural villages in the next decade. However, the remote locations of the village will make reaching this goal difficult. A. K. Lakhina, the chairman of Indias Rural Electrification Corporation, says the Indian government recognises the potential of LED lighting powered by solar technology, but expressed reservations about its high costs. If only LEDs werent imported but manufactured locally, he says, and in bulk. The lamps installed in nearly 300 homes by GSBF cost nearly half the price of other solar lighting systems. Jasjeet Singh Chaddha, the founder of the NGO, currently imports his LEDs from China. He wants to set up an LED manufacturing unit and a solar panel manufacturing unit in India. If manufactured locally, the cost of his LED lamp could plummet to $22, as they will not incur heavy import duties. We need close to $5 million for this, he says. Mr. Chaddha says he has also asked the government to exempt the lamps from such duties, but to no avail. An entrepreneur who made his money in plastics, Chaddha, has poured his own money into the project, providing the initial installations free of charge. As he looks to make the project self-sustainable, he recognises that it is only urban markets -which have also shown an avid interest in LED lighting that can pay. The rural markets in India cannot afford it, he says, until the prices are brought down. The rural markets would be able to afford it, says Mr. Irvine-Halliday, if they had access to microcredit. He says that in Tembisa, a shanty town in Johannesburg, he found that almost 10,000 homes spent more than $60 each on candles and paraffin every year. As calculations revealed, these families can afford to purchase a solid state lighting system in just over a year of paying per week what they would normally spend on candles and paraffin if they have access to microcredit. LUTW is in the process of creating such a microcredit facility for South Africa. In villages near Khadakwadi, the newly installed LED lamps are a subject of envy, even for those connected to the grid. Those connected to the grid have to face power cuts up to 6 or 7 hours a day. Constant energy shortages and blackouts are a common problem due to a lack of power plants, transmission, and distribution losses caused by old technology and illegal stealing of electricity from the grid. LED systems require far less maintenance, a longer life, and as villagers jokingly say, no electricity bills. The lamps provided by GSBF have enough power to provide just four hours of light a day. However, that is enough for people to get their work done in the early hours of the night, and is more reliable than light generated off Indias electrical grid. Villagers are educated by GSBF officials to make the most of the new lamps. An official from GSBF instructs Jadhav and his family to clean the lamp regularly. Its luminosity and life will diminish if you let the dust settle on it, he warns them. | Kerosene causes many fires in homes in developing countries. | n |
id_3837 | Low-Cost Lamps Light Rural India Until three months ago, life in this humble village without electricity would come to a halt after sunset. Inside his mud-and-clay home, Ganpat Jadhavs three children used to study in the dim, smoky glow of a kerosene lamp, when their monthly fuel quota of four litres dried up in just a fortnight, they had to strain their eyes using the light from a cooking fire. That all changed with the installation of low-cost, energy-efficient lamps that are powered entirely by the sun. The lights were installed by the Grameen Surya Bijli Foundation (GSBF), an Indian non-governmental organisation focused on bringing light to rural India. Some 100,000 Indian villages do not yet have electricity. The GSBF lamps use LEDs light emitting diodes that are four times more efficient than a normal bulb. After a $55 installation cost, solar energy lights the lamp free of charge. LED lighting, like cell phones, is another example of a technology whose low cost could allow the rural poor to leap into the 21st century. As many as 1.5 billion people nearly 80 million in India alone light their houses using kerosene as the primary lighting media. The fuel is dangerous, dirty, and despite being subsidised consumes nearly four per cent of a typical rural Indian households budget. A recent report by the Intermediate Technology Development Group suggests that indoor air pollution from such lighting media results in 1.6 million deaths worldwide every year. LED lamps, or more specifically white LEDs, are believed to produce nearly 200 times more useful light than a kerosene lamp and almost 50 times the amount of useful light of a conventional bulb. This technology can light an entire rural village with less energy than that used by a single conventional 100-watt light bulb, says Dave Irvine-Halliday, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Calgary, Canada and the founder of Light up the World Foundation (LUTW). Founded in 1997, LUTW has used LED technology to bring light to nearly 10,000 homes in remote and disadvantaged corners of some 27 countries like India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bolivia, and the Philippines. The technology, which is not yet widely known in India, faces some scepticism here. LED systems are revolutionising rural lighting, but this isnt a magic solution to the worlds energy problems, says Ashok Jhunjhunwala, head of the electrical engineering department at the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. In a scenario in which nearly 60 per cent of Indias rural population uses 180 million tons of biomass per year for cooking via primitive wood stoves which are smoky and provide only 10-15 per cent efficiency in cooking -Jhunjhunwala emphasises the need for a clean energy source, not just for lighting but for other domestic purposes as well. The Indian government in April launched an ambitious project to bring electricity to 112,000 rural villages in the next decade. However, the remote locations of the village will make reaching this goal difficult. A. K. Lakhina, the chairman of Indias Rural Electrification Corporation, says the Indian government recognises the potential of LED lighting powered by solar technology, but expressed reservations about its high costs. If only LEDs werent imported but manufactured locally, he says, and in bulk. The lamps installed in nearly 300 homes by GSBF cost nearly half the price of other solar lighting systems. Jasjeet Singh Chaddha, the founder of the NGO, currently imports his LEDs from China. He wants to set up an LED manufacturing unit and a solar panel manufacturing unit in India. If manufactured locally, the cost of his LED lamp could plummet to $22, as they will not incur heavy import duties. We need close to $5 million for this, he says. Mr. Chaddha says he has also asked the government to exempt the lamps from such duties, but to no avail. An entrepreneur who made his money in plastics, Chaddha, has poured his own money into the project, providing the initial installations free of charge. As he looks to make the project self-sustainable, he recognises that it is only urban markets -which have also shown an avid interest in LED lighting that can pay. The rural markets in India cannot afford it, he says, until the prices are brought down. The rural markets would be able to afford it, says Mr. Irvine-Halliday, if they had access to microcredit. He says that in Tembisa, a shanty town in Johannesburg, he found that almost 10,000 homes spent more than $60 each on candles and paraffin every year. As calculations revealed, these families can afford to purchase a solid state lighting system in just over a year of paying per week what they would normally spend on candles and paraffin if they have access to microcredit. LUTW is in the process of creating such a microcredit facility for South Africa. In villages near Khadakwadi, the newly installed LED lamps are a subject of envy, even for those connected to the grid. Those connected to the grid have to face power cuts up to 6 or 7 hours a day. Constant energy shortages and blackouts are a common problem due to a lack of power plants, transmission, and distribution losses caused by old technology and illegal stealing of electricity from the grid. LED systems require far less maintenance, a longer life, and as villagers jokingly say, no electricity bills. The lamps provided by GSBF have enough power to provide just four hours of light a day. However, that is enough for people to get their work done in the early hours of the night, and is more reliable than light generated off Indias electrical grid. Villagers are educated by GSBF officials to make the most of the new lamps. An official from GSBF instructs Jadhav and his family to clean the lamp regularly. Its luminosity and life will diminish if you let the dust settle on it, he warns them. | LED systems could solve the worlds energy problems. | c |
id_3838 | Low-Cost Lamps Light Rural India Until three months ago, life in this humble village without electricity would come to a halt after sunset. Inside his mud-and-clay home, Ganpat Jadhavs three children used to study in the dim, smoky glow of a kerosene lamp, when their monthly fuel quota of four litres dried up in just a fortnight, they had to strain their eyes using the light from a cooking fire. That all changed with the installation of low-cost, energy-efficient lamps that are powered entirely by the sun. The lights were installed by the Grameen Surya Bijli Foundation (GSBF), an Indian non-governmental organisation focused on bringing light to rural India. Some 100,000 Indian villages do not yet have electricity. The GSBF lamps use LEDs light emitting diodes that are four times more efficient than a normal bulb. After a $55 installation cost, solar energy lights the lamp free of charge. LED lighting, like cell phones, is another example of a technology whose low cost could allow the rural poor to leap into the 21st century. As many as 1.5 billion people nearly 80 million in India alone light their houses using kerosene as the primary lighting media. The fuel is dangerous, dirty, and despite being subsidised consumes nearly four per cent of a typical rural Indian households budget. A recent report by the Intermediate Technology Development Group suggests that indoor air pollution from such lighting media results in 1.6 million deaths worldwide every year. LED lamps, or more specifically white LEDs, are believed to produce nearly 200 times more useful light than a kerosene lamp and almost 50 times the amount of useful light of a conventional bulb. This technology can light an entire rural village with less energy than that used by a single conventional 100-watt light bulb, says Dave Irvine-Halliday, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Calgary, Canada and the founder of Light up the World Foundation (LUTW). Founded in 1997, LUTW has used LED technology to bring light to nearly 10,000 homes in remote and disadvantaged corners of some 27 countries like India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bolivia, and the Philippines. The technology, which is not yet widely known in India, faces some scepticism here. LED systems are revolutionising rural lighting, but this isnt a magic solution to the worlds energy problems, says Ashok Jhunjhunwala, head of the electrical engineering department at the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. In a scenario in which nearly 60 per cent of Indias rural population uses 180 million tons of biomass per year for cooking via primitive wood stoves which are smoky and provide only 10-15 per cent efficiency in cooking -Jhunjhunwala emphasises the need for a clean energy source, not just for lighting but for other domestic purposes as well. The Indian government in April launched an ambitious project to bring electricity to 112,000 rural villages in the next decade. However, the remote locations of the village will make reaching this goal difficult. A. K. Lakhina, the chairman of Indias Rural Electrification Corporation, says the Indian government recognises the potential of LED lighting powered by solar technology, but expressed reservations about its high costs. If only LEDs werent imported but manufactured locally, he says, and in bulk. The lamps installed in nearly 300 homes by GSBF cost nearly half the price of other solar lighting systems. Jasjeet Singh Chaddha, the founder of the NGO, currently imports his LEDs from China. He wants to set up an LED manufacturing unit and a solar panel manufacturing unit in India. If manufactured locally, the cost of his LED lamp could plummet to $22, as they will not incur heavy import duties. We need close to $5 million for this, he says. Mr. Chaddha says he has also asked the government to exempt the lamps from such duties, but to no avail. An entrepreneur who made his money in plastics, Chaddha, has poured his own money into the project, providing the initial installations free of charge. As he looks to make the project self-sustainable, he recognises that it is only urban markets -which have also shown an avid interest in LED lighting that can pay. The rural markets in India cannot afford it, he says, until the prices are brought down. The rural markets would be able to afford it, says Mr. Irvine-Halliday, if they had access to microcredit. He says that in Tembisa, a shanty town in Johannesburg, he found that almost 10,000 homes spent more than $60 each on candles and paraffin every year. As calculations revealed, these families can afford to purchase a solid state lighting system in just over a year of paying per week what they would normally spend on candles and paraffin if they have access to microcredit. LUTW is in the process of creating such a microcredit facility for South Africa. In villages near Khadakwadi, the newly installed LED lamps are a subject of envy, even for those connected to the grid. Those connected to the grid have to face power cuts up to 6 or 7 hours a day. Constant energy shortages and blackouts are a common problem due to a lack of power plants, transmission, and distribution losses caused by old technology and illegal stealing of electricity from the grid. LED systems require far less maintenance, a longer life, and as villagers jokingly say, no electricity bills. The lamps provided by GSBF have enough power to provide just four hours of light a day. However, that is enough for people to get their work done in the early hours of the night, and is more reliable than light generated off Indias electrical grid. Villagers are educated by GSBF officials to make the most of the new lamps. An official from GSBF instructs Jadhav and his family to clean the lamp regularly. Its luminosity and life will diminish if you let the dust settle on it, he warns them. | Chaddha has so far funded the GSBF lamp project himself. | e |
id_3839 | Low-Cost Lamps Light Rural India Until three months ago, life in this humble village without electricity would come to a halt after sunset. Inside his mud-and-clay home, Ganpat Jadhavs three children used to study in the dim, smoky glow of a kerosene lamp, when their monthly fuel quota of four litres dried up in just a fortnight, they had to strain their eyes using the light from a cooking fire. That all changed with the installation of low-cost, energy-efficient lamps that are powered entirely by the sun. The lights were installed by the Grameen Surya Bijli Foundation (GSBF), an Indian non-governmental organisation focused on bringing light to rural India. Some 100,000 Indian villages do not yet have electricity. The GSBF lamps use LEDs light emitting diodes that are four times more efficient than a normal bulb. After a $55 installation cost, solar energy lights the lamp free of charge. LED lighting, like cell phones, is another example of a technology whose low cost could allow the rural poor to leap into the 21st century. As many as 1.5 billion people nearly 80 million in India alone light their houses using kerosene as the primary lighting media. The fuel is dangerous, dirty, and despite being subsidised consumes nearly four per cent of a typical rural Indian households budget. A recent report by the Intermediate Technology Development Group suggests that indoor air pollution from such lighting media results in 1.6 million deaths worldwide every year. LED lamps, or more specifically white LEDs, are believed to produce nearly 200 times more useful light than a kerosene lamp and almost 50 times the amount of useful light of a conventional bulb. This technology can light an entire rural village with less energy than that used by a single conventional 100-watt light bulb, says Dave Irvine-Halliday, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Calgary, Canada and the founder of Light up the World Foundation (LUTW). Founded in 1997, LUTW has used LED technology to bring light to nearly 10,000 homes in remote and disadvantaged corners of some 27 countries like India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bolivia, and the Philippines. The technology, which is not yet widely known in India, faces some scepticism here. LED systems are revolutionising rural lighting, but this isnt a magic solution to the worlds energy problems, says Ashok Jhunjhunwala, head of the electrical engineering department at the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. In a scenario in which nearly 60 per cent of Indias rural population uses 180 million tons of biomass per year for cooking via primitive wood stoves which are smoky and provide only 10-15 per cent efficiency in cooking -Jhunjhunwala emphasises the need for a clean energy source, not just for lighting but for other domestic purposes as well. The Indian government in April launched an ambitious project to bring electricity to 112,000 rural villages in the next decade. However, the remote locations of the village will make reaching this goal difficult. A. K. Lakhina, the chairman of Indias Rural Electrification Corporation, says the Indian government recognises the potential of LED lighting powered by solar technology, but expressed reservations about its high costs. If only LEDs werent imported but manufactured locally, he says, and in bulk. The lamps installed in nearly 300 homes by GSBF cost nearly half the price of other solar lighting systems. Jasjeet Singh Chaddha, the founder of the NGO, currently imports his LEDs from China. He wants to set up an LED manufacturing unit and a solar panel manufacturing unit in India. If manufactured locally, the cost of his LED lamp could plummet to $22, as they will not incur heavy import duties. We need close to $5 million for this, he says. Mr. Chaddha says he has also asked the government to exempt the lamps from such duties, but to no avail. An entrepreneur who made his money in plastics, Chaddha, has poured his own money into the project, providing the initial installations free of charge. As he looks to make the project self-sustainable, he recognises that it is only urban markets -which have also shown an avid interest in LED lighting that can pay. The rural markets in India cannot afford it, he says, until the prices are brought down. The rural markets would be able to afford it, says Mr. Irvine-Halliday, if they had access to microcredit. He says that in Tembisa, a shanty town in Johannesburg, he found that almost 10,000 homes spent more than $60 each on candles and paraffin every year. As calculations revealed, these families can afford to purchase a solid state lighting system in just over a year of paying per week what they would normally spend on candles and paraffin if they have access to microcredit. LUTW is in the process of creating such a microcredit facility for South Africa. In villages near Khadakwadi, the newly installed LED lamps are a subject of envy, even for those connected to the grid. Those connected to the grid have to face power cuts up to 6 or 7 hours a day. Constant energy shortages and blackouts are a common problem due to a lack of power plants, transmission, and distribution losses caused by old technology and illegal stealing of electricity from the grid. LED systems require far less maintenance, a longer life, and as villagers jokingly say, no electricity bills. The lamps provided by GSBF have enough power to provide just four hours of light a day. However, that is enough for people to get their work done in the early hours of the night, and is more reliable than light generated off Indias electrical grid. Villagers are educated by GSBF officials to make the most of the new lamps. An official from GSBF instructs Jadhav and his family to clean the lamp regularly. Its luminosity and life will diminish if you let the dust settle on it, he warns them. | Microcredit would help to get more people to use LED lamps. | e |
id_3840 | Low-Cost Lamps Light Rural India Until three months ago, life in this humble village without electricity would come to a halt after sunset. Inside his mud-and-clay home, Ganpat Jadhavs three children used to study in the dim, smoky glow of a kerosene lamp, when their monthly fuel quota of four litres dried up in just a fortnight, they had to strain their eyes using the light from a cooking fire. That all changed with the installation of low-cost, energy-efficient lamps that are powered entirely by the sun. The lights were installed by the Grameen Surya Bijli Foundation (GSBF), an Indian non-governmental organisation focused on bringing light to rural India. Some 100,000 Indian villages do not yet have electricity. The GSBF lamps use LEDs light emitting diodes that are four times more efficient than a normal bulb. After a $55 installation cost, solar energy lights the lamp free of charge. LED lighting, like cell phones, is another example of a technology whose low cost could allow the rural poor to leap into the 21st century. As many as 1.5 billion people nearly 80 million in India alone light their houses using kerosene as the primary lighting media. The fuel is dangerous, dirty, and despite being subsidised consumes nearly four per cent of a typical rural Indian households budget. A recent report by the Intermediate Technology Development Group suggests that indoor air pollution from such lighting media results in 1.6 million deaths worldwide every year. LED lamps, or more specifically white LEDs, are believed to produce nearly 200 times more useful light than a kerosene lamp and almost 50 times the amount of useful light of a conventional bulb. This technology can light an entire rural village with less energy than that used by a single conventional 100-watt light bulb, says Dave Irvine-Halliday, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Calgary, Canada and the founder of Light up the World Foundation (LUTW). Founded in 1997, LUTW has used LED technology to bring light to nearly 10,000 homes in remote and disadvantaged corners of some 27 countries like India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bolivia, and the Philippines. The technology, which is not yet widely known in India, faces some scepticism here. LED systems are revolutionising rural lighting, but this isnt a magic solution to the worlds energy problems, says Ashok Jhunjhunwala, head of the electrical engineering department at the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. In a scenario in which nearly 60 per cent of Indias rural population uses 180 million tons of biomass per year for cooking via primitive wood stoves which are smoky and provide only 10-15 per cent efficiency in cooking -Jhunjhunwala emphasises the need for a clean energy source, not just for lighting but for other domestic purposes as well. The Indian government in April launched an ambitious project to bring electricity to 112,000 rural villages in the next decade. However, the remote locations of the village will make reaching this goal difficult. A. K. Lakhina, the chairman of Indias Rural Electrification Corporation, says the Indian government recognises the potential of LED lighting powered by solar technology, but expressed reservations about its high costs. If only LEDs werent imported but manufactured locally, he says, and in bulk. The lamps installed in nearly 300 homes by GSBF cost nearly half the price of other solar lighting systems. Jasjeet Singh Chaddha, the founder of the NGO, currently imports his LEDs from China. He wants to set up an LED manufacturing unit and a solar panel manufacturing unit in India. If manufactured locally, the cost of his LED lamp could plummet to $22, as they will not incur heavy import duties. We need close to $5 million for this, he says. Mr. Chaddha says he has also asked the government to exempt the lamps from such duties, but to no avail. An entrepreneur who made his money in plastics, Chaddha, has poured his own money into the project, providing the initial installations free of charge. As he looks to make the project self-sustainable, he recognises that it is only urban markets -which have also shown an avid interest in LED lighting that can pay. The rural markets in India cannot afford it, he says, until the prices are brought down. The rural markets would be able to afford it, says Mr. Irvine-Halliday, if they had access to microcredit. He says that in Tembisa, a shanty town in Johannesburg, he found that almost 10,000 homes spent more than $60 each on candles and paraffin every year. As calculations revealed, these families can afford to purchase a solid state lighting system in just over a year of paying per week what they would normally spend on candles and paraffin if they have access to microcredit. LUTW is in the process of creating such a microcredit facility for South Africa. In villages near Khadakwadi, the newly installed LED lamps are a subject of envy, even for those connected to the grid. Those connected to the grid have to face power cuts up to 6 or 7 hours a day. Constant energy shortages and blackouts are a common problem due to a lack of power plants, transmission, and distribution losses caused by old technology and illegal stealing of electricity from the grid. LED systems require far less maintenance, a longer life, and as villagers jokingly say, no electricity bills. The lamps provided by GSBF have enough power to provide just four hours of light a day. However, that is enough for people to get their work done in the early hours of the night, and is more reliable than light generated off Indias electrical grid. Villagers are educated by GSBF officials to make the most of the new lamps. An official from GSBF instructs Jadhav and his family to clean the lamp regularly. Its luminosity and life will diminish if you let the dust settle on it, he warns them. | Ganpat Jadhavs monthly ration of kerosene was insufficient. | e |
id_3841 | Luke Charles and Rebecca Croft were reported missing at 21.00 hrs on 18 July, when they failed to return from a trip to the circus. The circus was visiting the town and was set up on playing fields near the Leisure Centre and town centre shops. The teenagers had both been given 5 each to go to the circus. The following facts were known: The 60-minute circus show was due to end at 19.15 hrs. The last bus left the Leisure Centre at 20.25hrs, and would have taken 10 minutes to reach their home. Luke Chatles had a heated argument with his father before going out that night. A bus-driver recalled a 14 year old girl using her youth bus pass when being collected with three other male passengers from the Leisure Centre at 19.40 hrs, Rebecca Croft's best friend lived in a flat above a clothes shop in the town centre. Walking home from the playing fields normally takes 40 minutes. | Luke's father had searched for the two for three hours without success before they were reported missing. | c |
id_3842 | Luke Charles and Rebecca Croft were reported missing at 21.00 hrs on 18 July, when they failed to return from a trip to the circus. The circus was visiting the town and was set up on playing fields near the Leisure Centre and town centre shops. The teenagers had both been given 5 each to go to the circus. The following facts were known: The 60-minute circus show was due to end at 19.15 hrs. The last bus left the Leisure Centre at 20.25hrs, and would have taken 10 minutes to reach their home. Luke Chatles had a heated argument with his father before going out that night. A bus-driver recalled a 14 year old girl using her youth bus pass when being collected with three other male passengers from the Leisure Centre at 19.40 hrs, Rebecca Croft's best friend lived in a flat above a clothes shop in the town centre. Walking home from the playing fields normally takes 40 minutes. | Luke and Rebecca might have missed the last bus home. | e |
id_3843 | Luke Charles and Rebecca Croft were reported missing at 21.00 hrs on 18 July, when they failed to return from a trip to the circus. The circus was visiting the town and was set up on playing fields near the Leisure Centre and town centre shops. The teenagers had both been given 5 each to go to the circus. The following facts were known: The 60-minute circus show was due to end at 19.15 hrs. The last bus left the Leisure Centre at 20.25hrs, and would have taken 10 minutes to reach their home. Luke Chatles had a heated argument with his father before going out that night. A bus-driver recalled a 14 year old girl using her youth bus pass when being collected with three other male passengers from the Leisure Centre at 19.40 hrs, Rebecca Croft's best friend lived in a flat above a clothes shop in the town centre. Walking home from the playing fields normally takes 40 minutes. | Luke had deliberately failed to return home that night. | n |
id_3844 | Luke Charles and Rebecca Croft were reported missing at 21.00 hrs on 18 July, when they failed to return from a trip to the circus. The circus was visiting the town and was set up on playing fields near the Leisure Centre and town centre shops. The teenagers had both been given 5 each to go to the circus. The following facts were known: The 60-minute circus show was due to end at 19.15 hrs. The last bus left the Leisure Centre at 20.25hrs, and would have taken 10 minutes to reach their home. Luke Chatles had a heated argument with his father before going out that night. A bus-driver recalled a 14 year old girl using her youth bus pass when being collected with three other male passengers from the Leisure Centre at 19.40 hrs, Rebecca Croft's best friend lived in a flat above a clothes shop in the town centre. Walking home from the playing fields normally takes 40 minutes. | Rebecca may have caught the 19.40 hrs bus home. | e |
id_3845 | MAIN STREET, GATTON RE-DEVELOPMENT ROAD WIDENING TO AFFECT WEEKEND TRAFFIC AND BUS SERVICES TO THE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS The next stage in the re-development of the roads in the town of Gatton will mean that Main Street will be closed between Little and Denning Streets from 6am on Saturday, 12 August to 6pm on Sunday, 13 August. The intersections of these streets with Main Street will not be affected. We expect that the work will be completed at this time without further disruption to traffic. Motorists should note that Main Street will be closed over the weekend during the hours indicated. No university bus services will operate through the area between Little and Denning Streets. However, alternative services will operate on bus routes 566 and 45 between Gatton Road, the town centre and the university. The Transport and Roads Department apologises for any inconvenience caused while improvements are in progress. | Classes are organised according to ability level. | e |
id_3846 | MAIN STREET, GATTON RE-DEVELOPMENT ROAD WIDENING TO AFFECT WEEKEND TRAFFIC AND BUS SERVICES TO THE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS The next stage in the re-development of the roads in the town of Gatton will mean that Main Street will be closed between Little and Denning Streets from 6am on Saturday, 12 August to 6pm on Sunday, 13 August. The intersections of these streets with Main Street will not be affected. We expect that the work will be completed at this time without further disruption to traffic. Motorists should note that Main Street will be closed over the weekend during the hours indicated. No university bus services will operate through the area between Little and Denning Streets. However, alternative services will operate on bus routes 566 and 45 between Gatton Road, the town centre and the university. The Transport and Roads Department apologises for any inconvenience caused while improvements are in progress. | Outstanding fees are payable by the end of the first week of the course. | c |
id_3847 | MAIN STREET, GATTON RE-DEVELOPMENT ROAD WIDENING TO AFFECT WEEKEND TRAFFIC AND BUS SERVICES TO THE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS The next stage in the re-development of the roads in the town of Gatton will mean that Main Street will be closed between Little and Denning Streets from 6am on Saturday, 12 August to 6pm on Sunday, 13 August. The intersections of these streets with Main Street will not be affected. We expect that the work will be completed at this time without further disruption to traffic. Motorists should note that Main Street will be closed over the weekend during the hours indicated. No university bus services will operate through the area between Little and Denning Streets. However, alternative services will operate on bus routes 566 and 45 between Gatton Road, the town centre and the university. The Transport and Roads Department apologises for any inconvenience caused while improvements are in progress. | Overseas students must pay a deposit when they apply for a course at the college. | e |
id_3848 | MAIN STREET, GATTON RE-DEVELOPMENT ROAD WIDENING TO AFFECT WEEKEND TRAFFIC AND BUS SERVICES TO THE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS The next stage in the re-development of the roads in the town of Gatton will mean that Main Street will be closed between Little and Denning Streets from 6am on Saturday, 12 August to 6pm on Sunday, 13 August. The intersections of these streets with Main Street will not be affected. We expect that the work will be completed at this time without further disruption to traffic. Motorists should note that Main Street will be closed over the weekend during the hours indicated. No university bus services will operate through the area between Little and Denning Streets. However, alternative services will operate on bus routes 566 and 45 between Gatton Road, the town centre and the university. The Transport and Roads Department apologises for any inconvenience caused while improvements are in progress. | Any student is permitted to take a weeks holiday during a 12-week course. | c |
id_3849 | MAIN STREET, GATTON RE-DEVELOPMENT ROAD WIDENING TO AFFECT WEEKEND TRAFFIC AND BUS SERVICES TO THE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS The next stage in the re-development of the roads in the town of Gatton will mean that Main Street will be closed between Little and Denning Streets from 6am on Saturday, 12 August to 6pm on Sunday, 13 August. The intersections of these streets with Main Street will not be affected. We expect that the work will be completed at this time without further disruption to traffic. Motorists should note that Main Street will be closed over the weekend during the hours indicated. No university bus services will operate through the area between Little and Denning Streets. However, alternative services will operate on bus routes 566 and 45 between Gatton Road, the town centre and the university. The Transport and Roads Department apologises for any inconvenience caused while improvements are in progress. | There is a break between each lesson. | e |
id_3850 | MAIN STREET, GATTON RE-DEVELOPMENT ROAD WIDENING TO AFFECT WEEKEND TRAFFIC AND BUS SERVICES TO THE UNIVERSITY CAMPUS The next stage in the re-development of the roads in the town of Gatton will mean that Main Street will be closed between Little and Denning Streets from 6am on Saturday, 12 August to 6pm on Sunday, 13 August. The intersections of these streets with Main Street will not be affected. We expect that the work will be completed at this time without further disruption to traffic. Motorists should note that Main Street will be closed over the weekend during the hours indicated. No university bus services will operate through the area between Little and Denning Streets. However, alternative services will operate on bus routes 566 and 45 between Gatton Road, the town centre and the university. The Transport and Roads Department apologises for any inconvenience caused while improvements are in progress. | Students may change courses at any time during the term. | n |
id_3851 | MAKING EVERYDROP COUNT. The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers* are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. underground stores of water At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons* of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Industrial growth is increasing the overall demand for water. | c |
id_3852 | MAKING EVERYDROP COUNT. The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers* are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. underground stores of water At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons* of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Water use per person is higher in the industrial world than it was in Ancient Rome. | c |
id_3853 | MAKING EVERYDROP COUNT. The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers* are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. underground stores of water At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons* of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Modern water systems imitate those of the ancient Greeks and Romans. | n |
id_3854 | MAKING EVERYDROP COUNT. The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers* are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. underground stores of water At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons* of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | In the future, governments should maintain ownership of water infrastructures. | n |
id_3855 | MAKING EVERYDROP COUNT. The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers* are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. underground stores of water At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons* of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Modern technologies have led to a reduction in domestic water consumption. | e |
id_3856 | MAKING EVERYDROP COUNT. The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers* are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. underground stores of water At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons* of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Feeding increasing populations is possible due primarily to improved irrigation systems. | e |
id_3857 | MARS: Are We Close To Finding Life? No planet has teased the imagination as much as Mars. In ancient Greece and Rome, the planets fiery red hue made skywatchers think of their god of war. In the 19th century, astronomer Percival Lowell thought he saw canals on Mars; his observations triggered a flood of novels and science fiction stories about strange and wonderful beings thought to inhabit the Red Planet. Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, has often been called a sister planet to our own Earth. A day on Mars lasts 24-and-a-half hours, just 30 minutes longer than here on Earth. The planet is tilted on its axis by 25 degrees, just two degrees more than the Earths tilt. Because of its greater distance from the sun, however, Mars takes substantially longer to complete each orbit, a year on Mars lasts 668 earth days, nearly twice as long as a year here on Earth. Mars has two small, irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, each less than 30 km across. Because of its small size, the pull of gravity on the planets surface is just 38 per cent as strong as on Earth (a 200 pound man would weigh just 76 lbs. On Mars). And because of its weak gravity, Mars has retained only a thin atmosphere -about 100 times thinner than Earths. Its main component (95 per cent) is carbon dioxide. It can be windy, though with giant dust storms sometimes engulfing the entire planet. Because of its thin atmosphere and its distance from the sun, Mars is a very cold world. Although midsummer temperatures can reach 26, it can also drop to a numbering -111. Besides its vast, rocky deserts, Mars also has enormous canyons such as the 5000 -kilometre Valles Marineris, as well as giant extinct volcanoes like 27-km-high Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the solar system. The planet also has intriguing channels that look as though they were carved by flowing watersuggesting that Mars may once have been both wetter and warmer than it is today. Two distinct polar ice caps can be seen even through small telescopes. The north capthe larger of the twois mainly normal ice (frozen water), while the southern cap seems to be mostly frozen carbon dioxide. Why the two caps are so different is a mystery. The question of life on Marseither past or presentremains a great motivator in the exploration of the Red Planet. True, no signs of life have been discovered on Mars, but scientists cant rule out the possibility that microbial life did, at one time, evolve there. With its giant volcanoes, gaping canyons, and vast deserts, Mars remains as intriguing as ever, but the lack of water makes many scientists pessimistic including Dr. Jane Renfrew, although she believes that its still possible that microbial life has survived below the surface. A number of scientists, including Sam Watson from MIT, have also raised the intriguing possibility that life on Earth may have originated on Mars. Material from Mars has reached Earth in the form of meteorites; if there were microbes embedded in those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Theres evidence suggesting that water once flowed across the Red Planet. An ocean may have once covered the planets northern hemisphere; as well, images from Surveyor and other spacecraft show channels that may well have been carved by flowing water billions of years ago. Why would the ocean be in the north? Maps of Mars highlight the contrast between the planets hemispheres: The north is very low and smooth, while the south is rough, mountainous, and heavily cratered. The northern hemisphere, on average, is five kilometres lower than the southern hemisphere. That difference in elevation would have affected the flow of water, thought to have been present on the Martian surface billions of years ago. Any water that was present, Paige says, would have tended to flow northwardperhaps creating a vast ocean in the planets northern hemisphere. He cautions that there is no direct evidence for this, but says we cant rule out the possibility of a large amount of water there. So where did all the water go? Scientists have come up with a number of models, but none of them is quite satisfactory. Because of the planets cold temperature and thin atmosphere, liquid water is not stable on the Martian surface. Any water would either evaporate into the atmosphere, or freeze and be absorbed into the soil. Its possible that most of the water evaporated, and then the water molecules continuously bombarded by solar radiation may have broken down into their components, hydrogen and oxygen. These gases may then have been lost into space. But current models suggest that this should have taken many billions of years in other words, there hasnt been enough time to lose so much water. The water mystery is one of the most puzzling that scientists hope the current crop of Mars missions will solve those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Launched in January 1999, the lander was the latest in a series of low-budget NASA space missions, designed to do more with less. The price tag for the Mars Polar Lander was about $330 million USa tiny fraction of the cost of the billion-dollar Viking probes of the 1970s. Still, an independent inquiry headed by Erich Svenson blamed the trouble on inadequate software systems testing, a result of under funding. On December 3, 1999, the Mars Polar Lander, which failed in its mission, was supposed to have touched down at the edge of the planets south polar ice cap. Why such a southerly location? Scientists believe the layers of dust and ice close to the poles contain a kind of layered record of the planets climate history (just as a trees rings tell the story of the plants growth history); for the first time, they would be able to study those layers. Were landing on a completely different part of the planet than weve explored in the past, and we know very little about the terrain, says David Paige of UCLA, one of the project scientists with the Mars Polar Lander. It has a real exploratory flavour to it. It may be several decades before the first humans set foot on Mars, but some scientists believe theyve got the next best thing and the perfect rehearsal spacehere in Canada. A group called The Mars Society is planning a US $1.2-million simulated Mars station on Devon Island, high in the Canadian Arctic. The island is extremely cold and dry; the landscape is covered with rocky ridges, valleys, and meteorite-impact craters. And, scientists believe, it likely witnessed the same kinds of geological processes that shaped the surface of Mars. The Mars Arctic Research Station may be complete by the summer of 2000. The Mars Society is trying to raise money for the station through private and corporate donations; it has also been negotiating with NASA in the hope of sharing resources. The facility will let scientists and engineers test everything from water-recycling methods to land rovers and drilling equipmentthe sort of machinery that will be crucial if a manned mission to Mars is given the go-ahead. And, perhaps most importantly, it will simulate the kind of self-contained, isolated environment that anyone living on Mars will have to get used to. Scientists hope to send a sample-return mission to the Red Planet in the early years of the next decade (possibly as early as 2005), and theres speculation that a manned mission almost certainly an international collaboration could be underway within about 20 years. Many scientists, including Dr. Zuber at MIT, see a manned mission as inevitable. Now that weve explored the moon, the Red Planet seems to be the next logical step in our species exploration of the solar system. Its going to require the political will for it to happen, she says, but when that occurs, there will be plenty of people lined up willing to help. | The reason the two polar caps are so different is due to the atmosphere. | n |
id_3858 | MARS: Are We Close To Finding Life? No planet has teased the imagination as much as Mars. In ancient Greece and Rome, the planets fiery red hue made skywatchers think of their god of war. In the 19th century, astronomer Percival Lowell thought he saw canals on Mars; his observations triggered a flood of novels and science fiction stories about strange and wonderful beings thought to inhabit the Red Planet. Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, has often been called a sister planet to our own Earth. A day on Mars lasts 24-and-a-half hours, just 30 minutes longer than here on Earth. The planet is tilted on its axis by 25 degrees, just two degrees more than the Earths tilt. Because of its greater distance from the sun, however, Mars takes substantially longer to complete each orbit, a year on Mars lasts 668 earth days, nearly twice as long as a year here on Earth. Mars has two small, irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, each less than 30 km across. Because of its small size, the pull of gravity on the planets surface is just 38 per cent as strong as on Earth (a 200 pound man would weigh just 76 lbs. On Mars). And because of its weak gravity, Mars has retained only a thin atmosphere -about 100 times thinner than Earths. Its main component (95 per cent) is carbon dioxide. It can be windy, though with giant dust storms sometimes engulfing the entire planet. Because of its thin atmosphere and its distance from the sun, Mars is a very cold world. Although midsummer temperatures can reach 26, it can also drop to a numbering -111. Besides its vast, rocky deserts, Mars also has enormous canyons such as the 5000 -kilometre Valles Marineris, as well as giant extinct volcanoes like 27-km-high Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the solar system. The planet also has intriguing channels that look as though they were carved by flowing watersuggesting that Mars may once have been both wetter and warmer than it is today. Two distinct polar ice caps can be seen even through small telescopes. The north capthe larger of the twois mainly normal ice (frozen water), while the southern cap seems to be mostly frozen carbon dioxide. Why the two caps are so different is a mystery. The question of life on Marseither past or presentremains a great motivator in the exploration of the Red Planet. True, no signs of life have been discovered on Mars, but scientists cant rule out the possibility that microbial life did, at one time, evolve there. With its giant volcanoes, gaping canyons, and vast deserts, Mars remains as intriguing as ever, but the lack of water makes many scientists pessimistic including Dr. Jane Renfrew, although she believes that its still possible that microbial life has survived below the surface. A number of scientists, including Sam Watson from MIT, have also raised the intriguing possibility that life on Earth may have originated on Mars. Material from Mars has reached Earth in the form of meteorites; if there were microbes embedded in those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Theres evidence suggesting that water once flowed across the Red Planet. An ocean may have once covered the planets northern hemisphere; as well, images from Surveyor and other spacecraft show channels that may well have been carved by flowing water billions of years ago. Why would the ocean be in the north? Maps of Mars highlight the contrast between the planets hemispheres: The north is very low and smooth, while the south is rough, mountainous, and heavily cratered. The northern hemisphere, on average, is five kilometres lower than the southern hemisphere. That difference in elevation would have affected the flow of water, thought to have been present on the Martian surface billions of years ago. Any water that was present, Paige says, would have tended to flow northwardperhaps creating a vast ocean in the planets northern hemisphere. He cautions that there is no direct evidence for this, but says we cant rule out the possibility of a large amount of water there. So where did all the water go? Scientists have come up with a number of models, but none of them is quite satisfactory. Because of the planets cold temperature and thin atmosphere, liquid water is not stable on the Martian surface. Any water would either evaporate into the atmosphere, or freeze and be absorbed into the soil. Its possible that most of the water evaporated, and then the water molecules continuously bombarded by solar radiation may have broken down into their components, hydrogen and oxygen. These gases may then have been lost into space. But current models suggest that this should have taken many billions of years in other words, there hasnt been enough time to lose so much water. The water mystery is one of the most puzzling that scientists hope the current crop of Mars missions will solve those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Launched in January 1999, the lander was the latest in a series of low-budget NASA space missions, designed to do more with less. The price tag for the Mars Polar Lander was about $330 million USa tiny fraction of the cost of the billion-dollar Viking probes of the 1970s. Still, an independent inquiry headed by Erich Svenson blamed the trouble on inadequate software systems testing, a result of under funding. On December 3, 1999, the Mars Polar Lander, which failed in its mission, was supposed to have touched down at the edge of the planets south polar ice cap. Why such a southerly location? Scientists believe the layers of dust and ice close to the poles contain a kind of layered record of the planets climate history (just as a trees rings tell the story of the plants growth history); for the first time, they would be able to study those layers. Were landing on a completely different part of the planet than weve explored in the past, and we know very little about the terrain, says David Paige of UCLA, one of the project scientists with the Mars Polar Lander. It has a real exploratory flavour to it. It may be several decades before the first humans set foot on Mars, but some scientists believe theyve got the next best thing and the perfect rehearsal spacehere in Canada. A group called The Mars Society is planning a US $1.2-million simulated Mars station on Devon Island, high in the Canadian Arctic. The island is extremely cold and dry; the landscape is covered with rocky ridges, valleys, and meteorite-impact craters. And, scientists believe, it likely witnessed the same kinds of geological processes that shaped the surface of Mars. The Mars Arctic Research Station may be complete by the summer of 2000. The Mars Society is trying to raise money for the station through private and corporate donations; it has also been negotiating with NASA in the hope of sharing resources. The facility will let scientists and engineers test everything from water-recycling methods to land rovers and drilling equipmentthe sort of machinery that will be crucial if a manned mission to Mars is given the go-ahead. And, perhaps most importantly, it will simulate the kind of self-contained, isolated environment that anyone living on Mars will have to get used to. Scientists hope to send a sample-return mission to the Red Planet in the early years of the next decade (possibly as early as 2005), and theres speculation that a manned mission almost certainly an international collaboration could be underway within about 20 years. Many scientists, including Dr. Zuber at MIT, see a manned mission as inevitable. Now that weve explored the moon, the Red Planet seems to be the next logical step in our species exploration of the solar system. Its going to require the political will for it to happen, she says, but when that occurs, there will be plenty of people lined up willing to help. | The main reason that scientists doubt that life exists on Mars is the extreme weather conditions there. | c |
id_3859 | MARS: Are We Close To Finding Life? No planet has teased the imagination as much as Mars. In ancient Greece and Rome, the planets fiery red hue made skywatchers think of their god of war. In the 19th century, astronomer Percival Lowell thought he saw canals on Mars; his observations triggered a flood of novels and science fiction stories about strange and wonderful beings thought to inhabit the Red Planet. Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, has often been called a sister planet to our own Earth. A day on Mars lasts 24-and-a-half hours, just 30 minutes longer than here on Earth. The planet is tilted on its axis by 25 degrees, just two degrees more than the Earths tilt. Because of its greater distance from the sun, however, Mars takes substantially longer to complete each orbit, a year on Mars lasts 668 earth days, nearly twice as long as a year here on Earth. Mars has two small, irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, each less than 30 km across. Because of its small size, the pull of gravity on the planets surface is just 38 per cent as strong as on Earth (a 200 pound man would weigh just 76 lbs. On Mars). And because of its weak gravity, Mars has retained only a thin atmosphere -about 100 times thinner than Earths. Its main component (95 per cent) is carbon dioxide. It can be windy, though with giant dust storms sometimes engulfing the entire planet. Because of its thin atmosphere and its distance from the sun, Mars is a very cold world. Although midsummer temperatures can reach 26, it can also drop to a numbering -111. Besides its vast, rocky deserts, Mars also has enormous canyons such as the 5000 -kilometre Valles Marineris, as well as giant extinct volcanoes like 27-km-high Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the solar system. The planet also has intriguing channels that look as though they were carved by flowing watersuggesting that Mars may once have been both wetter and warmer than it is today. Two distinct polar ice caps can be seen even through small telescopes. The north capthe larger of the twois mainly normal ice (frozen water), while the southern cap seems to be mostly frozen carbon dioxide. Why the two caps are so different is a mystery. The question of life on Marseither past or presentremains a great motivator in the exploration of the Red Planet. True, no signs of life have been discovered on Mars, but scientists cant rule out the possibility that microbial life did, at one time, evolve there. With its giant volcanoes, gaping canyons, and vast deserts, Mars remains as intriguing as ever, but the lack of water makes many scientists pessimistic including Dr. Jane Renfrew, although she believes that its still possible that microbial life has survived below the surface. A number of scientists, including Sam Watson from MIT, have also raised the intriguing possibility that life on Earth may have originated on Mars. Material from Mars has reached Earth in the form of meteorites; if there were microbes embedded in those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Theres evidence suggesting that water once flowed across the Red Planet. An ocean may have once covered the planets northern hemisphere; as well, images from Surveyor and other spacecraft show channels that may well have been carved by flowing water billions of years ago. Why would the ocean be in the north? Maps of Mars highlight the contrast between the planets hemispheres: The north is very low and smooth, while the south is rough, mountainous, and heavily cratered. The northern hemisphere, on average, is five kilometres lower than the southern hemisphere. That difference in elevation would have affected the flow of water, thought to have been present on the Martian surface billions of years ago. Any water that was present, Paige says, would have tended to flow northwardperhaps creating a vast ocean in the planets northern hemisphere. He cautions that there is no direct evidence for this, but says we cant rule out the possibility of a large amount of water there. So where did all the water go? Scientists have come up with a number of models, but none of them is quite satisfactory. Because of the planets cold temperature and thin atmosphere, liquid water is not stable on the Martian surface. Any water would either evaporate into the atmosphere, or freeze and be absorbed into the soil. Its possible that most of the water evaporated, and then the water molecules continuously bombarded by solar radiation may have broken down into their components, hydrogen and oxygen. These gases may then have been lost into space. But current models suggest that this should have taken many billions of years in other words, there hasnt been enough time to lose so much water. The water mystery is one of the most puzzling that scientists hope the current crop of Mars missions will solve those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Launched in January 1999, the lander was the latest in a series of low-budget NASA space missions, designed to do more with less. The price tag for the Mars Polar Lander was about $330 million USa tiny fraction of the cost of the billion-dollar Viking probes of the 1970s. Still, an independent inquiry headed by Erich Svenson blamed the trouble on inadequate software systems testing, a result of under funding. On December 3, 1999, the Mars Polar Lander, which failed in its mission, was supposed to have touched down at the edge of the planets south polar ice cap. Why such a southerly location? Scientists believe the layers of dust and ice close to the poles contain a kind of layered record of the planets climate history (just as a trees rings tell the story of the plants growth history); for the first time, they would be able to study those layers. Were landing on a completely different part of the planet than weve explored in the past, and we know very little about the terrain, says David Paige of UCLA, one of the project scientists with the Mars Polar Lander. It has a real exploratory flavour to it. It may be several decades before the first humans set foot on Mars, but some scientists believe theyve got the next best thing and the perfect rehearsal spacehere in Canada. A group called The Mars Society is planning a US $1.2-million simulated Mars station on Devon Island, high in the Canadian Arctic. The island is extremely cold and dry; the landscape is covered with rocky ridges, valleys, and meteorite-impact craters. And, scientists believe, it likely witnessed the same kinds of geological processes that shaped the surface of Mars. The Mars Arctic Research Station may be complete by the summer of 2000. The Mars Society is trying to raise money for the station through private and corporate donations; it has also been negotiating with NASA in the hope of sharing resources. The facility will let scientists and engineers test everything from water-recycling methods to land rovers and drilling equipmentthe sort of machinery that will be crucial if a manned mission to Mars is given the go-ahead. And, perhaps most importantly, it will simulate the kind of self-contained, isolated environment that anyone living on Mars will have to get used to. Scientists hope to send a sample-return mission to the Red Planet in the early years of the next decade (possibly as early as 2005), and theres speculation that a manned mission almost certainly an international collaboration could be underway within about 20 years. Many scientists, including Dr. Zuber at MIT, see a manned mission as inevitable. Now that weve explored the moon, the Red Planet seems to be the next logical step in our species exploration of the solar system. Its going to require the political will for it to happen, she says, but when that occurs, there will be plenty of people lined up willing to help. | You would weigh less on Mars. | e |
id_3860 | MARS: Are We Close To Finding Life? No planet has teased the imagination as much as Mars. In ancient Greece and Rome, the planets fiery red hue made skywatchers think of their god of war. In the 19th century, astronomer Percival Lowell thought he saw canals on Mars; his observations triggered a flood of novels and science fiction stories about strange and wonderful beings thought to inhabit the Red Planet. Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, has often been called a sister planet to our own Earth. A day on Mars lasts 24-and-a-half hours, just 30 minutes longer than here on Earth. The planet is tilted on its axis by 25 degrees, just two degrees more than the Earths tilt. Because of its greater distance from the sun, however, Mars takes substantially longer to complete each orbit, a year on Mars lasts 668 earth days, nearly twice as long as a year here on Earth. Mars has two small, irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, each less than 30 km across. Because of its small size, the pull of gravity on the planets surface is just 38 per cent as strong as on Earth (a 200 pound man would weigh just 76 lbs. On Mars). And because of its weak gravity, Mars has retained only a thin atmosphere -about 100 times thinner than Earths. Its main component (95 per cent) is carbon dioxide. It can be windy, though with giant dust storms sometimes engulfing the entire planet. Because of its thin atmosphere and its distance from the sun, Mars is a very cold world. Although midsummer temperatures can reach 26, it can also drop to a numbering -111. Besides its vast, rocky deserts, Mars also has enormous canyons such as the 5000 -kilometre Valles Marineris, as well as giant extinct volcanoes like 27-km-high Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the solar system. The planet also has intriguing channels that look as though they were carved by flowing watersuggesting that Mars may once have been both wetter and warmer than it is today. Two distinct polar ice caps can be seen even through small telescopes. The north capthe larger of the twois mainly normal ice (frozen water), while the southern cap seems to be mostly frozen carbon dioxide. Why the two caps are so different is a mystery. The question of life on Marseither past or presentremains a great motivator in the exploration of the Red Planet. True, no signs of life have been discovered on Mars, but scientists cant rule out the possibility that microbial life did, at one time, evolve there. With its giant volcanoes, gaping canyons, and vast deserts, Mars remains as intriguing as ever, but the lack of water makes many scientists pessimistic including Dr. Jane Renfrew, although she believes that its still possible that microbial life has survived below the surface. A number of scientists, including Sam Watson from MIT, have also raised the intriguing possibility that life on Earth may have originated on Mars. Material from Mars has reached Earth in the form of meteorites; if there were microbes embedded in those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Theres evidence suggesting that water once flowed across the Red Planet. An ocean may have once covered the planets northern hemisphere; as well, images from Surveyor and other spacecraft show channels that may well have been carved by flowing water billions of years ago. Why would the ocean be in the north? Maps of Mars highlight the contrast between the planets hemispheres: The north is very low and smooth, while the south is rough, mountainous, and heavily cratered. The northern hemisphere, on average, is five kilometres lower than the southern hemisphere. That difference in elevation would have affected the flow of water, thought to have been present on the Martian surface billions of years ago. Any water that was present, Paige says, would have tended to flow northwardperhaps creating a vast ocean in the planets northern hemisphere. He cautions that there is no direct evidence for this, but says we cant rule out the possibility of a large amount of water there. So where did all the water go? Scientists have come up with a number of models, but none of them is quite satisfactory. Because of the planets cold temperature and thin atmosphere, liquid water is not stable on the Martian surface. Any water would either evaporate into the atmosphere, or freeze and be absorbed into the soil. Its possible that most of the water evaporated, and then the water molecules continuously bombarded by solar radiation may have broken down into their components, hydrogen and oxygen. These gases may then have been lost into space. But current models suggest that this should have taken many billions of years in other words, there hasnt been enough time to lose so much water. The water mystery is one of the most puzzling that scientists hope the current crop of Mars missions will solve those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Launched in January 1999, the lander was the latest in a series of low-budget NASA space missions, designed to do more with less. The price tag for the Mars Polar Lander was about $330 million USa tiny fraction of the cost of the billion-dollar Viking probes of the 1970s. Still, an independent inquiry headed by Erich Svenson blamed the trouble on inadequate software systems testing, a result of under funding. On December 3, 1999, the Mars Polar Lander, which failed in its mission, was supposed to have touched down at the edge of the planets south polar ice cap. Why such a southerly location? Scientists believe the layers of dust and ice close to the poles contain a kind of layered record of the planets climate history (just as a trees rings tell the story of the plants growth history); for the first time, they would be able to study those layers. Were landing on a completely different part of the planet than weve explored in the past, and we know very little about the terrain, says David Paige of UCLA, one of the project scientists with the Mars Polar Lander. It has a real exploratory flavour to it. It may be several decades before the first humans set foot on Mars, but some scientists believe theyve got the next best thing and the perfect rehearsal spacehere in Canada. A group called The Mars Society is planning a US $1.2-million simulated Mars station on Devon Island, high in the Canadian Arctic. The island is extremely cold and dry; the landscape is covered with rocky ridges, valleys, and meteorite-impact craters. And, scientists believe, it likely witnessed the same kinds of geological processes that shaped the surface of Mars. The Mars Arctic Research Station may be complete by the summer of 2000. The Mars Society is trying to raise money for the station through private and corporate donations; it has also been negotiating with NASA in the hope of sharing resources. The facility will let scientists and engineers test everything from water-recycling methods to land rovers and drilling equipmentthe sort of machinery that will be crucial if a manned mission to Mars is given the go-ahead. And, perhaps most importantly, it will simulate the kind of self-contained, isolated environment that anyone living on Mars will have to get used to. Scientists hope to send a sample-return mission to the Red Planet in the early years of the next decade (possibly as early as 2005), and theres speculation that a manned mission almost certainly an international collaboration could be underway within about 20 years. Many scientists, including Dr. Zuber at MIT, see a manned mission as inevitable. Now that weve explored the moon, the Red Planet seems to be the next logical step in our species exploration of the solar system. Its going to require the political will for it to happen, she says, but when that occurs, there will be plenty of people lined up willing to help. | Mars is rich in resources that may prove useful to Earth one day. | n |
id_3861 | MARS: Are We Close To Finding Life? No planet has teased the imagination as much as Mars. In ancient Greece and Rome, the planets fiery red hue made skywatchers think of their god of war. In the 19th century, astronomer Percival Lowell thought he saw canals on Mars; his observations triggered a flood of novels and science fiction stories about strange and wonderful beings thought to inhabit the Red Planet. Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, has often been called a sister planet to our own Earth. A day on Mars lasts 24-and-a-half hours, just 30 minutes longer than here on Earth. The planet is tilted on its axis by 25 degrees, just two degrees more than the Earths tilt. Because of its greater distance from the sun, however, Mars takes substantially longer to complete each orbit, a year on Mars lasts 668 earth days, nearly twice as long as a year here on Earth. Mars has two small, irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, each less than 30 km across. Because of its small size, the pull of gravity on the planets surface is just 38 per cent as strong as on Earth (a 200 pound man would weigh just 76 lbs. On Mars). And because of its weak gravity, Mars has retained only a thin atmosphere -about 100 times thinner than Earths. Its main component (95 per cent) is carbon dioxide. It can be windy, though with giant dust storms sometimes engulfing the entire planet. Because of its thin atmosphere and its distance from the sun, Mars is a very cold world. Although midsummer temperatures can reach 26, it can also drop to a numbering -111. Besides its vast, rocky deserts, Mars also has enormous canyons such as the 5000 -kilometre Valles Marineris, as well as giant extinct volcanoes like 27-km-high Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the solar system. The planet also has intriguing channels that look as though they were carved by flowing watersuggesting that Mars may once have been both wetter and warmer than it is today. Two distinct polar ice caps can be seen even through small telescopes. The north capthe larger of the twois mainly normal ice (frozen water), while the southern cap seems to be mostly frozen carbon dioxide. Why the two caps are so different is a mystery. The question of life on Marseither past or presentremains a great motivator in the exploration of the Red Planet. True, no signs of life have been discovered on Mars, but scientists cant rule out the possibility that microbial life did, at one time, evolve there. With its giant volcanoes, gaping canyons, and vast deserts, Mars remains as intriguing as ever, but the lack of water makes many scientists pessimistic including Dr. Jane Renfrew, although she believes that its still possible that microbial life has survived below the surface. A number of scientists, including Sam Watson from MIT, have also raised the intriguing possibility that life on Earth may have originated on Mars. Material from Mars has reached Earth in the form of meteorites; if there were microbes embedded in those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Theres evidence suggesting that water once flowed across the Red Planet. An ocean may have once covered the planets northern hemisphere; as well, images from Surveyor and other spacecraft show channels that may well have been carved by flowing water billions of years ago. Why would the ocean be in the north? Maps of Mars highlight the contrast between the planets hemispheres: The north is very low and smooth, while the south is rough, mountainous, and heavily cratered. The northern hemisphere, on average, is five kilometres lower than the southern hemisphere. That difference in elevation would have affected the flow of water, thought to have been present on the Martian surface billions of years ago. Any water that was present, Paige says, would have tended to flow northwardperhaps creating a vast ocean in the planets northern hemisphere. He cautions that there is no direct evidence for this, but says we cant rule out the possibility of a large amount of water there. So where did all the water go? Scientists have come up with a number of models, but none of them is quite satisfactory. Because of the planets cold temperature and thin atmosphere, liquid water is not stable on the Martian surface. Any water would either evaporate into the atmosphere, or freeze and be absorbed into the soil. Its possible that most of the water evaporated, and then the water molecules continuously bombarded by solar radiation may have broken down into their components, hydrogen and oxygen. These gases may then have been lost into space. But current models suggest that this should have taken many billions of years in other words, there hasnt been enough time to lose so much water. The water mystery is one of the most puzzling that scientists hope the current crop of Mars missions will solve those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Launched in January 1999, the lander was the latest in a series of low-budget NASA space missions, designed to do more with less. The price tag for the Mars Polar Lander was about $330 million USa tiny fraction of the cost of the billion-dollar Viking probes of the 1970s. Still, an independent inquiry headed by Erich Svenson blamed the trouble on inadequate software systems testing, a result of under funding. On December 3, 1999, the Mars Polar Lander, which failed in its mission, was supposed to have touched down at the edge of the planets south polar ice cap. Why such a southerly location? Scientists believe the layers of dust and ice close to the poles contain a kind of layered record of the planets climate history (just as a trees rings tell the story of the plants growth history); for the first time, they would be able to study those layers. Were landing on a completely different part of the planet than weve explored in the past, and we know very little about the terrain, says David Paige of UCLA, one of the project scientists with the Mars Polar Lander. It has a real exploratory flavour to it. It may be several decades before the first humans set foot on Mars, but some scientists believe theyve got the next best thing and the perfect rehearsal spacehere in Canada. A group called The Mars Society is planning a US $1.2-million simulated Mars station on Devon Island, high in the Canadian Arctic. The island is extremely cold and dry; the landscape is covered with rocky ridges, valleys, and meteorite-impact craters. And, scientists believe, it likely witnessed the same kinds of geological processes that shaped the surface of Mars. The Mars Arctic Research Station may be complete by the summer of 2000. The Mars Society is trying to raise money for the station through private and corporate donations; it has also been negotiating with NASA in the hope of sharing resources. The facility will let scientists and engineers test everything from water-recycling methods to land rovers and drilling equipmentthe sort of machinery that will be crucial if a manned mission to Mars is given the go-ahead. And, perhaps most importantly, it will simulate the kind of self-contained, isolated environment that anyone living on Mars will have to get used to. Scientists hope to send a sample-return mission to the Red Planet in the early years of the next decade (possibly as early as 2005), and theres speculation that a manned mission almost certainly an international collaboration could be underway within about 20 years. Many scientists, including Dr. Zuber at MIT, see a manned mission as inevitable. Now that weve explored the moon, the Red Planet seems to be the next logical step in our species exploration of the solar system. Its going to require the political will for it to happen, she says, but when that occurs, there will be plenty of people lined up willing to help. | The southern pole of Mars has secrets that may reveal the planets age. | e |
id_3862 | MARS: Are We Close To Finding Life? No planet has teased the imagination as much as Mars. In ancient Greece and Rome, the planets fiery red hue made skywatchers think of their god of war. In the 19th century, astronomer Percival Lowell thought he saw canals on Mars; his observations triggered a flood of novels and science fiction stories about strange and wonderful beings thought to inhabit the Red Planet. Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, has often been called a sister planet to our own Earth. A day on Mars lasts 24-and-a-half hours, just 30 minutes longer than here on Earth. The planet is tilted on its axis by 25 degrees, just two degrees more than the Earths tilt. Because of its greater distance from the sun, however, Mars takes substantially longer to complete each orbit, a year on Mars lasts 668 earth days, nearly twice as long as a year here on Earth. Mars has two small, irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, each less than 30 km across. Because of its small size, the pull of gravity on the planets surface is just 38 per cent as strong as on Earth (a 200 pound man would weigh just 76 lbs. On Mars). And because of its weak gravity, Mars has retained only a thin atmosphere -about 100 times thinner than Earths. Its main component (95 per cent) is carbon dioxide. It can be windy, though with giant dust storms sometimes engulfing the entire planet. Because of its thin atmosphere and its distance from the sun, Mars is a very cold world. Although midsummer temperatures can reach 26, it can also drop to a numbering -111. Besides its vast, rocky deserts, Mars also has enormous canyons such as the 5000 -kilometre Valles Marineris, as well as giant extinct volcanoes like 27-km-high Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the solar system. The planet also has intriguing channels that look as though they were carved by flowing watersuggesting that Mars may once have been both wetter and warmer than it is today. Two distinct polar ice caps can be seen even through small telescopes. The north capthe larger of the twois mainly normal ice (frozen water), while the southern cap seems to be mostly frozen carbon dioxide. Why the two caps are so different is a mystery. The question of life on Marseither past or presentremains a great motivator in the exploration of the Red Planet. True, no signs of life have been discovered on Mars, but scientists cant rule out the possibility that microbial life did, at one time, evolve there. With its giant volcanoes, gaping canyons, and vast deserts, Mars remains as intriguing as ever, but the lack of water makes many scientists pessimistic including Dr. Jane Renfrew, although she believes that its still possible that microbial life has survived below the surface. A number of scientists, including Sam Watson from MIT, have also raised the intriguing possibility that life on Earth may have originated on Mars. Material from Mars has reached Earth in the form of meteorites; if there were microbes embedded in those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Theres evidence suggesting that water once flowed across the Red Planet. An ocean may have once covered the planets northern hemisphere; as well, images from Surveyor and other spacecraft show channels that may well have been carved by flowing water billions of years ago. Why would the ocean be in the north? Maps of Mars highlight the contrast between the planets hemispheres: The north is very low and smooth, while the south is rough, mountainous, and heavily cratered. The northern hemisphere, on average, is five kilometres lower than the southern hemisphere. That difference in elevation would have affected the flow of water, thought to have been present on the Martian surface billions of years ago. Any water that was present, Paige says, would have tended to flow northwardperhaps creating a vast ocean in the planets northern hemisphere. He cautions that there is no direct evidence for this, but says we cant rule out the possibility of a large amount of water there. So where did all the water go? Scientists have come up with a number of models, but none of them is quite satisfactory. Because of the planets cold temperature and thin atmosphere, liquid water is not stable on the Martian surface. Any water would either evaporate into the atmosphere, or freeze and be absorbed into the soil. Its possible that most of the water evaporated, and then the water molecules continuously bombarded by solar radiation may have broken down into their components, hydrogen and oxygen. These gases may then have been lost into space. But current models suggest that this should have taken many billions of years in other words, there hasnt been enough time to lose so much water. The water mystery is one of the most puzzling that scientists hope the current crop of Mars missions will solve those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Launched in January 1999, the lander was the latest in a series of low-budget NASA space missions, designed to do more with less. The price tag for the Mars Polar Lander was about $330 million USa tiny fraction of the cost of the billion-dollar Viking probes of the 1970s. Still, an independent inquiry headed by Erich Svenson blamed the trouble on inadequate software systems testing, a result of under funding. On December 3, 1999, the Mars Polar Lander, which failed in its mission, was supposed to have touched down at the edge of the planets south polar ice cap. Why such a southerly location? Scientists believe the layers of dust and ice close to the poles contain a kind of layered record of the planets climate history (just as a trees rings tell the story of the plants growth history); for the first time, they would be able to study those layers. Were landing on a completely different part of the planet than weve explored in the past, and we know very little about the terrain, says David Paige of UCLA, one of the project scientists with the Mars Polar Lander. It has a real exploratory flavour to it. It may be several decades before the first humans set foot on Mars, but some scientists believe theyve got the next best thing and the perfect rehearsal spacehere in Canada. A group called The Mars Society is planning a US $1.2-million simulated Mars station on Devon Island, high in the Canadian Arctic. The island is extremely cold and dry; the landscape is covered with rocky ridges, valleys, and meteorite-impact craters. And, scientists believe, it likely witnessed the same kinds of geological processes that shaped the surface of Mars. The Mars Arctic Research Station may be complete by the summer of 2000. The Mars Society is trying to raise money for the station through private and corporate donations; it has also been negotiating with NASA in the hope of sharing resources. The facility will let scientists and engineers test everything from water-recycling methods to land rovers and drilling equipmentthe sort of machinery that will be crucial if a manned mission to Mars is given the go-ahead. And, perhaps most importantly, it will simulate the kind of self-contained, isolated environment that anyone living on Mars will have to get used to. Scientists hope to send a sample-return mission to the Red Planet in the early years of the next decade (possibly as early as 2005), and theres speculation that a manned mission almost certainly an international collaboration could be underway within about 20 years. Many scientists, including Dr. Zuber at MIT, see a manned mission as inevitable. Now that weve explored the moon, the Red Planet seems to be the next logical step in our species exploration of the solar system. Its going to require the political will for it to happen, she says, but when that occurs, there will be plenty of people lined up willing to help. | Mars has channels but no canals. | e |
id_3863 | MARS: Are We Close To Finding Life? No planet has teased the imagination as much as Mars. In ancient Greece and Rome, the planets fiery red hue made skywatchers think of their god of war. In the 19th century, astronomer Percival Lowell thought he saw canals on Mars; his observations triggered a flood of novels and science fiction stories about strange and wonderful beings thought to inhabit the Red Planet. Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, has often been called a sister planet to our own Earth. A day on Mars lasts 24-and-a-half hours, just 30 minutes longer than here on Earth. The planet is tilted on its axis by 25 degrees, just two degrees more than the Earths tilt. Because of its greater distance from the sun, however, Mars takes substantially longer to complete each orbit, a year on Mars lasts 668 earth days, nearly twice as long as a year here on Earth. Mars has two small, irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, each less than 30 km across. Because of its small size, the pull of gravity on the planets surface is just 38 per cent as strong as on Earth (a 200 pound man would weigh just 76 lbs. On Mars). And because of its weak gravity, Mars has retained only a thin atmosphere -about 100 times thinner than Earths. Its main component (95 per cent) is carbon dioxide. It can be windy, though with giant dust storms sometimes engulfing the entire planet. Because of its thin atmosphere and its distance from the sun, Mars is a very cold world. Although midsummer temperatures can reach 26, it can also drop to a numbering -111. Besides its vast, rocky deserts, Mars also has enormous canyons such as the 5000 -kilometre Valles Marineris, as well as giant extinct volcanoes like 27-km-high Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the solar system. The planet also has intriguing channels that look as though they were carved by flowing watersuggesting that Mars may once have been both wetter and warmer than it is today. Two distinct polar ice caps can be seen even through small telescopes. The north capthe larger of the twois mainly normal ice (frozen water), while the southern cap seems to be mostly frozen carbon dioxide. Why the two caps are so different is a mystery. The question of life on Marseither past or presentremains a great motivator in the exploration of the Red Planet. True, no signs of life have been discovered on Mars, but scientists cant rule out the possibility that microbial life did, at one time, evolve there. With its giant volcanoes, gaping canyons, and vast deserts, Mars remains as intriguing as ever, but the lack of water makes many scientists pessimistic including Dr. Jane Renfrew, although she believes that its still possible that microbial life has survived below the surface. A number of scientists, including Sam Watson from MIT, have also raised the intriguing possibility that life on Earth may have originated on Mars. Material from Mars has reached Earth in the form of meteorites; if there were microbes embedded in those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Theres evidence suggesting that water once flowed across the Red Planet. An ocean may have once covered the planets northern hemisphere; as well, images from Surveyor and other spacecraft show channels that may well have been carved by flowing water billions of years ago. Why would the ocean be in the north? Maps of Mars highlight the contrast between the planets hemispheres: The north is very low and smooth, while the south is rough, mountainous, and heavily cratered. The northern hemisphere, on average, is five kilometres lower than the southern hemisphere. That difference in elevation would have affected the flow of water, thought to have been present on the Martian surface billions of years ago. Any water that was present, Paige says, would have tended to flow northwardperhaps creating a vast ocean in the planets northern hemisphere. He cautions that there is no direct evidence for this, but says we cant rule out the possibility of a large amount of water there. So where did all the water go? Scientists have come up with a number of models, but none of them is quite satisfactory. Because of the planets cold temperature and thin atmosphere, liquid water is not stable on the Martian surface. Any water would either evaporate into the atmosphere, or freeze and be absorbed into the soil. Its possible that most of the water evaporated, and then the water molecules continuously bombarded by solar radiation may have broken down into their components, hydrogen and oxygen. These gases may then have been lost into space. But current models suggest that this should have taken many billions of years in other words, there hasnt been enough time to lose so much water. The water mystery is one of the most puzzling that scientists hope the current crop of Mars missions will solve those rocks, its possible that they could have eventually taken root on Earth. Of course, one could argue that it evolved on Earth first, and arrived on Mars via a wayward meteorite, as Dr Bill Verten another MIT scientist has proposed. Launched in January 1999, the lander was the latest in a series of low-budget NASA space missions, designed to do more with less. The price tag for the Mars Polar Lander was about $330 million USa tiny fraction of the cost of the billion-dollar Viking probes of the 1970s. Still, an independent inquiry headed by Erich Svenson blamed the trouble on inadequate software systems testing, a result of under funding. On December 3, 1999, the Mars Polar Lander, which failed in its mission, was supposed to have touched down at the edge of the planets south polar ice cap. Why such a southerly location? Scientists believe the layers of dust and ice close to the poles contain a kind of layered record of the planets climate history (just as a trees rings tell the story of the plants growth history); for the first time, they would be able to study those layers. Were landing on a completely different part of the planet than weve explored in the past, and we know very little about the terrain, says David Paige of UCLA, one of the project scientists with the Mars Polar Lander. It has a real exploratory flavour to it. It may be several decades before the first humans set foot on Mars, but some scientists believe theyve got the next best thing and the perfect rehearsal spacehere in Canada. A group called The Mars Society is planning a US $1.2-million simulated Mars station on Devon Island, high in the Canadian Arctic. The island is extremely cold and dry; the landscape is covered with rocky ridges, valleys, and meteorite-impact craters. And, scientists believe, it likely witnessed the same kinds of geological processes that shaped the surface of Mars. The Mars Arctic Research Station may be complete by the summer of 2000. The Mars Society is trying to raise money for the station through private and corporate donations; it has also been negotiating with NASA in the hope of sharing resources. The facility will let scientists and engineers test everything from water-recycling methods to land rovers and drilling equipmentthe sort of machinery that will be crucial if a manned mission to Mars is given the go-ahead. And, perhaps most importantly, it will simulate the kind of self-contained, isolated environment that anyone living on Mars will have to get used to. Scientists hope to send a sample-return mission to the Red Planet in the early years of the next decade (possibly as early as 2005), and theres speculation that a manned mission almost certainly an international collaboration could be underway within about 20 years. Many scientists, including Dr. Zuber at MIT, see a manned mission as inevitable. Now that weve explored the moon, the Red Planet seems to be the next logical step in our species exploration of the solar system. Its going to require the political will for it to happen, she says, but when that occurs, there will be plenty of people lined up willing to help. | Future astronauts to Mars will probably first practice in the Canadian Arctic. | e |
id_3864 | MENTAL GYMNASTICS A. THE working day has just started at the head office of Barclays Bank in London. Seventeen staff are helping themselves to a buffet breakfast as young psychologist Sebastian Bailey enters the room to begin the morning's framing session. But this is no ordinary training session. He's not here to sharpen their finance or management skills. He's here to exercise their brains. B. Todays workout, organised by a company called the Mind Gym in London, is entitled "having presence". What follows is an intense 90-minute session in which this rather abstract concept is gradually broken down into a concrete set of feelings, mental tricks and behaviours. At one point the bankers are instructed to shut then eyes and visualise themselves filling the room and then the building. They finish up by walking around the room acting out various levels of presence, from low-key to over the top. C. It's easy to poke fun. Yet similar mental workouts are happening in corporate seminar rooms around the globe. The Mind Gym alone offers some 70 different sessions, including ones on mental stamina, creativity for logical thinkers and "zoom learning". Other outfits draw more directly on the exercise analogy, offering "neurobics" courses with names like "brain sets" and "cerebral fitness". Then there are books with titles like Pumping Ions, full of brainteasers that claim to "flex your mind", and software packages offering memory and spatial- awareness games. D. But whatever the style, the companies' sales pitch is invariably the same follow our routines to shape and sculpt your brain or mind, just as you might tone and train your body. And, of course, they nearly all claim that their mental workouts draw on serious scientific research and thinking into how the brain works. E. One outfit, Brainergy of Cambridge, Massachusetts (motto: "Because your grey matter matters") puts it like this: "Studies have shown that mental exercisecan cause changes in brain anatomy and brain chemistry which promote increased mental efficiency and clarity. The neuroscience is cutting-edge. " And on its website, Mind Gym trades on a quote from Susan Greenfield, one of Britain's best known neuroscientists: "It's a bit like going to the gym, if you exercise your brain it will grow. " F. Indeed, die Mind Gym originally planned to hold its sessions in a local health club, until its founders realised where the real money was to be made. Modem companies need flexible, bright thinkers and will seize on anything that claims to create them, especially if it looks like a quick fix backed by science. But are neurobic workouts really backed by science? And do we need them? G. Nor is there anything remotely high-tech about what Lawrence Katz, co- author of Keep Your Brain Alive, recommends. Katz, a neurobiologist at Duke University Medical School in North Carolina, argues that just as many of US fail to get enough physical exercise, so we also lack sufficient mental stimulation to keep our brain in trim. Sine we are busy with jobs, family and housework. But most of this activity is repetitive routine. And any leisure time is spent slumped in front of the TV. H. So, read a book upside down. Write or brush your teeth with your wrong hand. Feel your way around the room with your eyes shut. Sniff vanilla essence while listening intently to orchestral music. Anything, says Katz, to break your normal mental routine. It will help invigorate your brain, encouraging its cells to make new connections and pump out neuroteophins, substances that feed and sustain brain circuits. I. Well, up to a point it will. "What I'm really talking about is brain maintenance rather than bulking up your IQ, " Katz adds. Neurobics, in other words, is about letting your brain fulfill its potential. It cannot create super-brains. Can it achieve even that much, though? Certainly the brain is an organ that can adapt to the demands placed on it. Tests on animal brain tissue, for example, have repeatedly shown that electrically stimulating the synapses that connect nerve cells thought to be crucial to learning and reasoning, makes them stronger and more responsive. Brain scans suggest we use a lot more of our grey matter when carrying out new or strange tasks than when we're doing well-rehearsed ones. Rats raised in bright cages with toys sprout more neural connections than rats raised in bare cages suggesting perhaps that novelty and variety could be crucial to a developing brain. Katz, And neurologists have proved time and again that people who lose brain cells suddenly during a stroke often sprout new connections to compensate for the lossespecially if they undergo extensive therapy to overcome any paralysis. J. Guy Claxton, an educational psychologist at the University of Bristol, dismisses most of the neurological approaches as "neuro-babble". Nevertheless, there are specific mental skills we can learn, he contends. Desirable attributes such as creativity, mental flexibility, and even motivation, are not the fixed faculties that most of US think. They are thought habits that can be learned. The problem, says Claxton, is that most of US never get proper training in these skills. We develop our own private set of mental strategies for tackling tasks and never learn anything explicitly. Worse still, because any learned skill even driving a car or brushing our teeth-quickly sinks out of consciousness, we can no longer see the very thought habits we're relying upon. Our mental tools become invisible to US. K. Claxton is the academic adviser to the Mind Gym. So not surprisingly, the company espouses his solution-that we must return our thought patterns to a conscious level, becoming aware of the details of how we usually think. Only then can we start to practise better thought patterns, until eventually these become our new habits. Switching metaphors, picture not gym classes, but tennis or football coaching. L. In practice, the training can seem quite mundane. For example, in one of the eight different creativity workouts offered by the Mind Gymentitled "creativity for logical thinkers" one of the mental strategies taught is to make a sensible suggestion, then immediately pose its opposite. So, asked to spend five minutes inventing a new pizza, a group soon comes up with no topping, sweet topping, cold topping, price based on time of day, flat-rate prices and so on. M. Bailey agrees that the trick is simple. But it is surprising how few such tricks people have to call upon when they are suddenly asked to be creative: "They tend to just label themselves as uncreative, not realising that there are techniques that every creative person employs. " Bailey says the aim is to introduce people to half a dozen or so such strategies in a session so that what at first seems like a dauntingly abstract mental task becomes a set of concrete, learnable behaviours. He admits this is not a short cut to genius. Neurologically, some people do start with quicker circuits or greater handling capacity. However, with the right kind of training he thinks we can dramatically increase how efficiently we use it. N. It is hard to prove that the training itself is effective. How do you measure a change in an employee's creativity levels, or memory skills? But staff certainly report feeling that such classes have opened their eyes. So, neurological boosting or psychological training? At the moment you can pay your money and take your choice. Claxton for one believes there is no reason why schools and universities shouldn't spend more time teaching basic thinking skills, rather thantrying to stuff heads with facts and hoping that effective thought habits are somehow absorbed by osmosis. | Susan Greenfield is the founder of Mind Gym. | c |
id_3865 | MENTAL GYMNASTICS A. THE working day has just started at the head office of Barclays Bank in London. Seventeen staff are helping themselves to a buffet breakfast as young psychologist Sebastian Bailey enters the room to begin the morning's framing session. But this is no ordinary training session. He's not here to sharpen their finance or management skills. He's here to exercise their brains. B. Todays workout, organised by a company called the Mind Gym in London, is entitled "having presence". What follows is an intense 90-minute session in which this rather abstract concept is gradually broken down into a concrete set of feelings, mental tricks and behaviours. At one point the bankers are instructed to shut then eyes and visualise themselves filling the room and then the building. They finish up by walking around the room acting out various levels of presence, from low-key to over the top. C. It's easy to poke fun. Yet similar mental workouts are happening in corporate seminar rooms around the globe. The Mind Gym alone offers some 70 different sessions, including ones on mental stamina, creativity for logical thinkers and "zoom learning". Other outfits draw more directly on the exercise analogy, offering "neurobics" courses with names like "brain sets" and "cerebral fitness". Then there are books with titles like Pumping Ions, full of brainteasers that claim to "flex your mind", and software packages offering memory and spatial- awareness games. D. But whatever the style, the companies' sales pitch is invariably the same follow our routines to shape and sculpt your brain or mind, just as you might tone and train your body. And, of course, they nearly all claim that their mental workouts draw on serious scientific research and thinking into how the brain works. E. One outfit, Brainergy of Cambridge, Massachusetts (motto: "Because your grey matter matters") puts it like this: "Studies have shown that mental exercisecan cause changes in brain anatomy and brain chemistry which promote increased mental efficiency and clarity. The neuroscience is cutting-edge. " And on its website, Mind Gym trades on a quote from Susan Greenfield, one of Britain's best known neuroscientists: "It's a bit like going to the gym, if you exercise your brain it will grow. " F. Indeed, die Mind Gym originally planned to hold its sessions in a local health club, until its founders realised where the real money was to be made. Modem companies need flexible, bright thinkers and will seize on anything that claims to create them, especially if it looks like a quick fix backed by science. But are neurobic workouts really backed by science? And do we need them? G. Nor is there anything remotely high-tech about what Lawrence Katz, co- author of Keep Your Brain Alive, recommends. Katz, a neurobiologist at Duke University Medical School in North Carolina, argues that just as many of US fail to get enough physical exercise, so we also lack sufficient mental stimulation to keep our brain in trim. Sine we are busy with jobs, family and housework. But most of this activity is repetitive routine. And any leisure time is spent slumped in front of the TV. H. So, read a book upside down. Write or brush your teeth with your wrong hand. Feel your way around the room with your eyes shut. Sniff vanilla essence while listening intently to orchestral music. Anything, says Katz, to break your normal mental routine. It will help invigorate your brain, encouraging its cells to make new connections and pump out neuroteophins, substances that feed and sustain brain circuits. I. Well, up to a point it will. "What I'm really talking about is brain maintenance rather than bulking up your IQ, " Katz adds. Neurobics, in other words, is about letting your brain fulfill its potential. It cannot create super-brains. Can it achieve even that much, though? Certainly the brain is an organ that can adapt to the demands placed on it. Tests on animal brain tissue, for example, have repeatedly shown that electrically stimulating the synapses that connect nerve cells thought to be crucial to learning and reasoning, makes them stronger and more responsive. Brain scans suggest we use a lot more of our grey matter when carrying out new or strange tasks than when we're doing well-rehearsed ones. Rats raised in bright cages with toys sprout more neural connections than rats raised in bare cages suggesting perhaps that novelty and variety could be crucial to a developing brain. Katz, And neurologists have proved time and again that people who lose brain cells suddenly during a stroke often sprout new connections to compensate for the lossespecially if they undergo extensive therapy to overcome any paralysis. J. Guy Claxton, an educational psychologist at the University of Bristol, dismisses most of the neurological approaches as "neuro-babble". Nevertheless, there are specific mental skills we can learn, he contends. Desirable attributes such as creativity, mental flexibility, and even motivation, are not the fixed faculties that most of US think. They are thought habits that can be learned. The problem, says Claxton, is that most of US never get proper training in these skills. We develop our own private set of mental strategies for tackling tasks and never learn anything explicitly. Worse still, because any learned skill even driving a car or brushing our teeth-quickly sinks out of consciousness, we can no longer see the very thought habits we're relying upon. Our mental tools become invisible to US. K. Claxton is the academic adviser to the Mind Gym. So not surprisingly, the company espouses his solution-that we must return our thought patterns to a conscious level, becoming aware of the details of how we usually think. Only then can we start to practise better thought patterns, until eventually these become our new habits. Switching metaphors, picture not gym classes, but tennis or football coaching. L. In practice, the training can seem quite mundane. For example, in one of the eight different creativity workouts offered by the Mind Gymentitled "creativity for logical thinkers" one of the mental strategies taught is to make a sensible suggestion, then immediately pose its opposite. So, asked to spend five minutes inventing a new pizza, a group soon comes up with no topping, sweet topping, cold topping, price based on time of day, flat-rate prices and so on. M. Bailey agrees that the trick is simple. But it is surprising how few such tricks people have to call upon when they are suddenly asked to be creative: "They tend to just label themselves as uncreative, not realising that there are techniques that every creative person employs. " Bailey says the aim is to introduce people to half a dozen or so such strategies in a session so that what at first seems like a dauntingly abstract mental task becomes a set of concrete, learnable behaviours. He admits this is not a short cut to genius. Neurologically, some people do start with quicker circuits or greater handling capacity. However, with the right kind of training he thinks we can dramatically increase how efficiently we use it. N. It is hard to prove that the training itself is effective. How do you measure a change in an employee's creativity levels, or memory skills? But staff certainly report feeling that such classes have opened their eyes. So, neurological boosting or psychological training? At the moment you can pay your money and take your choice. Claxton for one believes there is no reason why schools and universities shouldn't spend more time teaching basic thinking skills, rather thantrying to stuff heads with facts and hoping that effective thought habits are somehow absorbed by osmosis. | All business and industries are using Mind Gym's session globally. | c |
id_3866 | MENTAL GYMNASTICS A. THE working day has just started at the head office of Barclays Bank in London. Seventeen staff are helping themselves to a buffet breakfast as young psychologist Sebastian Bailey enters the room to begin the morning's framing session. But this is no ordinary training session. He's not here to sharpen their finance or management skills. He's here to exercise their brains. B. Todays workout, organised by a company called the Mind Gym in London, is entitled "having presence". What follows is an intense 90-minute session in which this rather abstract concept is gradually broken down into a concrete set of feelings, mental tricks and behaviours. At one point the bankers are instructed to shut then eyes and visualise themselves filling the room and then the building. They finish up by walking around the room acting out various levels of presence, from low-key to over the top. C. It's easy to poke fun. Yet similar mental workouts are happening in corporate seminar rooms around the globe. The Mind Gym alone offers some 70 different sessions, including ones on mental stamina, creativity for logical thinkers and "zoom learning". Other outfits draw more directly on the exercise analogy, offering "neurobics" courses with names like "brain sets" and "cerebral fitness". Then there are books with titles like Pumping Ions, full of brainteasers that claim to "flex your mind", and software packages offering memory and spatial- awareness games. D. But whatever the style, the companies' sales pitch is invariably the same follow our routines to shape and sculpt your brain or mind, just as you might tone and train your body. And, of course, they nearly all claim that their mental workouts draw on serious scientific research and thinking into how the brain works. E. One outfit, Brainergy of Cambridge, Massachusetts (motto: "Because your grey matter matters") puts it like this: "Studies have shown that mental exercisecan cause changes in brain anatomy and brain chemistry which promote increased mental efficiency and clarity. The neuroscience is cutting-edge. " And on its website, Mind Gym trades on a quote from Susan Greenfield, one of Britain's best known neuroscientists: "It's a bit like going to the gym, if you exercise your brain it will grow. " F. Indeed, die Mind Gym originally planned to hold its sessions in a local health club, until its founders realised where the real money was to be made. Modem companies need flexible, bright thinkers and will seize on anything that claims to create them, especially if it looks like a quick fix backed by science. But are neurobic workouts really backed by science? And do we need them? G. Nor is there anything remotely high-tech about what Lawrence Katz, co- author of Keep Your Brain Alive, recommends. Katz, a neurobiologist at Duke University Medical School in North Carolina, argues that just as many of US fail to get enough physical exercise, so we also lack sufficient mental stimulation to keep our brain in trim. Sine we are busy with jobs, family and housework. But most of this activity is repetitive routine. And any leisure time is spent slumped in front of the TV. H. So, read a book upside down. Write or brush your teeth with your wrong hand. Feel your way around the room with your eyes shut. Sniff vanilla essence while listening intently to orchestral music. Anything, says Katz, to break your normal mental routine. It will help invigorate your brain, encouraging its cells to make new connections and pump out neuroteophins, substances that feed and sustain brain circuits. I. Well, up to a point it will. "What I'm really talking about is brain maintenance rather than bulking up your IQ, " Katz adds. Neurobics, in other words, is about letting your brain fulfill its potential. It cannot create super-brains. Can it achieve even that much, though? Certainly the brain is an organ that can adapt to the demands placed on it. Tests on animal brain tissue, for example, have repeatedly shown that electrically stimulating the synapses that connect nerve cells thought to be crucial to learning and reasoning, makes them stronger and more responsive. Brain scans suggest we use a lot more of our grey matter when carrying out new or strange tasks than when we're doing well-rehearsed ones. Rats raised in bright cages with toys sprout more neural connections than rats raised in bare cages suggesting perhaps that novelty and variety could be crucial to a developing brain. Katz, And neurologists have proved time and again that people who lose brain cells suddenly during a stroke often sprout new connections to compensate for the lossespecially if they undergo extensive therapy to overcome any paralysis. J. Guy Claxton, an educational psychologist at the University of Bristol, dismisses most of the neurological approaches as "neuro-babble". Nevertheless, there are specific mental skills we can learn, he contends. Desirable attributes such as creativity, mental flexibility, and even motivation, are not the fixed faculties that most of US think. They are thought habits that can be learned. The problem, says Claxton, is that most of US never get proper training in these skills. We develop our own private set of mental strategies for tackling tasks and never learn anything explicitly. Worse still, because any learned skill even driving a car or brushing our teeth-quickly sinks out of consciousness, we can no longer see the very thought habits we're relying upon. Our mental tools become invisible to US. K. Claxton is the academic adviser to the Mind Gym. So not surprisingly, the company espouses his solution-that we must return our thought patterns to a conscious level, becoming aware of the details of how we usually think. Only then can we start to practise better thought patterns, until eventually these become our new habits. Switching metaphors, picture not gym classes, but tennis or football coaching. L. In practice, the training can seem quite mundane. For example, in one of the eight different creativity workouts offered by the Mind Gymentitled "creativity for logical thinkers" one of the mental strategies taught is to make a sensible suggestion, then immediately pose its opposite. So, asked to spend five minutes inventing a new pizza, a group soon comes up with no topping, sweet topping, cold topping, price based on time of day, flat-rate prices and so on. M. Bailey agrees that the trick is simple. But it is surprising how few such tricks people have to call upon when they are suddenly asked to be creative: "They tend to just label themselves as uncreative, not realising that there are techniques that every creative person employs. " Bailey says the aim is to introduce people to half a dozen or so such strategies in a session so that what at first seems like a dauntingly abstract mental task becomes a set of concrete, learnable behaviours. He admits this is not a short cut to genius. Neurologically, some people do start with quicker circuits or greater handling capacity. However, with the right kind of training he thinks we can dramatically increase how efficiently we use it. N. It is hard to prove that the training itself is effective. How do you measure a change in an employee's creativity levels, or memory skills? But staff certainly report feeling that such classes have opened their eyes. So, neurological boosting or psychological training? At the moment you can pay your money and take your choice. Claxton for one believes there is no reason why schools and universities shouldn't spend more time teaching basic thinking skills, rather thantrying to stuff heads with facts and hoping that effective thought habits are somehow absorbed by osmosis. | According to Mind Gym, extensive scientific background supports their mental training sessions. | n |
id_3867 | MENTAL GYMNASTICS A. THE working day has just started at the head office of Barclays Bank in London. Seventeen staff are helping themselves to a buffet breakfast as young psychologist Sebastian Bailey enters the room to begin the morning's framing session. But this is no ordinary training session. He's not here to sharpen their finance or management skills. He's here to exercise their brains. B. Todays workout, organised by a company called the Mind Gym in London, is entitled "having presence". What follows is an intense 90-minute session in which this rather abstract concept is gradually broken down into a concrete set of feelings, mental tricks and behaviours. At one point the bankers are instructed to shut then eyes and visualise themselves filling the room and then the building. They finish up by walking around the room acting out various levels of presence, from low-key to over the top. C. It's easy to poke fun. Yet similar mental workouts are happening in corporate seminar rooms around the globe. The Mind Gym alone offers some 70 different sessions, including ones on mental stamina, creativity for logical thinkers and "zoom learning". Other outfits draw more directly on the exercise analogy, offering "neurobics" courses with names like "brain sets" and "cerebral fitness". Then there are books with titles like Pumping Ions, full of brainteasers that claim to "flex your mind", and software packages offering memory and spatial- awareness games. D. But whatever the style, the companies' sales pitch is invariably the same follow our routines to shape and sculpt your brain or mind, just as you might tone and train your body. And, of course, they nearly all claim that their mental workouts draw on serious scientific research and thinking into how the brain works. E. One outfit, Brainergy of Cambridge, Massachusetts (motto: "Because your grey matter matters") puts it like this: "Studies have shown that mental exercisecan cause changes in brain anatomy and brain chemistry which promote increased mental efficiency and clarity. The neuroscience is cutting-edge. " And on its website, Mind Gym trades on a quote from Susan Greenfield, one of Britain's best known neuroscientists: "It's a bit like going to the gym, if you exercise your brain it will grow. " F. Indeed, die Mind Gym originally planned to hold its sessions in a local health club, until its founders realised where the real money was to be made. Modem companies need flexible, bright thinkers and will seize on anything that claims to create them, especially if it looks like a quick fix backed by science. But are neurobic workouts really backed by science? And do we need them? G. Nor is there anything remotely high-tech about what Lawrence Katz, co- author of Keep Your Brain Alive, recommends. Katz, a neurobiologist at Duke University Medical School in North Carolina, argues that just as many of US fail to get enough physical exercise, so we also lack sufficient mental stimulation to keep our brain in trim. Sine we are busy with jobs, family and housework. But most of this activity is repetitive routine. And any leisure time is spent slumped in front of the TV. H. So, read a book upside down. Write or brush your teeth with your wrong hand. Feel your way around the room with your eyes shut. Sniff vanilla essence while listening intently to orchestral music. Anything, says Katz, to break your normal mental routine. It will help invigorate your brain, encouraging its cells to make new connections and pump out neuroteophins, substances that feed and sustain brain circuits. I. Well, up to a point it will. "What I'm really talking about is brain maintenance rather than bulking up your IQ, " Katz adds. Neurobics, in other words, is about letting your brain fulfill its potential. It cannot create super-brains. Can it achieve even that much, though? Certainly the brain is an organ that can adapt to the demands placed on it. Tests on animal brain tissue, for example, have repeatedly shown that electrically stimulating the synapses that connect nerve cells thought to be crucial to learning and reasoning, makes them stronger and more responsive. Brain scans suggest we use a lot more of our grey matter when carrying out new or strange tasks than when we're doing well-rehearsed ones. Rats raised in bright cages with toys sprout more neural connections than rats raised in bare cages suggesting perhaps that novelty and variety could be crucial to a developing brain. Katz, And neurologists have proved time and again that people who lose brain cells suddenly during a stroke often sprout new connections to compensate for the lossespecially if they undergo extensive therapy to overcome any paralysis. J. Guy Claxton, an educational psychologist at the University of Bristol, dismisses most of the neurological approaches as "neuro-babble". Nevertheless, there are specific mental skills we can learn, he contends. Desirable attributes such as creativity, mental flexibility, and even motivation, are not the fixed faculties that most of US think. They are thought habits that can be learned. The problem, says Claxton, is that most of US never get proper training in these skills. We develop our own private set of mental strategies for tackling tasks and never learn anything explicitly. Worse still, because any learned skill even driving a car or brushing our teeth-quickly sinks out of consciousness, we can no longer see the very thought habits we're relying upon. Our mental tools become invisible to US. K. Claxton is the academic adviser to the Mind Gym. So not surprisingly, the company espouses his solution-that we must return our thought patterns to a conscious level, becoming aware of the details of how we usually think. Only then can we start to practise better thought patterns, until eventually these become our new habits. Switching metaphors, picture not gym classes, but tennis or football coaching. L. In practice, the training can seem quite mundane. For example, in one of the eight different creativity workouts offered by the Mind Gymentitled "creativity for logical thinkers" one of the mental strategies taught is to make a sensible suggestion, then immediately pose its opposite. So, asked to spend five minutes inventing a new pizza, a group soon comes up with no topping, sweet topping, cold topping, price based on time of day, flat-rate prices and so on. M. Bailey agrees that the trick is simple. But it is surprising how few such tricks people have to call upon when they are suddenly asked to be creative: "They tend to just label themselves as uncreative, not realising that there are techniques that every creative person employs. " Bailey says the aim is to introduce people to half a dozen or so such strategies in a session so that what at first seems like a dauntingly abstract mental task becomes a set of concrete, learnable behaviours. He admits this is not a short cut to genius. Neurologically, some people do start with quicker circuits or greater handling capacity. However, with the right kind of training he thinks we can dramatically increase how efficiently we use it. N. It is hard to prove that the training itself is effective. How do you measure a change in an employee's creativity levels, or memory skills? But staff certainly report feeling that such classes have opened their eyes. So, neurological boosting or psychological training? At the moment you can pay your money and take your choice. Claxton for one believes there is no reason why schools and universities shouldn't spend more time teaching basic thinking skills, rather thantrying to stuff heads with facts and hoping that effective thought habits are somehow absorbed by osmosis. | Mind Gym uses the similar marketing theory that is used all round | e |
id_3868 | MENTAL GYMNASTICS A. THE working day has just started at the head office of Barclays Bank in London. Seventeen staff are helping themselves to a buffet breakfast as young psychologist Sebastian Bailey enters the room to begin the morning's framing session. But this is no ordinary training session. He's not here to sharpen their finance or management skills. He's here to exercise their brains. B. Todays workout, organised by a company called the Mind Gym in London, is entitled "having presence". What follows is an intense 90-minute session in which this rather abstract concept is gradually broken down into a concrete set of feelings, mental tricks and behaviours. At one point the bankers are instructed to shut then eyes and visualise themselves filling the room and then the building. They finish up by walking around the room acting out various levels of presence, from low-key to over the top. C. It's easy to poke fun. Yet similar mental workouts are happening in corporate seminar rooms around the globe. The Mind Gym alone offers some 70 different sessions, including ones on mental stamina, creativity for logical thinkers and "zoom learning". Other outfits draw more directly on the exercise analogy, offering "neurobics" courses with names like "brain sets" and "cerebral fitness". Then there are books with titles like Pumping Ions, full of brainteasers that claim to "flex your mind", and software packages offering memory and spatial- awareness games. D. But whatever the style, the companies' sales pitch is invariably the same follow our routines to shape and sculpt your brain or mind, just as you might tone and train your body. And, of course, they nearly all claim that their mental workouts draw on serious scientific research and thinking into how the brain works. E. One outfit, Brainergy of Cambridge, Massachusetts (motto: "Because your grey matter matters") puts it like this: "Studies have shown that mental exercisecan cause changes in brain anatomy and brain chemistry which promote increased mental efficiency and clarity. The neuroscience is cutting-edge. " And on its website, Mind Gym trades on a quote from Susan Greenfield, one of Britain's best known neuroscientists: "It's a bit like going to the gym, if you exercise your brain it will grow. " F. Indeed, die Mind Gym originally planned to hold its sessions in a local health club, until its founders realised where the real money was to be made. Modem companies need flexible, bright thinkers and will seize on anything that claims to create them, especially if it looks like a quick fix backed by science. But are neurobic workouts really backed by science? And do we need them? G. Nor is there anything remotely high-tech about what Lawrence Katz, co- author of Keep Your Brain Alive, recommends. Katz, a neurobiologist at Duke University Medical School in North Carolina, argues that just as many of US fail to get enough physical exercise, so we also lack sufficient mental stimulation to keep our brain in trim. Sine we are busy with jobs, family and housework. But most of this activity is repetitive routine. And any leisure time is spent slumped in front of the TV. H. So, read a book upside down. Write or brush your teeth with your wrong hand. Feel your way around the room with your eyes shut. Sniff vanilla essence while listening intently to orchestral music. Anything, says Katz, to break your normal mental routine. It will help invigorate your brain, encouraging its cells to make new connections and pump out neuroteophins, substances that feed and sustain brain circuits. I. Well, up to a point it will. "What I'm really talking about is brain maintenance rather than bulking up your IQ, " Katz adds. Neurobics, in other words, is about letting your brain fulfill its potential. It cannot create super-brains. Can it achieve even that much, though? Certainly the brain is an organ that can adapt to the demands placed on it. Tests on animal brain tissue, for example, have repeatedly shown that electrically stimulating the synapses that connect nerve cells thought to be crucial to learning and reasoning, makes them stronger and more responsive. Brain scans suggest we use a lot more of our grey matter when carrying out new or strange tasks than when we're doing well-rehearsed ones. Rats raised in bright cages with toys sprout more neural connections than rats raised in bare cages suggesting perhaps that novelty and variety could be crucial to a developing brain. Katz, And neurologists have proved time and again that people who lose brain cells suddenly during a stroke often sprout new connections to compensate for the lossespecially if they undergo extensive therapy to overcome any paralysis. J. Guy Claxton, an educational psychologist at the University of Bristol, dismisses most of the neurological approaches as "neuro-babble". Nevertheless, there are specific mental skills we can learn, he contends. Desirable attributes such as creativity, mental flexibility, and even motivation, are not the fixed faculties that most of US think. They are thought habits that can be learned. The problem, says Claxton, is that most of US never get proper training in these skills. We develop our own private set of mental strategies for tackling tasks and never learn anything explicitly. Worse still, because any learned skill even driving a car or brushing our teeth-quickly sinks out of consciousness, we can no longer see the very thought habits we're relying upon. Our mental tools become invisible to US. K. Claxton is the academic adviser to the Mind Gym. So not surprisingly, the company espouses his solution-that we must return our thought patterns to a conscious level, becoming aware of the details of how we usually think. Only then can we start to practise better thought patterns, until eventually these become our new habits. Switching metaphors, picture not gym classes, but tennis or football coaching. L. In practice, the training can seem quite mundane. For example, in one of the eight different creativity workouts offered by the Mind Gymentitled "creativity for logical thinkers" one of the mental strategies taught is to make a sensible suggestion, then immediately pose its opposite. So, asked to spend five minutes inventing a new pizza, a group soon comes up with no topping, sweet topping, cold topping, price based on time of day, flat-rate prices and so on. M. Bailey agrees that the trick is simple. But it is surprising how few such tricks people have to call upon when they are suddenly asked to be creative: "They tend to just label themselves as uncreative, not realising that there are techniques that every creative person employs. " Bailey says the aim is to introduce people to half a dozen or so such strategies in a session so that what at first seems like a dauntingly abstract mental task becomes a set of concrete, learnable behaviours. He admits this is not a short cut to genius. Neurologically, some people do start with quicker circuits or greater handling capacity. However, with the right kind of training he thinks we can dramatically increase how efficiently we use it. N. It is hard to prove that the training itself is effective. How do you measure a change in an employee's creativity levels, or memory skills? But staff certainly report feeling that such classes have opened their eyes. So, neurological boosting or psychological training? At the moment you can pay your money and take your choice. Claxton for one believes there is no reason why schools and universities shouldn't spend more time teaching basic thinking skills, rather thantrying to stuff heads with facts and hoping that effective thought habits are somehow absorbed by osmosis. | Mind Gym coach instructed employees to imagine that they are the building. | c |
id_3869 | MYTHS ABOUT PUBLIC SPEAKING Fear of public speaking results not only from what one does not know or understand about public communication, but also from misconceptions and myths about public encounters. These misconceptions and myths persist among professional people as well as the general public. Persistent myths about public communication simply increase fear in people and prevent their development into competent public speakers. Perhaps the most persistent myth about public communication is that it is a special activity reserved for unusual occasions. After all, public speeches are not made that often. There are only a few special occasions during the year when even an outgoing professional person will step behind a podium to give a public speech, and many professional people can count on one hand the number of public speeches given in a career. Surely, then, public communication is a rare activity reserved for especially important occasions. This argument, of course, ignores the true nature of public communication and the nature of the occasions in which it occurs. To engage with people whom one does not know well, to solve problems, share understanding and perspectives, advocate points of view, or seek stimulation, means to engage in public speaking. Public communication, therefore, is a familiar, daily activity which occurs in the streets, restaurants, boardrooms, courtrooms, parks, offices, factories and meetings. Contrary to widespread misunderstandings, public speaking is not an unusual activity reserved for special occasions and restricted to the lectern or the platform. Rather it is, and should be developed as, an everyday activity occurring in any location where people come together. A related misconception about public communication is the belief that the public speaker is a specially gifted individual with innate abilities and God-given propensities. While most professional people would reject the idea that public speakers are born, not made, they never the less often feel that the effective public communicator has developed unusual personal talents to a remarkable degree. At the heart of this misconceptionlike the myth of public speaking as a special activityis an overly narrow view of what a public person is and does. Development as an effective public communicator begins with the understanding that it is not necessary to be a nationally-known, speak-for-pay, professional platform speaker to be a competent public person. The public speaker is an ordinary person who confronts the necessity of being a public person and uses common abilities. A less widespread but serious misconception of public speaking is reflected in the belief that public speeches have a lasting purpose. A public speech is something viewed as an historical event which will be part of a continuing and generally available public record. Some public speeches are faithfully recorded, transcribed, reproduced and made part of broadly available historical records. Those instances are rare compared to the thousands of unrecorded public speeches made every day. Public communication is usually situation-specific and ephemeral. Most audiences do well if they remember as much as 40 per cent of what a speaker says immediately after the speaker concludes; even less is retained as time goes by. This fact is both reassuring and challenging to the public communicator. On the one hand, it suggests that there is room for human error in making public pronouncements; on the other hand, it challenges the public speaker to overcome the poor listening habits of most audiences. Finally, professional people, perhaps more than other groups, often subscribe to the misconception that public communication must be an exact science, that if it is done properly it will succeed. The troublesome corollary to this reasoning is that if public communication fails, it is because it was improperly prepared or executed. This argument unfortunately ignores the uncertainties of human interaction. Public speakers achieve their goals through their listeners, and the only truly predictable aspect of human listeners is their unpredictability. Further, public messages may succeed despite inadequate preparation and dreadful delivery. It should be added that professional people often mismanage their fears of public communication. However, once an understanding of what public encounters assume and demand, once the myths which handicap the growth of a public person are unburdened, development as a competent public communicator can properly begin. | Most professional people believe that good public communicators are born, not made. | c |
id_3870 | MYTHS ABOUT PUBLIC SPEAKING Fear of public speaking results not only from what one does not know or understand about public communication, but also from misconceptions and myths about public encounters. These misconceptions and myths persist among professional people as well as the general public. Persistent myths about public communication simply increase fear in people and prevent their development into competent public speakers. Perhaps the most persistent myth about public communication is that it is a special activity reserved for unusual occasions. After all, public speeches are not made that often. There are only a few special occasions during the year when even an outgoing professional person will step behind a podium to give a public speech, and many professional people can count on one hand the number of public speeches given in a career. Surely, then, public communication is a rare activity reserved for especially important occasions. This argument, of course, ignores the true nature of public communication and the nature of the occasions in which it occurs. To engage with people whom one does not know well, to solve problems, share understanding and perspectives, advocate points of view, or seek stimulation, means to engage in public speaking. Public communication, therefore, is a familiar, daily activity which occurs in the streets, restaurants, boardrooms, courtrooms, parks, offices, factories and meetings. Contrary to widespread misunderstandings, public speaking is not an unusual activity reserved for special occasions and restricted to the lectern or the platform. Rather it is, and should be developed as, an everyday activity occurring in any location where people come together. A related misconception about public communication is the belief that the public speaker is a specially gifted individual with innate abilities and God-given propensities. While most professional people would reject the idea that public speakers are born, not made, they never the less often feel that the effective public communicator has developed unusual personal talents to a remarkable degree. At the heart of this misconceptionlike the myth of public speaking as a special activityis an overly narrow view of what a public person is and does. Development as an effective public communicator begins with the understanding that it is not necessary to be a nationally-known, speak-for-pay, professional platform speaker to be a competent public person. The public speaker is an ordinary person who confronts the necessity of being a public person and uses common abilities. A less widespread but serious misconception of public speaking is reflected in the belief that public speeches have a lasting purpose. A public speech is something viewed as an historical event which will be part of a continuing and generally available public record. Some public speeches are faithfully recorded, transcribed, reproduced and made part of broadly available historical records. Those instances are rare compared to the thousands of unrecorded public speeches made every day. Public communication is usually situation-specific and ephemeral. Most audiences do well if they remember as much as 40 per cent of what a speaker says immediately after the speaker concludes; even less is retained as time goes by. This fact is both reassuring and challenging to the public communicator. On the one hand, it suggests that there is room for human error in making public pronouncements; on the other hand, it challenges the public speaker to overcome the poor listening habits of most audiences. Finally, professional people, perhaps more than other groups, often subscribe to the misconception that public communication must be an exact science, that if it is done properly it will succeed. The troublesome corollary to this reasoning is that if public communication fails, it is because it was improperly prepared or executed. This argument unfortunately ignores the uncertainties of human interaction. Public speakers achieve their goals through their listeners, and the only truly predictable aspect of human listeners is their unpredictability. Further, public messages may succeed despite inadequate preparation and dreadful delivery. It should be added that professional people often mismanage their fears of public communication. However, once an understanding of what public encounters assume and demand, once the myths which handicap the growth of a public person are unburdened, development as a competent public communicator can properly begin. | There is little place for public speaking in the life of the ordinary person. | c |
id_3871 | MYTHS ABOUT PUBLIC SPEAKING Fear of public speaking results not only from what one does not know or understand about public communication, but also from misconceptions and myths about public encounters. These misconceptions and myths persist among professional people as well as the general public. Persistent myths about public communication simply increase fear in people and prevent their development into competent public speakers. Perhaps the most persistent myth about public communication is that it is a special activity reserved for unusual occasions. After all, public speeches are not made that often. There are only a few special occasions during the year when even an outgoing professional person will step behind a podium to give a public speech, and many professional people can count on one hand the number of public speeches given in a career. Surely, then, public communication is a rare activity reserved for especially important occasions. This argument, of course, ignores the true nature of public communication and the nature of the occasions in which it occurs. To engage with people whom one does not know well, to solve problems, share understanding and perspectives, advocate points of view, or seek stimulation, means to engage in public speaking. Public communication, therefore, is a familiar, daily activity which occurs in the streets, restaurants, boardrooms, courtrooms, parks, offices, factories and meetings. Contrary to widespread misunderstandings, public speaking is not an unusual activity reserved for special occasions and restricted to the lectern or the platform. Rather it is, and should be developed as, an everyday activity occurring in any location where people come together. A related misconception about public communication is the belief that the public speaker is a specially gifted individual with innate abilities and God-given propensities. While most professional people would reject the idea that public speakers are born, not made, they never the less often feel that the effective public communicator has developed unusual personal talents to a remarkable degree. At the heart of this misconceptionlike the myth of public speaking as a special activityis an overly narrow view of what a public person is and does. Development as an effective public communicator begins with the understanding that it is not necessary to be a nationally-known, speak-for-pay, professional platform speaker to be a competent public person. The public speaker is an ordinary person who confronts the necessity of being a public person and uses common abilities. A less widespread but serious misconception of public speaking is reflected in the belief that public speeches have a lasting purpose. A public speech is something viewed as an historical event which will be part of a continuing and generally available public record. Some public speeches are faithfully recorded, transcribed, reproduced and made part of broadly available historical records. Those instances are rare compared to the thousands of unrecorded public speeches made every day. Public communication is usually situation-specific and ephemeral. Most audiences do well if they remember as much as 40 per cent of what a speaker says immediately after the speaker concludes; even less is retained as time goes by. This fact is both reassuring and challenging to the public communicator. On the one hand, it suggests that there is room for human error in making public pronouncements; on the other hand, it challenges the public speaker to overcome the poor listening habits of most audiences. Finally, professional people, perhaps more than other groups, often subscribe to the misconception that public communication must be an exact science, that if it is done properly it will succeed. The troublesome corollary to this reasoning is that if public communication fails, it is because it was improperly prepared or executed. This argument unfortunately ignores the uncertainties of human interaction. Public speakers achieve their goals through their listeners, and the only truly predictable aspect of human listeners is their unpredictability. Further, public messages may succeed despite inadequate preparation and dreadful delivery. It should be added that professional people often mismanage their fears of public communication. However, once an understanding of what public encounters assume and demand, once the myths which handicap the growth of a public person are unburdened, development as a competent public communicator can properly begin. | Expressing a point of view does not fall into the category of engaging in public communication. | c |
id_3872 | MYTHS ABOUT PUBLIC SPEAKING Fear of public speaking results not only from what one does not know or understand about public communication, but also from misconceptions and myths about public encounters. These misconceptions and myths persist among professional people as well as the general public. Persistent myths about public communication simply increase fear in people and prevent their development into competent public speakers. Perhaps the most persistent myth about public communication is that it is a special activity reserved for unusual occasions. After all, public speeches are not made that often. There are only a few special occasions during the year when even an outgoing professional person will step behind a podium to give a public speech, and many professional people can count on one hand the number of public speeches given in a career. Surely, then, public communication is a rare activity reserved for especially important occasions. This argument, of course, ignores the true nature of public communication and the nature of the occasions in which it occurs. To engage with people whom one does not know well, to solve problems, share understanding and perspectives, advocate points of view, or seek stimulation, means to engage in public speaking. Public communication, therefore, is a familiar, daily activity which occurs in the streets, restaurants, boardrooms, courtrooms, parks, offices, factories and meetings. Contrary to widespread misunderstandings, public speaking is not an unusual activity reserved for special occasions and restricted to the lectern or the platform. Rather it is, and should be developed as, an everyday activity occurring in any location where people come together. A related misconception about public communication is the belief that the public speaker is a specially gifted individual with innate abilities and God-given propensities. While most professional people would reject the idea that public speakers are born, not made, they never the less often feel that the effective public communicator has developed unusual personal talents to a remarkable degree. At the heart of this misconceptionlike the myth of public speaking as a special activityis an overly narrow view of what a public person is and does. Development as an effective public communicator begins with the understanding that it is not necessary to be a nationally-known, speak-for-pay, professional platform speaker to be a competent public person. The public speaker is an ordinary person who confronts the necessity of being a public person and uses common abilities. A less widespread but serious misconception of public speaking is reflected in the belief that public speeches have a lasting purpose. A public speech is something viewed as an historical event which will be part of a continuing and generally available public record. Some public speeches are faithfully recorded, transcribed, reproduced and made part of broadly available historical records. Those instances are rare compared to the thousands of unrecorded public speeches made every day. Public communication is usually situation-specific and ephemeral. Most audiences do well if they remember as much as 40 per cent of what a speaker says immediately after the speaker concludes; even less is retained as time goes by. This fact is both reassuring and challenging to the public communicator. On the one hand, it suggests that there is room for human error in making public pronouncements; on the other hand, it challenges the public speaker to overcome the poor listening habits of most audiences. Finally, professional people, perhaps more than other groups, often subscribe to the misconception that public communication must be an exact science, that if it is done properly it will succeed. The troublesome corollary to this reasoning is that if public communication fails, it is because it was improperly prepared or executed. This argument unfortunately ignores the uncertainties of human interaction. Public speakers achieve their goals through their listeners, and the only truly predictable aspect of human listeners is their unpredictability. Further, public messages may succeed despite inadequate preparation and dreadful delivery. It should be added that professional people often mismanage their fears of public communication. However, once an understanding of what public encounters assume and demand, once the myths which handicap the growth of a public person are unburdened, development as a competent public communicator can properly begin. | Public speaking can be learned at specially designated schools. | n |
id_3873 | MYTHS ABOUT PUBLIC SPEAKING Fear of public speaking results not only from what one does not know or understand about public communication, but also from misconceptions and myths about public encounters. These misconceptions and myths persist among professional people as well as the general public. Persistent myths about public communication simply increase fear in people and prevent their development into competent public speakers. Perhaps the most persistent myth about public communication is that it is a special activity reserved for unusual occasions. After all, public speeches are not made that often. There are only a few special occasions during the year when even an outgoing professional person will step behind a podium to give a public speech, and many professional people can count on one hand the number of public speeches given in a career. Surely, then, public communication is a rare activity reserved for especially important occasions. This argument, of course, ignores the true nature of public communication and the nature of the occasions in which it occurs. To engage with people whom one does not know well, to solve problems, share understanding and perspectives, advocate points of view, or seek stimulation, means to engage in public speaking. Public communication, therefore, is a familiar, daily activity which occurs in the streets, restaurants, boardrooms, courtrooms, parks, offices, factories and meetings. Contrary to widespread misunderstandings, public speaking is not an unusual activity reserved for special occasions and restricted to the lectern or the platform. Rather it is, and should be developed as, an everyday activity occurring in any location where people come together. A related misconception about public communication is the belief that the public speaker is a specially gifted individual with innate abilities and God-given propensities. While most professional people would reject the idea that public speakers are born, not made, they never the less often feel that the effective public communicator has developed unusual personal talents to a remarkable degree. At the heart of this misconceptionlike the myth of public speaking as a special activityis an overly narrow view of what a public person is and does. Development as an effective public communicator begins with the understanding that it is not necessary to be a nationally-known, speak-for-pay, professional platform speaker to be a competent public person. The public speaker is an ordinary person who confronts the necessity of being a public person and uses common abilities. A less widespread but serious misconception of public speaking is reflected in the belief that public speeches have a lasting purpose. A public speech is something viewed as an historical event which will be part of a continuing and generally available public record. Some public speeches are faithfully recorded, transcribed, reproduced and made part of broadly available historical records. Those instances are rare compared to the thousands of unrecorded public speeches made every day. Public communication is usually situation-specific and ephemeral. Most audiences do well if they remember as much as 40 per cent of what a speaker says immediately after the speaker concludes; even less is retained as time goes by. This fact is both reassuring and challenging to the public communicator. On the one hand, it suggests that there is room for human error in making public pronouncements; on the other hand, it challenges the public speaker to overcome the poor listening habits of most audiences. Finally, professional people, perhaps more than other groups, often subscribe to the misconception that public communication must be an exact science, that if it is done properly it will succeed. The troublesome corollary to this reasoning is that if public communication fails, it is because it was improperly prepared or executed. This argument unfortunately ignores the uncertainties of human interaction. Public speakers achieve their goals through their listeners, and the only truly predictable aspect of human listeners is their unpredictability. Further, public messages may succeed despite inadequate preparation and dreadful delivery. It should be added that professional people often mismanage their fears of public communication. However, once an understanding of what public encounters assume and demand, once the myths which handicap the growth of a public person are unburdened, development as a competent public communicator can properly begin. | It is impossible to predict how a speech will be received. | e |
id_3874 | MYTHS ABOUT PUBLIC SPEAKING Fear of public speaking results not only from what one does not know or understand about public communication, but also from misconceptions and myths about public encounters. These misconceptions and myths persist among professional people as well as the general public. Persistent myths about public communication simply increase fear in people and prevent their development into competent public speakers. Perhaps the most persistent myth about public communication is that it is a special activity reserved for unusual occasions. After all, public speeches are not made that often. There are only a few special occasions during the year when even an outgoing professional person will step behind a podium to give a public speech, and many professional people can count on one hand the number of public speeches given in a career. Surely, then, public communication is a rare activity reserved for especially important occasions. This argument, of course, ignores the true nature of public communication and the nature of the occasions in which it occurs. To engage with people whom one does not know well, to solve problems, share understanding and perspectives, advocate points of view, or seek stimulation, means to engage in public speaking. Public communication, therefore, is a familiar, daily activity which occurs in the streets, restaurants, boardrooms, courtrooms, parks, offices, factories and meetings. Contrary to widespread misunderstandings, public speaking is not an unusual activity reserved for special occasions and restricted to the lectern or the platform. Rather it is, and should be developed as, an everyday activity occurring in any location where people come together. A related misconception about public communication is the belief that the public speaker is a specially gifted individual with innate abilities and God-given propensities. While most professional people would reject the idea that public speakers are born, not made, they never the less often feel that the effective public communicator has developed unusual personal talents to a remarkable degree. At the heart of this misconceptionlike the myth of public speaking as a special activityis an overly narrow view of what a public person is and does. Development as an effective public communicator begins with the understanding that it is not necessary to be a nationally-known, speak-for-pay, professional platform speaker to be a competent public person. The public speaker is an ordinary person who confronts the necessity of being a public person and uses common abilities. A less widespread but serious misconception of public speaking is reflected in the belief that public speeches have a lasting purpose. A public speech is something viewed as an historical event which will be part of a continuing and generally available public record. Some public speeches are faithfully recorded, transcribed, reproduced and made part of broadly available historical records. Those instances are rare compared to the thousands of unrecorded public speeches made every day. Public communication is usually situation-specific and ephemeral. Most audiences do well if they remember as much as 40 per cent of what a speaker says immediately after the speaker concludes; even less is retained as time goes by. This fact is both reassuring and challenging to the public communicator. On the one hand, it suggests that there is room for human error in making public pronouncements; on the other hand, it challenges the public speaker to overcome the poor listening habits of most audiences. Finally, professional people, perhaps more than other groups, often subscribe to the misconception that public communication must be an exact science, that if it is done properly it will succeed. The troublesome corollary to this reasoning is that if public communication fails, it is because it was improperly prepared or executed. This argument unfortunately ignores the uncertainties of human interaction. Public speakers achieve their goals through their listeners, and the only truly predictable aspect of human listeners is their unpredictability. Further, public messages may succeed despite inadequate preparation and dreadful delivery. It should be added that professional people often mismanage their fears of public communication. However, once an understanding of what public encounters assume and demand, once the myths which handicap the growth of a public person are unburdened, development as a competent public communicator can properly begin. | An ongoing misunderstanding about public communication is that it is an uncommon activity. | e |
id_3875 | Make That Wine! Australia is a nation of beer drinkers. Actually, make that wine. Yes, wine has now just about supplanted beer as the alcoholic drink of choice, probably because of the extensive range of choices available and the rich culture behind them. This all adds a certain depth and intimacy to the drinking process which beer just cannot match. In addition, although wine drinkers seldom think about it, moderate consumption seems to be beneficial for the health, lowering the incidence of heart disease and various other ailments. Wine is the product of the fermentation of grape juice, in which yeast (a fungus) consumes the natural sugars within, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide as waste. Yeast grows naturally on many varieties of grapes, often visible as a white powder, and causing fermentation directly on the plant. Thus, the discovery of wine-making was inevitable at some stage in human history. The evidence shows that this was at least 8,000 years ago in the Near East. From there, wine-making spread around the ancient Mediterranean civilisations, where the liquid was extensively produced, drunk, and traded. To this day, the biggest drinkers of wine remain the Mediterranean countries, with France leading the way. This leads to the classification of wines, which is quite complex. It often begins with the colour: red or white. Most people do not know that the colour of wine is not due to the grapes used (whose skins are either green or purple), but to the wine-making process itself. All grape juice is clear. Red wines are produced by leaving the grape skin in contact with the juice during fermentation; white wines by not doing so. Thus, white wine can be made from dark-coloured grapes, provided that the skin is separated early, although the resultant wine may have a pinkish tinge. A similar wine classification is based more specifically on the grape species used, giving such well-known names as Pinot Noir and Merlot. Chardonnay grapes remain one of the most widely planted, producing an array of white wines, rivaling the cabernet sauvignon grape, a key ingredient in the worlds most widely recognised, and similarly named, red wines. When one grape species is used, or is predominant, the wine produced is called varietal, as opposed to mixing the juices of various identified grapes, which results in blended wines. The latter process is often done when wine-makers, and the people who drink their product, want a consistent taste, year after year. Far from being looked down upon, it often results in some of the worlds most expensive bottles, such as the Cote Rotie wines in France. Increasingly, however, market recognition is based on the location of the wine production, resulting in labels such as Bordeaux in France, Napa Valley in California, and the Barossa Valley in Australia. Traditional wines made in these places carry trademarks, respected by serious wine drinkers. However, an example of the blurred lines is the term champagne. This was once expected to be made from grapes grown in the Champagne region of France, with all the expertise and traditions of that area, but, despite legal attempts to trademark the term, it has become semi-generic, allowing it to be used for any wine of this type made anywhere in the world. Finally, we come to the vinification method as a means of classification. One example is, in fact, champagne, known as a sparkling wine. By allowing a secondary fermentation in a sealed container, it retains some of the waste carbon dioxide. Another variation is to stop the fermentation before all the natural sugars are consumed, creating dessert wines, ranging from slight to extreme sweetness. Yet again, grapes can be harvested well beyond their maximum ripeness, creating late harvest wines, or allowed to become partially dried (or raisoned), creating dried grape wines. Clearly, there are many possibilities, all producing uniquely flavoured products. One of the best-known terms relating to wine is vintage. This signifies that the product was made from grapes that were grown in a single labeled year. If that year is eventually acknowledged to have produced exceptionally fine grapes and resultant wines (a good vintage), bottles from that period are often saved for future consumption. Of course, the appreciation and assessment of wine is an inexact science, meaning that the significance of a particular vintage often promotes much speculation and disagreement. A non-vintage wine is usually a blend from the produce of two or more years, which is done, as mentioned before, for consistency and quality control. This leads to the rich and varied world of wine assessment, and its descriptive terminology. Wine has such a variety of aromas, flavours, textures, and aftertastes that serious wine drinkers demand an agreed vocabulary so that the drinking sensations can be reliably described in writing. From bouquet to biscuity, mellow to musky, vivid to vegetal, the conceited connoisseur can perplex the listener with some really purple prose. Perhaps the opportunity to posture pretentiously with all this jargon is the main reason why wine enthusiasts are so taken with this product. Cheers! | Yeast is white-coloured. | e |
id_3876 | Make That Wine! Australia is a nation of beer drinkers. Actually, make that wine. Yes, wine has now just about supplanted beer as the alcoholic drink of choice, probably because of the extensive range of choices available and the rich culture behind them. This all adds a certain depth and intimacy to the drinking process which beer just cannot match. In addition, although wine drinkers seldom think about it, moderate consumption seems to be beneficial for the health, lowering the incidence of heart disease and various other ailments. Wine is the product of the fermentation of grape juice, in which yeast (a fungus) consumes the natural sugars within, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide as waste. Yeast grows naturally on many varieties of grapes, often visible as a white powder, and causing fermentation directly on the plant. Thus, the discovery of wine-making was inevitable at some stage in human history. The evidence shows that this was at least 8,000 years ago in the Near East. From there, wine-making spread around the ancient Mediterranean civilisations, where the liquid was extensively produced, drunk, and traded. To this day, the biggest drinkers of wine remain the Mediterranean countries, with France leading the way. This leads to the classification of wines, which is quite complex. It often begins with the colour: red or white. Most people do not know that the colour of wine is not due to the grapes used (whose skins are either green or purple), but to the wine-making process itself. All grape juice is clear. Red wines are produced by leaving the grape skin in contact with the juice during fermentation; white wines by not doing so. Thus, white wine can be made from dark-coloured grapes, provided that the skin is separated early, although the resultant wine may have a pinkish tinge. A similar wine classification is based more specifically on the grape species used, giving such well-known names as Pinot Noir and Merlot. Chardonnay grapes remain one of the most widely planted, producing an array of white wines, rivaling the cabernet sauvignon grape, a key ingredient in the worlds most widely recognised, and similarly named, red wines. When one grape species is used, or is predominant, the wine produced is called varietal, as opposed to mixing the juices of various identified grapes, which results in blended wines. The latter process is often done when wine-makers, and the people who drink their product, want a consistent taste, year after year. Far from being looked down upon, it often results in some of the worlds most expensive bottles, such as the Cote Rotie wines in France. Increasingly, however, market recognition is based on the location of the wine production, resulting in labels such as Bordeaux in France, Napa Valley in California, and the Barossa Valley in Australia. Traditional wines made in these places carry trademarks, respected by serious wine drinkers. However, an example of the blurred lines is the term champagne. This was once expected to be made from grapes grown in the Champagne region of France, with all the expertise and traditions of that area, but, despite legal attempts to trademark the term, it has become semi-generic, allowing it to be used for any wine of this type made anywhere in the world. Finally, we come to the vinification method as a means of classification. One example is, in fact, champagne, known as a sparkling wine. By allowing a secondary fermentation in a sealed container, it retains some of the waste carbon dioxide. Another variation is to stop the fermentation before all the natural sugars are consumed, creating dessert wines, ranging from slight to extreme sweetness. Yet again, grapes can be harvested well beyond their maximum ripeness, creating late harvest wines, or allowed to become partially dried (or raisoned), creating dried grape wines. Clearly, there are many possibilities, all producing uniquely flavoured products. One of the best-known terms relating to wine is vintage. This signifies that the product was made from grapes that were grown in a single labeled year. If that year is eventually acknowledged to have produced exceptionally fine grapes and resultant wines (a good vintage), bottles from that period are often saved for future consumption. Of course, the appreciation and assessment of wine is an inexact science, meaning that the significance of a particular vintage often promotes much speculation and disagreement. A non-vintage wine is usually a blend from the produce of two or more years, which is done, as mentioned before, for consistency and quality control. This leads to the rich and varied world of wine assessment, and its descriptive terminology. Wine has such a variety of aromas, flavours, textures, and aftertastes that serious wine drinkers demand an agreed vocabulary so that the drinking sensations can be reliably described in writing. From bouquet to biscuity, mellow to musky, vivid to vegetal, the conceited connoisseur can perplex the listener with some really purple prose. Perhaps the opportunity to posture pretentiously with all this jargon is the main reason why wine enthusiasts are so taken with this product. Cheers! | Wine is popular in Australia because it is healthy. | c |
id_3877 | Make That Wine! Australia is a nation of beer drinkers. Actually, make that wine. Yes, wine has now just about supplanted beer as the alcoholic drink of choice, probably because of the extensive range of choices available and the rich culture behind them. This all adds a certain depth and intimacy to the drinking process which beer just cannot match. In addition, although wine drinkers seldom think about it, moderate consumption seems to be beneficial for the health, lowering the incidence of heart disease and various other ailments. Wine is the product of the fermentation of grape juice, in which yeast (a fungus) consumes the natural sugars within, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide as waste. Yeast grows naturally on many varieties of grapes, often visible as a white powder, and causing fermentation directly on the plant. Thus, the discovery of wine-making was inevitable at some stage in human history. The evidence shows that this was at least 8,000 years ago in the Near East. From there, wine-making spread around the ancient Mediterranean civilisations, where the liquid was extensively produced, drunk, and traded. To this day, the biggest drinkers of wine remain the Mediterranean countries, with France leading the way. This leads to the classification of wines, which is quite complex. It often begins with the colour: red or white. Most people do not know that the colour of wine is not due to the grapes used (whose skins are either green or purple), but to the wine-making process itself. All grape juice is clear. Red wines are produced by leaving the grape skin in contact with the juice during fermentation; white wines by not doing so. Thus, white wine can be made from dark-coloured grapes, provided that the skin is separated early, although the resultant wine may have a pinkish tinge. A similar wine classification is based more specifically on the grape species used, giving such well-known names as Pinot Noir and Merlot. Chardonnay grapes remain one of the most widely planted, producing an array of white wines, rivaling the cabernet sauvignon grape, a key ingredient in the worlds most widely recognised, and similarly named, red wines. When one grape species is used, or is predominant, the wine produced is called varietal, as opposed to mixing the juices of various identified grapes, which results in blended wines. The latter process is often done when wine-makers, and the people who drink their product, want a consistent taste, year after year. Far from being looked down upon, it often results in some of the worlds most expensive bottles, such as the Cote Rotie wines in France. Increasingly, however, market recognition is based on the location of the wine production, resulting in labels such as Bordeaux in France, Napa Valley in California, and the Barossa Valley in Australia. Traditional wines made in these places carry trademarks, respected by serious wine drinkers. However, an example of the blurred lines is the term champagne. This was once expected to be made from grapes grown in the Champagne region of France, with all the expertise and traditions of that area, but, despite legal attempts to trademark the term, it has become semi-generic, allowing it to be used for any wine of this type made anywhere in the world. Finally, we come to the vinification method as a means of classification. One example is, in fact, champagne, known as a sparkling wine. By allowing a secondary fermentation in a sealed container, it retains some of the waste carbon dioxide. Another variation is to stop the fermentation before all the natural sugars are consumed, creating dessert wines, ranging from slight to extreme sweetness. Yet again, grapes can be harvested well beyond their maximum ripeness, creating late harvest wines, or allowed to become partially dried (or raisoned), creating dried grape wines. Clearly, there are many possibilities, all producing uniquely flavoured products. One of the best-known terms relating to wine is vintage. This signifies that the product was made from grapes that were grown in a single labeled year. If that year is eventually acknowledged to have produced exceptionally fine grapes and resultant wines (a good vintage), bottles from that period are often saved for future consumption. Of course, the appreciation and assessment of wine is an inexact science, meaning that the significance of a particular vintage often promotes much speculation and disagreement. A non-vintage wine is usually a blend from the produce of two or more years, which is done, as mentioned before, for consistency and quality control. This leads to the rich and varied world of wine assessment, and its descriptive terminology. Wine has such a variety of aromas, flavours, textures, and aftertastes that serious wine drinkers demand an agreed vocabulary so that the drinking sensations can be reliably described in writing. From bouquet to biscuity, mellow to musky, vivid to vegetal, the conceited connoisseur can perplex the listener with some really purple prose. Perhaps the opportunity to posture pretentiously with all this jargon is the main reason why wine enthusiasts are so taken with this product. Cheers! | Wine is popular in the Near East. | n |
id_3878 | Make That Wine! Australia is a nation of beer drinkers. Actually, make that wine. Yes, wine has now just about supplanted beer as the alcoholic drink of choice, probably because of the extensive range of choices available and the rich culture behind them. This all adds a certain depth and intimacy to the drinking process which beer just cannot match. In addition, although wine drinkers seldom think about it, moderate consumption seems to be beneficial for the health, lowering the incidence of heart disease and various other ailments. Wine is the product of the fermentation of grape juice, in which yeast (a fungus) consumes the natural sugars within, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide as waste. Yeast grows naturally on many varieties of grapes, often visible as a white powder, and causing fermentation directly on the plant. Thus, the discovery of wine-making was inevitable at some stage in human history. The evidence shows that this was at least 8,000 years ago in the Near East. From there, wine-making spread around the ancient Mediterranean civilisations, where the liquid was extensively produced, drunk, and traded. To this day, the biggest drinkers of wine remain the Mediterranean countries, with France leading the way. This leads to the classification of wines, which is quite complex. It often begins with the colour: red or white. Most people do not know that the colour of wine is not due to the grapes used (whose skins are either green or purple), but to the wine-making process itself. All grape juice is clear. Red wines are produced by leaving the grape skin in contact with the juice during fermentation; white wines by not doing so. Thus, white wine can be made from dark-coloured grapes, provided that the skin is separated early, although the resultant wine may have a pinkish tinge. A similar wine classification is based more specifically on the grape species used, giving such well-known names as Pinot Noir and Merlot. Chardonnay grapes remain one of the most widely planted, producing an array of white wines, rivaling the cabernet sauvignon grape, a key ingredient in the worlds most widely recognised, and similarly named, red wines. When one grape species is used, or is predominant, the wine produced is called varietal, as opposed to mixing the juices of various identified grapes, which results in blended wines. The latter process is often done when wine-makers, and the people who drink their product, want a consistent taste, year after year. Far from being looked down upon, it often results in some of the worlds most expensive bottles, such as the Cote Rotie wines in France. Increasingly, however, market recognition is based on the location of the wine production, resulting in labels such as Bordeaux in France, Napa Valley in California, and the Barossa Valley in Australia. Traditional wines made in these places carry trademarks, respected by serious wine drinkers. However, an example of the blurred lines is the term champagne. This was once expected to be made from grapes grown in the Champagne region of France, with all the expertise and traditions of that area, but, despite legal attempts to trademark the term, it has become semi-generic, allowing it to be used for any wine of this type made anywhere in the world. Finally, we come to the vinification method as a means of classification. One example is, in fact, champagne, known as a sparkling wine. By allowing a secondary fermentation in a sealed container, it retains some of the waste carbon dioxide. Another variation is to stop the fermentation before all the natural sugars are consumed, creating dessert wines, ranging from slight to extreme sweetness. Yet again, grapes can be harvested well beyond their maximum ripeness, creating late harvest wines, or allowed to become partially dried (or raisoned), creating dried grape wines. Clearly, there are many possibilities, all producing uniquely flavoured products. One of the best-known terms relating to wine is vintage. This signifies that the product was made from grapes that were grown in a single labeled year. If that year is eventually acknowledged to have produced exceptionally fine grapes and resultant wines (a good vintage), bottles from that period are often saved for future consumption. Of course, the appreciation and assessment of wine is an inexact science, meaning that the significance of a particular vintage often promotes much speculation and disagreement. A non-vintage wine is usually a blend from the produce of two or more years, which is done, as mentioned before, for consistency and quality control. This leads to the rich and varied world of wine assessment, and its descriptive terminology. Wine has such a variety of aromas, flavours, textures, and aftertastes that serious wine drinkers demand an agreed vocabulary so that the drinking sensations can be reliably described in writing. From bouquet to biscuity, mellow to musky, vivid to vegetal, the conceited connoisseur can perplex the listener with some really purple prose. Perhaps the opportunity to posture pretentiously with all this jargon is the main reason why wine enthusiasts are so taken with this product. Cheers! | Blended wines are usually cheaper. | c |
id_3879 | Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project. The disappointing results of many conventional road transport projects in Africa led some experts to rethink the strategy by which rural transport problems were to be tackled at the beginning of the 1980s. A request for help in improving the availability of transport within the remote Makete District of south-western Tanzania presented the opportunity to try a new approach. The concept of integrated rural transport was adopted in the task of examining the transport needs of the rural households in the district. The objective was to reduce the time and effort needed to obtain access to essential goods and services through an improved rural transport system. The underlying assumption was that the time saved would be used instead for activities that would improve the social and economic development of the communities. The Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project (MIRTP) started in 1985 with financial support from the Swiss Development Corporation and was co-ordinated with the help of theTanzanian government. When the project began, Makete District was virtually totally isolated during the rainy season. The regional road was in such bad shape that access to the main towns was impossible for about three months of the year. Road traffic was extremely rare within the district, and alternative means of transport were restricted to donkeys in the north of the district. People relied primarily on the paths, which were slippery and dangerous during the rains. Before solutions could be proposed, the problems had to be understood. Little was known about the transport demands of the rural households, so Phase I, between December 1985 and December 1987, focused on research. The socio-economic survey of more than 400 households in the district indicated that a household in Makete spent, on average, seven hours a day on transporting themselves and their goods, a figure which seemed extreme but which has also been obtained in surveys in other rural areas in Africa. Interesting facts regarding transport were found: 95% was on foot; 80% was within the locality; and 70% was related to the collection of water and firewood and travelling to grinding mills. Having determined the main transport needs, possible solutions were identified which might reduce the time and burden. During Phase II, from January to February 1991, a number of approaches were implemented in an effort to improve mobility and access to transport. An improvement of the road network was considered necessary to ensure the import and export of goods to the district. These improvements were carried out using methods that were heavily dependent on labour. In addition to the improvement of roads, these methods provided training in the operation of a mechanical workshop and bus and truck services. However, the difference from the conventional approach was that this time consideration was given to local transport needs outside the road network. Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts up and down the hillsides, but the paths were a real safety risk and made the journey on foot even more arduous. It made sense to improve the paths by building steps, handrails and footbridges. It was uncommon to find means of transport that were more efficient than walking but less technologically advanced than motor vehicles. The use of bicycles was constrained by their high cost and the lack of available spare parts. Oxen were not used at all but donkeys were used by a few households in the northern part of the district. MIRTP focused on what would be most appropriate for the inhabitants of Makete in terms of what was available, how much they could afford and what they were willing to accept. After careful consideration, the project chose the promotion of donkeys a donkey costs less than a bicycle and the introduction of a locally manufacturable wheelbarrow. At the end of Phase II, it was clear that the selected approaches to Maketes transport problems had had different degrees of success. Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the refinement and institutionalisation of these activities. The road improvements and accompanying maintenance system had helped make the district centre accessible throughout the year. Essential goods from outside the district had become more readily available at the market, and prices did not fluctuate as much as they had done before. Paths and secondary roads were improved only at the request of communities who were willing to participate in construction and maintenance. However, the improved paths impressed the inhabitants, and requests for assistance greatly increased soon after only a few improvements had been completed. The efforts to improve the efficiency of the existing transport services were not very successful because most of the motorised vehicles in the district broke down and there were no resources to repair them. Even the introduction of low-cost means of transport was difficult because of the general poverty of the district. The locally manufactured wheelbarrows were still too expensive for all but a few of the households. Modifications to the original design by local carpenters cut production time and costs. Other local carpenters have been trained in the new design so that they can respond to requests. Nevertheless, a locally produced wooden wheelbarrow which costs around 5000 Tanzanian shillings (less than US$20) in Makete, and is about one quarter the cost of a metal wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for most people. Donkeys, which were imported to the district, have become more common and contribute, in particular, to the transportation of crops and goods to market. Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer households but, with an increased supply through local breeding, donkeys should become more affordable. Meanwhile, local initiatives are promoting the renting out of the existing donkeys. It should be noted, however, that a donkey, which at 20,000Tanzanian shillings costs less than a bicycle, is still an investment equal to an average households income over half a year. This clearly illustrates the need for supplementary measures if one wants to assist the rural poor. It would have been easy to criticise the MIRTP for using in the early phases a top-down approach, in which decisions were made by experts and officials before being handed down to communities, but it was necessary to start the process from the level of the governmental authorities of the district. It would have been difficult to respond to the requests of villagers and other rural inhabitants without the support and understanding of district authorities. Today, nobody in the district argues about the importance of improved paths and inexpensive means of transport. But this is the result of dedicated work over a long period, particularly from the officers in charge of community development. They played an essential role in raising awareness and interest among the rural communities. The concept of integrated rural transport is now well established in Tanzania, where a major program of rural transport is just about to start. The experiences from Makete will help in this initiative, and Makete District will act as a reference for future work. | MIRTP hoped to improve the movement of goods from Makete district to the countrys capital. | n |
id_3880 | Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project. The disappointing results of many conventional road transport projects in Africa led some experts to rethink the strategy by which rural transport problems were to be tackled at the beginning of the 1980s. A request for help in improving the availability of transport within the remote Makete District of south-western Tanzania presented the opportunity to try a new approach. The concept of integrated rural transport was adopted in the task of examining the transport needs of the rural households in the district. The objective was to reduce the time and effort needed to obtain access to essential goods and services through an improved rural transport system. The underlying assumption was that the time saved would be used instead for activities that would improve the social and economic development of the communities. The Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project (MIRTP) started in 1985 with financial support from the Swiss Development Corporation and was co-ordinated with the help of theTanzanian government. When the project began, Makete District was virtually totally isolated during the rainy season. The regional road was in such bad shape that access to the main towns was impossible for about three months of the year. Road traffic was extremely rare within the district, and alternative means of transport were restricted to donkeys in the north of the district. People relied primarily on the paths, which were slippery and dangerous during the rains. Before solutions could be proposed, the problems had to be understood. Little was known about the transport demands of the rural households, so Phase I, between December 1985 and December 1987, focused on research. The socio-economic survey of more than 400 households in the district indicated that a household in Makete spent, on average, seven hours a day on transporting themselves and their goods, a figure which seemed extreme but which has also been obtained in surveys in other rural areas in Africa. Interesting facts regarding transport were found: 95% was on foot; 80% was within the locality; and 70% was related to the collection of water and firewood and travelling to grinding mills. Having determined the main transport needs, possible solutions were identified which might reduce the time and burden. During Phase II, from January to February 1991, a number of approaches were implemented in an effort to improve mobility and access to transport. An improvement of the road network was considered necessary to ensure the import and export of goods to the district. These improvements were carried out using methods that were heavily dependent on labour. In addition to the improvement of roads, these methods provided training in the operation of a mechanical workshop and bus and truck services. However, the difference from the conventional approach was that this time consideration was given to local transport needs outside the road network. Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts up and down the hillsides, but the paths were a real safety risk and made the journey on foot even more arduous. It made sense to improve the paths by building steps, handrails and footbridges. It was uncommon to find means of transport that were more efficient than walking but less technologically advanced than motor vehicles. The use of bicycles was constrained by their high cost and the lack of available spare parts. Oxen were not used at all but donkeys were used by a few households in the northern part of the district. MIRTP focused on what would be most appropriate for the inhabitants of Makete in terms of what was available, how much they could afford and what they were willing to accept. After careful consideration, the project chose the promotion of donkeys a donkey costs less than a bicycle and the introduction of a locally manufacturable wheelbarrow. At the end of Phase II, it was clear that the selected approaches to Maketes transport problems had had different degrees of success. Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the refinement and institutionalisation of these activities. The road improvements and accompanying maintenance system had helped make the district centre accessible throughout the year. Essential goods from outside the district had become more readily available at the market, and prices did not fluctuate as much as they had done before. Paths and secondary roads were improved only at the request of communities who were willing to participate in construction and maintenance. However, the improved paths impressed the inhabitants, and requests for assistance greatly increased soon after only a few improvements had been completed. The efforts to improve the efficiency of the existing transport services were not very successful because most of the motorised vehicles in the district broke down and there were no resources to repair them. Even the introduction of low-cost means of transport was difficult because of the general poverty of the district. The locally manufactured wheelbarrows were still too expensive for all but a few of the households. Modifications to the original design by local carpenters cut production time and costs. Other local carpenters have been trained in the new design so that they can respond to requests. Nevertheless, a locally produced wooden wheelbarrow which costs around 5000 Tanzanian shillings (less than US$20) in Makete, and is about one quarter the cost of a metal wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for most people. Donkeys, which were imported to the district, have become more common and contribute, in particular, to the transportation of crops and goods to market. Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer households but, with an increased supply through local breeding, donkeys should become more affordable. Meanwhile, local initiatives are promoting the renting out of the existing donkeys. It should be noted, however, that a donkey, which at 20,000Tanzanian shillings costs less than a bicycle, is still an investment equal to an average households income over half a year. This clearly illustrates the need for supplementary measures if one wants to assist the rural poor. It would have been easy to criticise the MIRTP for using in the early phases a top-down approach, in which decisions were made by experts and officials before being handed down to communities, but it was necessary to start the process from the level of the governmental authorities of the district. It would have been difficult to respond to the requests of villagers and other rural inhabitants without the support and understanding of district authorities. Today, nobody in the district argues about the importance of improved paths and inexpensive means of transport. But this is the result of dedicated work over a long period, particularly from the officers in charge of community development. They played an essential role in raising awareness and interest among the rural communities. The concept of integrated rural transport is now well established in Tanzania, where a major program of rural transport is just about to start. The experiences from Makete will help in this initiative, and Makete District will act as a reference for future work. | The survey concluded that one-fifty or 20% of the household transport requirement as outside the local area. | e |
id_3881 | Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project. The disappointing results of many conventional road transport projects in Africa led some experts to rethink the strategy by which rural transport problems were to be tackled at the beginning of the 1980s. A request for help in improving the availability of transport within the remote Makete District of south-western Tanzania presented the opportunity to try a new approach. The concept of integrated rural transport was adopted in the task of examining the transport needs of the rural households in the district. The objective was to reduce the time and effort needed to obtain access to essential goods and services through an improved rural transport system. The underlying assumption was that the time saved would be used instead for activities that would improve the social and economic development of the communities. The Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project (MIRTP) started in 1985 with financial support from the Swiss Development Corporation and was co-ordinated with the help of theTanzanian government. When the project began, Makete District was virtually totally isolated during the rainy season. The regional road was in such bad shape that access to the main towns was impossible for about three months of the year. Road traffic was extremely rare within the district, and alternative means of transport were restricted to donkeys in the north of the district. People relied primarily on the paths, which were slippery and dangerous during the rains. Before solutions could be proposed, the problems had to be understood. Little was known about the transport demands of the rural households, so Phase I, between December 1985 and December 1987, focused on research. The socio-economic survey of more than 400 households in the district indicated that a household in Makete spent, on average, seven hours a day on transporting themselves and their goods, a figure which seemed extreme but which has also been obtained in surveys in other rural areas in Africa. Interesting facts regarding transport were found: 95% was on foot; 80% was within the locality; and 70% was related to the collection of water and firewood and travelling to grinding mills. Having determined the main transport needs, possible solutions were identified which might reduce the time and burden. During Phase II, from January to February 1991, a number of approaches were implemented in an effort to improve mobility and access to transport. An improvement of the road network was considered necessary to ensure the import and export of goods to the district. These improvements were carried out using methods that were heavily dependent on labour. In addition to the improvement of roads, these methods provided training in the operation of a mechanical workshop and bus and truck services. However, the difference from the conventional approach was that this time consideration was given to local transport needs outside the road network. Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts up and down the hillsides, but the paths were a real safety risk and made the journey on foot even more arduous. It made sense to improve the paths by building steps, handrails and footbridges. It was uncommon to find means of transport that were more efficient than walking but less technologically advanced than motor vehicles. The use of bicycles was constrained by their high cost and the lack of available spare parts. Oxen were not used at all but donkeys were used by a few households in the northern part of the district. MIRTP focused on what would be most appropriate for the inhabitants of Makete in terms of what was available, how much they could afford and what they were willing to accept. After careful consideration, the project chose the promotion of donkeys a donkey costs less than a bicycle and the introduction of a locally manufacturable wheelbarrow. At the end of Phase II, it was clear that the selected approaches to Maketes transport problems had had different degrees of success. Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the refinement and institutionalisation of these activities. The road improvements and accompanying maintenance system had helped make the district centre accessible throughout the year. Essential goods from outside the district had become more readily available at the market, and prices did not fluctuate as much as they had done before. Paths and secondary roads were improved only at the request of communities who were willing to participate in construction and maintenance. However, the improved paths impressed the inhabitants, and requests for assistance greatly increased soon after only a few improvements had been completed. The efforts to improve the efficiency of the existing transport services were not very successful because most of the motorised vehicles in the district broke down and there were no resources to repair them. Even the introduction of low-cost means of transport was difficult because of the general poverty of the district. The locally manufactured wheelbarrows were still too expensive for all but a few of the households. Modifications to the original design by local carpenters cut production time and costs. Other local carpenters have been trained in the new design so that they can respond to requests. Nevertheless, a locally produced wooden wheelbarrow which costs around 5000 Tanzanian shillings (less than US$20) in Makete, and is about one quarter the cost of a metal wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for most people. Donkeys, which were imported to the district, have become more common and contribute, in particular, to the transportation of crops and goods to market. Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer households but, with an increased supply through local breeding, donkeys should become more affordable. Meanwhile, local initiatives are promoting the renting out of the existing donkeys. It should be noted, however, that a donkey, which at 20,000Tanzanian shillings costs less than a bicycle, is still an investment equal to an average households income over half a year. This clearly illustrates the need for supplementary measures if one wants to assist the rural poor. It would have been easy to criticise the MIRTP for using in the early phases a top-down approach, in which decisions were made by experts and officials before being handed down to communities, but it was necessary to start the process from the level of the governmental authorities of the district. It would have been difficult to respond to the requests of villagers and other rural inhabitants without the support and understanding of district authorities. Today, nobody in the district argues about the importance of improved paths and inexpensive means of transport. But this is the result of dedicated work over a long period, particularly from the officers in charge of community development. They played an essential role in raising awareness and interest among the rural communities. The concept of integrated rural transport is now well established in Tanzania, where a major program of rural transport is just about to start. The experiences from Makete will help in this initiative, and Makete District will act as a reference for future work. | Phase I of MIRTP consisted of a survey of household expenditure on transport. | c |
id_3882 | Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project. The disappointing results of many conventional road transport projects in Africa led some experts to rethink the strategy by which rural transport problems were to be tackled at the beginning of the 1980s. A request for help in improving the availability of transport within the remote Makete District of south-western Tanzania presented the opportunity to try a new approach. The concept of integrated rural transport was adopted in the task of examining the transport needs of the rural households in the district. The objective was to reduce the time and effort needed to obtain access to essential goods and services through an improved rural transport system. The underlying assumption was that the time saved would be used instead for activities that would improve the social and economic development of the communities. The Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project (MIRTP) started in 1985 with financial support from the Swiss Development Corporation and was co-ordinated with the help of theTanzanian government. When the project began, Makete District was virtually totally isolated during the rainy season. The regional road was in such bad shape that access to the main towns was impossible for about three months of the year. Road traffic was extremely rare within the district, and alternative means of transport were restricted to donkeys in the north of the district. People relied primarily on the paths, which were slippery and dangerous during the rains. Before solutions could be proposed, the problems had to be understood. Little was known about the transport demands of the rural households, so Phase I, between December 1985 and December 1987, focused on research. The socio-economic survey of more than 400 households in the district indicated that a household in Makete spent, on average, seven hours a day on transporting themselves and their goods, a figure which seemed extreme but which has also been obtained in surveys in other rural areas in Africa. Interesting facts regarding transport were found: 95% was on foot; 80% was within the locality; and 70% was related to the collection of water and firewood and travelling to grinding mills. Having determined the main transport needs, possible solutions were identified which might reduce the time and burden. During Phase II, from January to February 1991, a number of approaches were implemented in an effort to improve mobility and access to transport. An improvement of the road network was considered necessary to ensure the import and export of goods to the district. These improvements were carried out using methods that were heavily dependent on labour. In addition to the improvement of roads, these methods provided training in the operation of a mechanical workshop and bus and truck services. However, the difference from the conventional approach was that this time consideration was given to local transport needs outside the road network. Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts up and down the hillsides, but the paths were a real safety risk and made the journey on foot even more arduous. It made sense to improve the paths by building steps, handrails and footbridges. It was uncommon to find means of transport that were more efficient than walking but less technologically advanced than motor vehicles. The use of bicycles was constrained by their high cost and the lack of available spare parts. Oxen were not used at all but donkeys were used by a few households in the northern part of the district. MIRTP focused on what would be most appropriate for the inhabitants of Makete in terms of what was available, how much they could afford and what they were willing to accept. After careful consideration, the project chose the promotion of donkeys a donkey costs less than a bicycle and the introduction of a locally manufacturable wheelbarrow. At the end of Phase II, it was clear that the selected approaches to Maketes transport problems had had different degrees of success. Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the refinement and institutionalisation of these activities. The road improvements and accompanying maintenance system had helped make the district centre accessible throughout the year. Essential goods from outside the district had become more readily available at the market, and prices did not fluctuate as much as they had done before. Paths and secondary roads were improved only at the request of communities who were willing to participate in construction and maintenance. However, the improved paths impressed the inhabitants, and requests for assistance greatly increased soon after only a few improvements had been completed. The efforts to improve the efficiency of the existing transport services were not very successful because most of the motorised vehicles in the district broke down and there were no resources to repair them. Even the introduction of low-cost means of transport was difficult because of the general poverty of the district. The locally manufactured wheelbarrows were still too expensive for all but a few of the households. Modifications to the original design by local carpenters cut production time and costs. Other local carpenters have been trained in the new design so that they can respond to requests. Nevertheless, a locally produced wooden wheelbarrow which costs around 5000 Tanzanian shillings (less than US$20) in Makete, and is about one quarter the cost of a metal wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for most people. Donkeys, which were imported to the district, have become more common and contribute, in particular, to the transportation of crops and goods to market. Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer households but, with an increased supply through local breeding, donkeys should become more affordable. Meanwhile, local initiatives are promoting the renting out of the existing donkeys. It should be noted, however, that a donkey, which at 20,000Tanzanian shillings costs less than a bicycle, is still an investment equal to an average households income over half a year. This clearly illustrates the need for supplementary measures if one wants to assist the rural poor. It would have been easy to criticise the MIRTP for using in the early phases a top-down approach, in which decisions were made by experts and officials before being handed down to communities, but it was necessary to start the process from the level of the governmental authorities of the district. It would have been difficult to respond to the requests of villagers and other rural inhabitants without the support and understanding of district authorities. Today, nobody in the district argues about the importance of improved paths and inexpensive means of transport. But this is the result of dedicated work over a long period, particularly from the officers in charge of community development. They played an essential role in raising awareness and interest among the rural communities. The concept of integrated rural transport is now well established in Tanzania, where a major program of rural transport is just about to start. The experiences from Makete will help in this initiative, and Makete District will act as a reference for future work. | Prior to the start of MIRTP the Makete district was almost inaccessible during the rainy season. | e |
id_3883 | Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project. The disappointing results of many conventional road transport projects in Africa led some experts to rethink the strategy by which rural transport problems were to be tackled at the beginning of the 1980s. A request for help in improving the availability of transport within the remote Makete District of south-western Tanzania presented the opportunity to try a new approach. The concept of integrated rural transport was adopted in the task of examining the transport needs of the rural households in the district. The objective was to reduce the time and effort needed to obtain access to essential goods and services through an improved rural transport system. The underlying assumption was that the time saved would be used instead for activities that would improve the social and economic development of the communities. The Makete Integrated Rural Transport Project (MIRTP) started in 1985 with financial support from the Swiss Development Corporation and was co-ordinated with the help of theTanzanian government. When the project began, Makete District was virtually totally isolated during the rainy season. The regional road was in such bad shape that access to the main towns was impossible for about three months of the year. Road traffic was extremely rare within the district, and alternative means of transport were restricted to donkeys in the north of the district. People relied primarily on the paths, which were slippery and dangerous during the rains. Before solutions could be proposed, the problems had to be understood. Little was known about the transport demands of the rural households, so Phase I, between December 1985 and December 1987, focused on research. The socio-economic survey of more than 400 households in the district indicated that a household in Makete spent, on average, seven hours a day on transporting themselves and their goods, a figure which seemed extreme but which has also been obtained in surveys in other rural areas in Africa. Interesting facts regarding transport were found: 95% was on foot; 80% was within the locality; and 70% was related to the collection of water and firewood and travelling to grinding mills. Having determined the main transport needs, possible solutions were identified which might reduce the time and burden. During Phase II, from January to February 1991, a number of approaches were implemented in an effort to improve mobility and access to transport. An improvement of the road network was considered necessary to ensure the import and export of goods to the district. These improvements were carried out using methods that were heavily dependent on labour. In addition to the improvement of roads, these methods provided training in the operation of a mechanical workshop and bus and truck services. However, the difference from the conventional approach was that this time consideration was given to local transport needs outside the road network. Most goods were transported along the paths that provide short-cuts up and down the hillsides, but the paths were a real safety risk and made the journey on foot even more arduous. It made sense to improve the paths by building steps, handrails and footbridges. It was uncommon to find means of transport that were more efficient than walking but less technologically advanced than motor vehicles. The use of bicycles was constrained by their high cost and the lack of available spare parts. Oxen were not used at all but donkeys were used by a few households in the northern part of the district. MIRTP focused on what would be most appropriate for the inhabitants of Makete in terms of what was available, how much they could afford and what they were willing to accept. After careful consideration, the project chose the promotion of donkeys a donkey costs less than a bicycle and the introduction of a locally manufacturable wheelbarrow. At the end of Phase II, it was clear that the selected approaches to Maketes transport problems had had different degrees of success. Phase III, from March 1991 to March 1993, focused on the refinement and institutionalisation of these activities. The road improvements and accompanying maintenance system had helped make the district centre accessible throughout the year. Essential goods from outside the district had become more readily available at the market, and prices did not fluctuate as much as they had done before. Paths and secondary roads were improved only at the request of communities who were willing to participate in construction and maintenance. However, the improved paths impressed the inhabitants, and requests for assistance greatly increased soon after only a few improvements had been completed. The efforts to improve the efficiency of the existing transport services were not very successful because most of the motorised vehicles in the district broke down and there were no resources to repair them. Even the introduction of low-cost means of transport was difficult because of the general poverty of the district. The locally manufactured wheelbarrows were still too expensive for all but a few of the households. Modifications to the original design by local carpenters cut production time and costs. Other local carpenters have been trained in the new design so that they can respond to requests. Nevertheless, a locally produced wooden wheelbarrow which costs around 5000 Tanzanian shillings (less than US$20) in Makete, and is about one quarter the cost of a metal wheelbarrow, is still too expensive for most people. Donkeys, which were imported to the district, have become more common and contribute, in particular, to the transportation of crops and goods to market. Those who have bought donkeys are mainly from richer households but, with an increased supply through local breeding, donkeys should become more affordable. Meanwhile, local initiatives are promoting the renting out of the existing donkeys. It should be noted, however, that a donkey, which at 20,000Tanzanian shillings costs less than a bicycle, is still an investment equal to an average households income over half a year. This clearly illustrates the need for supplementary measures if one wants to assist the rural poor. It would have been easy to criticise the MIRTP for using in the early phases a top-down approach, in which decisions were made by experts and officials before being handed down to communities, but it was necessary to start the process from the level of the governmental authorities of the district. It would have been difficult to respond to the requests of villagers and other rural inhabitants without the support and understanding of district authorities. Today, nobody in the district argues about the importance of improved paths and inexpensive means of transport. But this is the result of dedicated work over a long period, particularly from the officers in charge of community development. They played an essential role in raising awareness and interest among the rural communities. The concept of integrated rural transport is now well established in Tanzania, where a major program of rural transport is just about to start. The experiences from Makete will help in this initiative, and Makete District will act as a reference for future work. | MIRTP was divided into five phases. | c |
id_3884 | Making Every Drop Count A The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. B During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. C Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. D The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. E At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. F Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. G What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. H On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Water use per person is higher in the industrial world than it was in Ancient Rome. | c |
id_3885 | Making Every Drop Count A The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. B During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. C Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. D The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. E At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. F Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. G What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. H On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Modern water systems imitate those of the ancient Greeks and Romans. | n |
id_3886 | Making Every Drop Count A The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. B During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. C Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. D The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. E At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. F Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. G What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. H On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Industrial growth is increasing the overall demand for water. | c |
id_3887 | Making Every Drop Count A The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. B During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. C Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. D The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. E At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. F Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. G What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. H On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Feeding increasing populations is possible due primarily to improved irrigation systems. | e |
id_3888 | Making Every Drop Count A The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. B During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. C Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. D The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. E At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. F Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. G What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. H On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | In the future, governments should maintain ownership of water infrastructures. | n |
id_3889 | Making Every Drop Count A The history of human civilisation is entwined with the history of the ways we have learned to manipulate water resources. As towns gradually expanded, water was brought from increasingly remote sources, leading to sophisticated engineering efforts such as dams and aqueducts. At the height of the Roman Empire, nine major systems, with an innovative layout of pipes and well-built sewers, supplied the occupants of Rome with as much water per person as is provided in many parts of the industrial world today. B During the industrial revolution and population explosion of the 19th and 20th centuries, the demand for water rose dramatically. Unprecedented construction of tens of thousands of monumental engineering projects designed to control floods, protect clean water supplies, and provide water for irrigation and hydropower brought great benefits to hundreds of millions of people. Food production has kept pace with soaring populations mainly because of the expansion of artificial irrigation systems that make possible the growth of 40 % of the worlds food. Nearly one fifth of all the electricity generated worldwide is produced by turbines spun by the power of falling water. C Yet there is a dark side to this picture: despite our progress, half of the worlds population still suffers, with water services inferior to those available to the ancient Greeks and Romans. As the United Nations report on access to water reiterated in November 2001, more than one billion people lack access to clean drinking water; some two and a half billion do not have adequate sanitation services. Preventable water-related diseases kill an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 children every day, and the latest evidence suggests that we are falling behind in efforts to solve these problems. D The consequences of our water policies extend beyond jeopardising human health. Tens of millions of people have been forced to move from their homes often with little warning or compensation to make way for the reservoirs behind dams. More than 20 % of all freshwater fish species are now threatened or endangered because dams and water withdrawals have destroyed the free-flowing river ecosystems where they thrive. Certain irrigation practices degrade soil quality and reduce agricultural productivity. Groundwater aquifers are being pumped down faster than they are naturally replenished in parts of India, China, the USA and elsewhere. And disputes over shared water resources have led to violence and continue to raise local, national and even international tensions. E At the outset of the new millennium, however, the way resource planners think about water is beginning to change. The focus is slowly shifting back to the provision of basic human and environmental needs as top priority ensuring some for all, instead of more for some. Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort. This shift in philosophy has not been universally accepted, and it comes with strong opposition from some established water organisations. Nevertheless, it may be the only way to address successfully the pressing problems of providing everyone with clean water to drink, adequate water to grow food and a life free from preventable water-related illness. F Fortunately and unexpectedly the demand for water is not rising as rapidly as some predicted. As a result, the pressure to build new water infrastructures has diminished over the past two decades. Although population, industrial output and economic productivity have continued to soar in developed nations, the rate at which people withdraw water from aquifers, rivers and lakes has slowed. And in a few parts of the world, demand has actually fallen. G What explains this remarkable turn of events? Two factors: people have figured out how to use water more efficiently, and communities are rethinking their priorities for water use. Throughout the first three-quarters of the 20th century, the quantity of freshwater consumed per person doubled on average; in the USA, water withdrawals increased tenfold while the population quadrupled. But since 1980, the amount of water consumed per person has actually decreased, thanks to a range of new technologies that help to conserve water in homes and industry. In 1965, for instance, Japan used approximately 13 million gallons of water to produce $1 million of commercial output; by 1989 this had dropped to 3.5 million gallons (even accounting for inflation) almost a quadrupling of water productivity. In the USA, water withdrawals have fallen by more than 20 % from their peak in 1980. H On the other hand, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher specifications and with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in regions where new projects seem warranted, we must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, respecting ecological criteria and to a smaller budget. | Modern technologies have led to reduction in the domestic water consumption. | e |
id_3890 | Making Time for Science Chronobiology might sound a little futuristic like something from a science fiction novel, perhaps but its actually a field of study that concerns one of the oldest processes life on this planet has ever known: short-term rhythms of time and their effect on flora and fauna. This can take many forms. Marine life, for example, is influenced by tidal patterns. Animals tend to be active or inactive depending on the position of the sun or moon. Numerous creatures, humans included, are largely diurnal that is, they like to come out during the hours of sunlight. Nocturnal animals, such as bats and possums, prefer to forage by night. A third group are known as crepuscular: they thrive in the low- light of dawn and dusk and remain inactive at other hours. When it comes to humans, chronobiologists are interested in what is known as the circadian rhythm. This is the complete cycle our bodies are naturally geared to undergo within the passage of a twenty-four hour day. Aside from sleeping at night and waking during the day, each cycle involves many other factors such as changes in blood pressure and body temperature. Not everyone has an identical circadian rhythm. Night people, for example, often describe how they find it very hard to operate during the morning, but become alert and focused by evening. This is a benign variation within circadian rhythms known as a chronotype. Scientists have limited abilities to create durable modifications of chronobiological demands. Recent therapeutic developments for humans such as artificial light machines and melatonin administration can reset our circadian rhythms, for example, but our bodies can tell the difference and health suffers when we breach these natural rhythms for extended periods of time. Plants appear no more malleable in this respect; studies demonstrate that vegetables grown in season and ripened on the tree are far higher in essential nutrients than those grown in greenhouses and ripened by laser. Knowledge of chronobiological patterns can have many pragmatic implications for our day-to-day lives. While contemporary living can sometimes appear to subjugate biology after all, who needs circadian rhythms when we have caffeine pills, energy drinks, shift work and cities that never sleep? keeping in synch with our body clock is important. The average urban resident, for example, rouses at the eye-blearing time of 6.04 a. m. , which researchers believe to be far too early. One study found that even rising at 7.00 a. m. has deleterious effects on health unless exercise is performed for 30 minutes afterward. The optimum moment has been whittled down to 7.22 a. m. ; muscle aches, headaches and moodiness were reported to be lowest by participants in the study who awoke then. Once youre up and ready to go, what then? If youre trying to shed some extra pounds, dieticians are adamant: never skip breakfast. This disorients your circadian rhythm and puts your body in starvation mode. The recommended course of action is to follow an intense workout with a carbohydrate-rich breakfast; the other way round and weight loss results are not as pronounced. Morning is also great for breaking out the vitamins. Supplement absorption by the body is not temporal-dependent, but naturopath Pam Stone notes that the extra boost at breakfast helps us get energised for the day ahead. For improved absorption, Stone suggests pairing supplements with a food in which they are soluble and steering clear of caffeinated beverages. Finally, Stone warns to take care with storage; high potency is best for absorption, and warmth and humidity are known to deplete the potency of a supplement. After-dinner espressos are becoming more of a tradition we have the Italians to thank for that but to prepare for a good nights sleep we are better off putting the brakes on caffeine consumption as early as 3 p. m. With a seven hour half-life, a cup of coffee containing 90 mg of caffeine taken at this hour could still leave 45 mg of caffeine in your nervous system at ten oclock that evening. It is essential that, by the time you are ready to sleep, your body is rid of all traces. Evenings are important for winding down before sleep; however, dietician Geraldine Georgeou warns that an after-five carbohydrate-fast is more cultural myth than chronobiological demand. This will deprive your body of vital energy needs. Overloading your gut could lead to indigestion, though. Our digestive tracts do not shut down for the night entirely, but their work slows to a crawl as our bodies prepare for sleep. Consuming a modest snack should be entirely sufficient. | Circadian rhythms identify how we do different things on different days. | c |
id_3891 | Making Time for Science Chronobiology might sound a little futuristic like something from a science fiction novel, perhaps but its actually a field of study that concerns one of the oldest processes life on this planet has ever known: short-term rhythms of time and their effect on flora and fauna. This can take many forms. Marine life, for example, is influenced by tidal patterns. Animals tend to be active or inactive depending on the position of the sun or moon. Numerous creatures, humans included, are largely diurnal that is, they like to come out during the hours of sunlight. Nocturnal animals, such as bats and possums, prefer to forage by night. A third group are known as crepuscular: they thrive in the low- light of dawn and dusk and remain inactive at other hours. When it comes to humans, chronobiologists are interested in what is known as the circadian rhythm. This is the complete cycle our bodies are naturally geared to undergo within the passage of a twenty-four hour day. Aside from sleeping at night and waking during the day, each cycle involves many other factors such as changes in blood pressure and body temperature. Not everyone has an identical circadian rhythm. Night people, for example, often describe how they find it very hard to operate during the morning, but become alert and focused by evening. This is a benign variation within circadian rhythms known as a chronotype. Scientists have limited abilities to create durable modifications of chronobiological demands. Recent therapeutic developments for humans such as artificial light machines and melatonin administration can reset our circadian rhythms, for example, but our bodies can tell the difference and health suffers when we breach these natural rhythms for extended periods of time. Plants appear no more malleable in this respect; studies demonstrate that vegetables grown in season and ripened on the tree are far higher in essential nutrients than those grown in greenhouses and ripened by laser. Knowledge of chronobiological patterns can have many pragmatic implications for our day-to-day lives. While contemporary living can sometimes appear to subjugate biology after all, who needs circadian rhythms when we have caffeine pills, energy drinks, shift work and cities that never sleep? keeping in synch with our body clock is important. The average urban resident, for example, rouses at the eye-blearing time of 6.04 a. m. , which researchers believe to be far too early. One study found that even rising at 7.00 a. m. has deleterious effects on health unless exercise is performed for 30 minutes afterward. The optimum moment has been whittled down to 7.22 a. m. ; muscle aches, headaches and moodiness were reported to be lowest by participants in the study who awoke then. Once youre up and ready to go, what then? If youre trying to shed some extra pounds, dieticians are adamant: never skip breakfast. This disorients your circadian rhythm and puts your body in starvation mode. The recommended course of action is to follow an intense workout with a carbohydrate-rich breakfast; the other way round and weight loss results are not as pronounced. Morning is also great for breaking out the vitamins. Supplement absorption by the body is not temporal-dependent, but naturopath Pam Stone notes that the extra boost at breakfast helps us get energised for the day ahead. For improved absorption, Stone suggests pairing supplements with a food in which they are soluble and steering clear of caffeinated beverages. Finally, Stone warns to take care with storage; high potency is best for absorption, and warmth and humidity are known to deplete the potency of a supplement. After-dinner espressos are becoming more of a tradition we have the Italians to thank for that but to prepare for a good nights sleep we are better off putting the brakes on caffeine consumption as early as 3 p. m. With a seven hour half-life, a cup of coffee containing 90 mg of caffeine taken at this hour could still leave 45 mg of caffeine in your nervous system at ten oclock that evening. It is essential that, by the time you are ready to sleep, your body is rid of all traces. Evenings are important for winding down before sleep; however, dietician Geraldine Georgeou warns that an after-five carbohydrate-fast is more cultural myth than chronobiological demand. This will deprive your body of vital energy needs. Overloading your gut could lead to indigestion, though. Our digestive tracts do not shut down for the night entirely, but their work slows to a crawl as our bodies prepare for sleep. Consuming a modest snack should be entirely sufficient. | Most animals are active during the daytime. | n |
id_3892 | Making Time for Science Chronobiology might sound a little futuristic like something from a science fiction novel, perhaps but its actually a field of study that concerns one of the oldest processes life on this planet has ever known: short-term rhythms of time and their effect on flora and fauna. This can take many forms. Marine life, for example, is influenced by tidal patterns. Animals tend to be active or inactive depending on the position of the sun or moon. Numerous creatures, humans included, are largely diurnal that is, they like to come out during the hours of sunlight. Nocturnal animals, such as bats and possums, prefer to forage by night. A third group are known as crepuscular: they thrive in the low- light of dawn and dusk and remain inactive at other hours. When it comes to humans, chronobiologists are interested in what is known as the circadian rhythm. This is the complete cycle our bodies are naturally geared to undergo within the passage of a twenty-four hour day. Aside from sleeping at night and waking during the day, each cycle involves many other factors such as changes in blood pressure and body temperature. Not everyone has an identical circadian rhythm. Night people, for example, often describe how they find it very hard to operate during the morning, but become alert and focused by evening. This is a benign variation within circadian rhythms known as a chronotype. Scientists have limited abilities to create durable modifications of chronobiological demands. Recent therapeutic developments for humans such as artificial light machines and melatonin administration can reset our circadian rhythms, for example, but our bodies can tell the difference and health suffers when we breach these natural rhythms for extended periods of time. Plants appear no more malleable in this respect; studies demonstrate that vegetables grown in season and ripened on the tree are far higher in essential nutrients than those grown in greenhouses and ripened by laser. Knowledge of chronobiological patterns can have many pragmatic implications for our day-to-day lives. While contemporary living can sometimes appear to subjugate biology after all, who needs circadian rhythms when we have caffeine pills, energy drinks, shift work and cities that never sleep? keeping in synch with our body clock is important. The average urban resident, for example, rouses at the eye-blearing time of 6.04 a. m. , which researchers believe to be far too early. One study found that even rising at 7.00 a. m. has deleterious effects on health unless exercise is performed for 30 minutes afterward. The optimum moment has been whittled down to 7.22 a. m. ; muscle aches, headaches and moodiness were reported to be lowest by participants in the study who awoke then. Once youre up and ready to go, what then? If youre trying to shed some extra pounds, dieticians are adamant: never skip breakfast. This disorients your circadian rhythm and puts your body in starvation mode. The recommended course of action is to follow an intense workout with a carbohydrate-rich breakfast; the other way round and weight loss results are not as pronounced. Morning is also great for breaking out the vitamins. Supplement absorption by the body is not temporal-dependent, but naturopath Pam Stone notes that the extra boost at breakfast helps us get energised for the day ahead. For improved absorption, Stone suggests pairing supplements with a food in which they are soluble and steering clear of caffeinated beverages. Finally, Stone warns to take care with storage; high potency is best for absorption, and warmth and humidity are known to deplete the potency of a supplement. After-dinner espressos are becoming more of a tradition we have the Italians to thank for that but to prepare for a good nights sleep we are better off putting the brakes on caffeine consumption as early as 3 p. m. With a seven hour half-life, a cup of coffee containing 90 mg of caffeine taken at this hour could still leave 45 mg of caffeine in your nervous system at ten oclock that evening. It is essential that, by the time you are ready to sleep, your body is rid of all traces. Evenings are important for winding down before sleep; however, dietician Geraldine Georgeou warns that an after-five carbohydrate-fast is more cultural myth than chronobiological demand. This will deprive your body of vital energy needs. Overloading your gut could lead to indigestion, though. Our digestive tracts do not shut down for the night entirely, but their work slows to a crawl as our bodies prepare for sleep. Consuming a modest snack should be entirely sufficient. | A night person can still have a healthy circadian rhythm. | e |
id_3893 | Making Time for Science Chronobiology might sound a little futuristic like something from a science fiction novel, perhaps but its actually a field of study that concerns one of the oldest processes life on this planet has ever known: short-term rhythms of time and their effect on flora and fauna. This can take many forms. Marine life, for example, is influenced by tidal patterns. Animals tend to be active or inactive depending on the position of the sun or moon. Numerous creatures, humans included, are largely diurnal that is, they like to come out during the hours of sunlight. Nocturnal animals, such as bats and possums, prefer to forage by night. A third group are known as crepuscular: they thrive in the low- light of dawn and dusk and remain inactive at other hours. When it comes to humans, chronobiologists are interested in what is known as the circadian rhythm. This is the complete cycle our bodies are naturally geared to undergo within the passage of a twenty-four hour day. Aside from sleeping at night and waking during the day, each cycle involves many other factors such as changes in blood pressure and body temperature. Not everyone has an identical circadian rhythm. Night people, for example, often describe how they find it very hard to operate during the morning, but become alert and focused by evening. This is a benign variation within circadian rhythms known as a chronotype. Scientists have limited abilities to create durable modifications of chronobiological demands. Recent therapeutic developments for humans such as artificial light machines and melatonin administration can reset our circadian rhythms, for example, but our bodies can tell the difference and health suffers when we breach these natural rhythms for extended periods of time. Plants appear no more malleable in this respect; studies demonstrate that vegetables grown in season and ripened on the tree are far higher in essential nutrients than those grown in greenhouses and ripened by laser. Knowledge of chronobiological patterns can have many pragmatic implications for our day-to-day lives. While contemporary living can sometimes appear to subjugate biology after all, who needs circadian rhythms when we have caffeine pills, energy drinks, shift work and cities that never sleep? keeping in synch with our body clock is important. The average urban resident, for example, rouses at the eye-blearing time of 6.04 a. m. , which researchers believe to be far too early. One study found that even rising at 7.00 a. m. has deleterious effects on health unless exercise is performed for 30 minutes afterward. The optimum moment has been whittled down to 7.22 a. m. ; muscle aches, headaches and moodiness were reported to be lowest by participants in the study who awoke then. Once youre up and ready to go, what then? If youre trying to shed some extra pounds, dieticians are adamant: never skip breakfast. This disorients your circadian rhythm and puts your body in starvation mode. The recommended course of action is to follow an intense workout with a carbohydrate-rich breakfast; the other way round and weight loss results are not as pronounced. Morning is also great for breaking out the vitamins. Supplement absorption by the body is not temporal-dependent, but naturopath Pam Stone notes that the extra boost at breakfast helps us get energised for the day ahead. For improved absorption, Stone suggests pairing supplements with a food in which they are soluble and steering clear of caffeinated beverages. Finally, Stone warns to take care with storage; high potency is best for absorption, and warmth and humidity are known to deplete the potency of a supplement. After-dinner espressos are becoming more of a tradition we have the Italians to thank for that but to prepare for a good nights sleep we are better off putting the brakes on caffeine consumption as early as 3 p. m. With a seven hour half-life, a cup of coffee containing 90 mg of caffeine taken at this hour could still leave 45 mg of caffeine in your nervous system at ten oclock that evening. It is essential that, by the time you are ready to sleep, your body is rid of all traces. Evenings are important for winding down before sleep; however, dietician Geraldine Georgeou warns that an after-five carbohydrate-fast is more cultural myth than chronobiological demand. This will deprive your body of vital energy needs. Overloading your gut could lead to indigestion, though. Our digestive tracts do not shut down for the night entirely, but their work slows to a crawl as our bodies prepare for sleep. Consuming a modest snack should be entirely sufficient. | Chronobiology is the study of how living things have evolved over time. | c |
id_3894 | Making Time for Science Chronobiology might sound a little futuristic like something from a science fiction novel, perhaps but its actually a field of study that concerns one of the oldest processes life on this planet has ever known: short-term rhythms of time and their effect on flora and fauna. This can take many forms. Marine life, for example, is influenced by tidal patterns. Animals tend to be active or inactive depending on the position of the sun or moon. Numerous creatures, humans included, are largely diurnal that is, they like to come out during the hours of sunlight. Nocturnal animals, such as bats and possums, prefer to forage by night. A third group are known as crepuscular: they thrive in the low- light of dawn and dusk and remain inactive at other hours. When it comes to humans, chronobiologists are interested in what is known as the circadian rhythm. This is the complete cycle our bodies are naturally geared to undergo within the passage of a twenty-four hour day. Aside from sleeping at night and waking during the day, each cycle involves many other factors such as changes in blood pressure and body temperature. Not everyone has an identical circadian rhythm. Night people, for example, often describe how they find it very hard to operate during the morning, but become alert and focused by evening. This is a benign variation within circadian rhythms known as a chronotype. Scientists have limited abilities to create durable modifications of chronobiological demands. Recent therapeutic developments for humans such as artificial light machines and melatonin administration can reset our circadian rhythms, for example, but our bodies can tell the difference and health suffers when we breach these natural rhythms for extended periods of time. Plants appear no more malleable in this respect; studies demonstrate that vegetables grown in season and ripened on the tree are far higher in essential nutrients than those grown in greenhouses and ripened by laser. Knowledge of chronobiological patterns can have many pragmatic implications for our day-to-day lives. While contemporary living can sometimes appear to subjugate biology after all, who needs circadian rhythms when we have caffeine pills, energy drinks, shift work and cities that never sleep? keeping in synch with our body clock is important. The average urban resident, for example, rouses at the eye-blearing time of 6.04 a. m. , which researchers believe to be far too early. One study found that even rising at 7.00 a. m. has deleterious effects on health unless exercise is performed for 30 minutes afterward. The optimum moment has been whittled down to 7.22 a. m. ; muscle aches, headaches and moodiness were reported to be lowest by participants in the study who awoke then. Once youre up and ready to go, what then? If youre trying to shed some extra pounds, dieticians are adamant: never skip breakfast. This disorients your circadian rhythm and puts your body in starvation mode. The recommended course of action is to follow an intense workout with a carbohydrate-rich breakfast; the other way round and weight loss results are not as pronounced. Morning is also great for breaking out the vitamins. Supplement absorption by the body is not temporal-dependent, but naturopath Pam Stone notes that the extra boost at breakfast helps us get energised for the day ahead. For improved absorption, Stone suggests pairing supplements with a food in which they are soluble and steering clear of caffeinated beverages. Finally, Stone warns to take care with storage; high potency is best for absorption, and warmth and humidity are known to deplete the potency of a supplement. After-dinner espressos are becoming more of a tradition we have the Italians to thank for that but to prepare for a good nights sleep we are better off putting the brakes on caffeine consumption as early as 3 p. m. With a seven hour half-life, a cup of coffee containing 90 mg of caffeine taken at this hour could still leave 45 mg of caffeine in your nervous system at ten oclock that evening. It is essential that, by the time you are ready to sleep, your body is rid of all traces. Evenings are important for winding down before sleep; however, dietician Geraldine Georgeou warns that an after-five carbohydrate-fast is more cultural myth than chronobiological demand. This will deprive your body of vital energy needs. Overloading your gut could lead to indigestion, though. Our digestive tracts do not shut down for the night entirely, but their work slows to a crawl as our bodies prepare for sleep. Consuming a modest snack should be entirely sufficient. | New therapies can permanently change circadian rhythms without causing harm. | c |
id_3895 | Making Time for Science Chronobiology might sound a little futuristic like something from a science fiction novel, perhaps but its actually a field of study that concerns one of the oldest processes life on this planet has ever known: short-term rhythms of time and their effect on flora and fauna. This can take many forms. Marine life, for example, is influenced by tidal patterns. Animals tend to be active or inactive depending on the position of the sun or moon. Numerous creatures, humans included, are largely diurnal that is, they like to come out during the hours of sunlight. Nocturnal animals, such as bats and possums, prefer to forage by night. A third group are known as crepuscular: they thrive in the low- light of dawn and dusk and remain inactive at other hours. When it comes to humans, chronobiologists are interested in what is known as the circadian rhythm. This is the complete cycle our bodies are naturally geared to undergo within the passage of a twenty-four hour day. Aside from sleeping at night and waking during the day, each cycle involves many other factors such as changes in blood pressure and body temperature. Not everyone has an identical circadian rhythm. Night people, for example, often describe how they find it very hard to operate during the morning, but become alert and focused by evening. This is a benign variation within circadian rhythms known as a chronotype. Scientists have limited abilities to create durable modifications of chronobiological demands. Recent therapeutic developments for humans such as artificial light machines and melatonin administration can reset our circadian rhythms, for example, but our bodies can tell the difference and health suffers when we breach these natural rhythms for extended periods of time. Plants appear no more malleable in this respect; studies demonstrate that vegetables grown in season and ripened on the tree are far higher in essential nutrients than those grown in greenhouses and ripened by laser. Knowledge of chronobiological patterns can have many pragmatic implications for our day-to-day lives. While contemporary living can sometimes appear to subjugate biology after all, who needs circadian rhythms when we have caffeine pills, energy drinks, shift work and cities that never sleep? keeping in synch with our body clock is important. The average urban resident, for example, rouses at the eye-blearing time of 6.04 a. m. , which researchers believe to be far too early. One study found that even rising at 7.00 a. m. has deleterious effects on health unless exercise is performed for 30 minutes afterward. The optimum moment has been whittled down to 7.22 a. m. ; muscle aches, headaches and moodiness were reported to be lowest by participants in the study who awoke then. Once youre up and ready to go, what then? If youre trying to shed some extra pounds, dieticians are adamant: never skip breakfast. This disorients your circadian rhythm and puts your body in starvation mode. The recommended course of action is to follow an intense workout with a carbohydrate-rich breakfast; the other way round and weight loss results are not as pronounced. Morning is also great for breaking out the vitamins. Supplement absorption by the body is not temporal-dependent, but naturopath Pam Stone notes that the extra boost at breakfast helps us get energised for the day ahead. For improved absorption, Stone suggests pairing supplements with a food in which they are soluble and steering clear of caffeinated beverages. Finally, Stone warns to take care with storage; high potency is best for absorption, and warmth and humidity are known to deplete the potency of a supplement. After-dinner espressos are becoming more of a tradition we have the Italians to thank for that but to prepare for a good nights sleep we are better off putting the brakes on caffeine consumption as early as 3 p. m. With a seven hour half-life, a cup of coffee containing 90 mg of caffeine taken at this hour could still leave 45 mg of caffeine in your nervous system at ten oclock that evening. It is essential that, by the time you are ready to sleep, your body is rid of all traces. Evenings are important for winding down before sleep; however, dietician Geraldine Georgeou warns that an after-five carbohydrate-fast is more cultural myth than chronobiological demand. This will deprive your body of vital energy needs. Overloading your gut could lead to indigestion, though. Our digestive tracts do not shut down for the night entirely, but their work slows to a crawl as our bodies prepare for sleep. Consuming a modest snack should be entirely sufficient. | Naturally-produced vegetables have more nutritional value. | e |
id_3896 | Making Time for Science Chronobiology might sound a little futuristic like something from a science fiction novel, perhaps but its actually a field of study that concerns one of the oldest processes life on this planet has ever known: short-term rhythms of time and their effect on flora and fauna. This can take many forms. Marine life, for example, is influenced by tidal patterns. Animals tend to be active or inactive depending on the position of the sun or moon. Numerous creatures, humans included, are largely diurnal that is, they like to come out during the hours of sunlight. Nocturnal animals, such as bats and possums, prefer to forage by night. A third group are known as crepuscular: they thrive in the low- light of dawn and dusk and remain inactive at other hours. When it comes to humans, chronobiologists are interested in what is known as the circadian rhythm. This is the complete cycle our bodies are naturally geared to undergo within the passage of a twenty-four hour day. Aside from sleeping at night and waking during the day, each cycle involves many other factors such as changes in blood pressure and body temperature. Not everyone has an identical circadian rhythm. Night people, for example, often describe how they find it very hard to operate during the morning, but become alert and focused by evening. This is a benign variation within circadian rhythms known as a chronotype. Scientists have limited abilities to create durable modifications of chronobiological demands. Recent therapeutic developments for humans such as artificial light machines and melatonin administration can reset our circadian rhythms, for example, but our bodies can tell the difference and health suffers when we breach these natural rhythms for extended periods of time. Plants appear no more malleable in this respect; studies demonstrate that vegetables grown in season and ripened on the tree are far higher in essential nutrients than those grown in greenhouses and ripened by laser. Knowledge of chronobiological patterns can have many pragmatic implications for our day-to-day lives. While contemporary living can sometimes appear to subjugate biology after all, who needs circadian rhythms when we have caffeine pills, energy drinks, shift work and cities that never sleep? keeping in synch with our body clock is important. The average urban resident, for example, rouses at the eye-blearing time of 6.04 a. m. , which researchers believe to be far too early. One study found that even rising at 7.00 a. m. has deleterious effects on health unless exercise is performed for 30 minutes afterward. The optimum moment has been whittled down to 7.22 a. m. ; muscle aches, headaches and moodiness were reported to be lowest by participants in the study who awoke then. Once youre up and ready to go, what then? If youre trying to shed some extra pounds, dieticians are adamant: never skip breakfast. This disorients your circadian rhythm and puts your body in starvation mode. The recommended course of action is to follow an intense workout with a carbohydrate-rich breakfast; the other way round and weight loss results are not as pronounced. Morning is also great for breaking out the vitamins. Supplement absorption by the body is not temporal-dependent, but naturopath Pam Stone notes that the extra boost at breakfast helps us get energised for the day ahead. For improved absorption, Stone suggests pairing supplements with a food in which they are soluble and steering clear of caffeinated beverages. Finally, Stone warns to take care with storage; high potency is best for absorption, and warmth and humidity are known to deplete the potency of a supplement. After-dinner espressos are becoming more of a tradition we have the Italians to thank for that but to prepare for a good nights sleep we are better off putting the brakes on caffeine consumption as early as 3 p. m. With a seven hour half-life, a cup of coffee containing 90 mg of caffeine taken at this hour could still leave 45 mg of caffeine in your nervous system at ten oclock that evening. It is essential that, by the time you are ready to sleep, your body is rid of all traces. Evenings are important for winding down before sleep; however, dietician Geraldine Georgeou warns that an after-five carbohydrate-fast is more cultural myth than chronobiological demand. This will deprive your body of vital energy needs. Overloading your gut could lead to indigestion, though. Our digestive tracts do not shut down for the night entirely, but their work slows to a crawl as our bodies prepare for sleep. Consuming a modest snack should be entirely sufficient. | The rise and fall of sea levels affects how sea creatures behave. | e |
id_3897 | Management is, in effect, the catalyst that is essential for converting the resources and raw material inputs of the operation into valued outputs and, in the process, ensuring that stakeholder needs are satisfied. Managers represent the critical factor, which economists refer to as enterprise, without which the other factors (land, labor and capital) cannot function. Managers are effectively the custodians of the organizations resource, responsible for deciding what the resources should be used for, how best to use them, and to which customers the outputs should be targeted. | Management has at least two major but different responsibilities. | e |
id_3898 | Management is, in effect, the catalyst that is essential for converting the resources and raw material inputs of the operation into valued outputs and, in the process, ensuring that stakeholder needs are satisfied. Managers represent the critical factor, which economists refer to as enterprise, without which the other factors (land, labor and capital) cannot function. Managers are effectively the custodians of the organizations resource, responsible for deciding what the resources should be used for, how best to use them, and to which customers the outputs should be targeted. | Stakeholder needs are best served through the creation of valued outputs. | n |
id_3899 | Management is, in effect, the catalyst that is essential for converting the resources and raw material inputs of the operation into valued outputs and, in the process, ensuring that stakeholder needs are satisfied. Managers represent the critical factor, which economists refer to as enterprise, without which the other factors (land, labor and capital) cannot function. Managers are effectively the custodians of the organizations resource, responsible for deciding what the resources should be used for, how best to use them, and to which customers the outputs should be targeted. | Managers must decide how best to handle all the resources at their disposal. | e |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.